Computer Notes

UCC 103: PRINCIPLES OF COMPUTING
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF COMPUTERS
Objectives
At the end of the chapter the learner shall be able to;
i. Explain the evolution of computing technology and the technological advancement in computer
architecture to current technologies
ii. Explain the characteristics of computers and how they are different from humans.
iii. Explain the different types of computers categorized based on size, price and capabilities
iv. Explain the fundamental difference between computer hardware and software
1.1 Basic Computer Concepts

The term computer comes from the word compute.
Definition
 A computer is an electronic device capable of executing instructions, developed based on algorithms stored
in its memory, to process data fed to it and produce the required results faster than human beings.
 It is an electronic device which processes given data to derive the required and useful information. During
the processing the computer has to perform various functions like, Accepting Instructions & data from the
user, performing various arithmetic and Logical operations as per Instructions given and presenting the
Information or Output to the user.
Other Definitions;
 The definition from the Merriam-Webster Dictionary: "one that computes; specifically : a programmable
electronic device that can store, retrieve, and process data"
 A computer is a device that accepts data in one form and processes it to produce data in another form i.e
information.
 An electronic device that takes data and instructions as an input from the users. Processes data and provides
useful information known as output.
1.2. History of Computers

When the human race started doing some trade, it felt a need for a calculating device. The first calculating
device, which was used 2000 years ago was called abacus and the improvements in the calculating device in
that age were slow. The next change came after about 1600 years. Following this, the changes were frequent and
the mechanical desk calculator was developed around 1800 A.D. In 1833, Prof. Charles Babbage, the father of
the computer, developed a machine called analytical engine which was the vase for the modern digital
computer.
The development of computers has followed different steps in the terminology used and these steps of
technological differences are called as GENERATIONS in computer terminology. There are totally five
generations of computers till today.
1.3 Generation of Computers

First Generation (1951-1958) by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert
The first generation of computers started with the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer) built by
Mauchly and Eckert in 1951. It was sold to the U.S. Census Bureau. This machine was dedicated to business
data processing example payroll and record keeping and not military or scientific purposes.
Characteristics
 Use of vacuum tubes in electronic circuits: These tubes controlled internal operations and were huge. As a
consequence the machines were large.
Intro to Computers: Chapter 1 Page 1

 Magnetic drum; used as primary internal-storage medium: Electric currents passed through wires which
magnetized the core to represent on and off states
 Limited main-storage capacity:
 Slow input/output, punched-card-oriented: Operators performed input and output operations through the
use of punched cards.
 Low level symbolic-language programming: The computer used machine language which was
cumbersome and accomplished through long strings of numbers made up of Zeroes and Ones. In 1952, Dr.
Grace Hopper (University of Pennsylvania) developed a symbolic language called mnemonics (instructions
written with symbolic codes). Rather than writing instructions with Zeroes and Ones, the mnemonics were
translated into binary code. Dr. Hopper developed the first set of programs or instructions to tell computers
how to translate the mnemonics.
 Heat and maintenance problems: Special air-conditioning and maintenance were required of the
machines. The tubes gave off tremendous amounts of heat.
 Applications: payroll processing and record keeping though still oriented toward scientific applications
than business data processing.
Examples: IBM 650 UNIVAC I
Second Generation Computers (1959-1964)

Characteristics
 Use of transistors for internal operations: tiny solid state transistors replace vacuum tubes in computers.
The heat problem was then minimized and computers could be made smaller and faster. The cost of the
computers also reduced. Data access time was measured in micro-seconds.
 Magnetic core as primary internal-storage medium: Electric currents pass through wires which magnetize
the core to represent on and off states. Data in the cores can be found and retrieved for processing in a few
millionths of a second.
 Increased main-storage capacity: The internal or main storage was supplemented by use of magnetic
tapes for external storage. These tapes substituted for punched cards or paper. Magnetic disks were also
developed that stored information on circular tracks that looked like phonograph records. The disks
provided direct or random access to records in a file.
 Faster input/output; tape orientation: Devices could be connected directly to the computer and considered
"on-line". This allowed for faster printing and detection and correction of errors.
 High-level programming languages (COBOL,FORTRAN):These languages resembled English.
FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator) was the first high-level language that was accepted widely. This
language was used mostly for scientific applications. COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) was
developed in 1961 for business data processing. Its main features include: file-processing, editing, and
input/output capabilities.
 Increased speed and reliability: Modular-hardware was developed through the design of electronic
circuits. Complete modules called "breadboards" could be replaced if malfunctions occurred, or the
machine "crashed". This decreased lost time and also new modules could be added for added features such
as file-processing, editing and input/output features.
 Batch-oriented applications: billing, payroll processing, updating and inventory files: Batch processing
allowed for collection of data over a period time and then one processed in one computer run. The results
were then stored on magnetic tapes.
Examples:IBM 1401*(most popular business-oriented computer. Honeywell 200 CDC 1604
Third generation computers (1965-1970)

Characteristics
 Use of integrated circuits: The use of integrated circuits (Ics) replaced the transistors of the second-
generation machines. The circuits are etched and printed and hundreds of electronic components could be
put on silicon circuit chips less than one-eighth of an inch square.

 Magnetic core and solid-state main storage: Greater storage capacity was developed. They have higher
main memory capacity, reliable and increased processing power (have the capability of holding more than
one set of instructions and operate on them) than the second generation computers.
 More flexibility with input/output; disk-oriented:
 Smaller size and better performance and reliability: Advances in solid-state technology allowed for the
design and building of smaller and faster computers. The small circuitry that resulted improved the
processing speed i.e. 10 times the past. The speed of these machines was described in nanoseconds
(1/1,000,000,000 of a second).
 Extensive use of high-level programming languages: The software industry evolved during this time.
Many users found that it was more cost effective to buy pre-programmed packages than to write the
programs themselves. The programs from the second generation had to be rewritten since many of the
programs were based on second generation architecture.
 Emergence of minicomputers: The mini computers offered many of the same features as the mainframe
computers only on a smaller scale. These machines filled the needs of the small business owner.
 Remote processing and time-sharing through communication: Computers were then able to perform
several operations at the same time. Remote terminals were developed to communicate with a central
computer over a specific geographic location. Time sharing environments were established.
 Availability of operating-systems (software) to control I/O and do tasks handled by human operators:
Software was developed to take care of routine tasks required of the computer freed up the human operator.
 Applications such as airline reservation systems, market forecasting, credit card billing: The applications
also included inventory, control, and scheduling labor and materials. Multitasking was also accomplished.
Both scientific and business applications could be run on the same machine.
Examples: IBM System/360 NCR 395 Burroughs B6500
Fourth Generation (1970-)

Characteristics:
 Use of Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) circuits which housed
hundreds of transistors and very large IC which are between 200,000 to 400, 000 in one IC.
 Smaller and cheaper
 Increased storage capacity and speed. Memory used includes magnetic disc and optical disc. Memory size
expanded up to several MB and speed was 10 times faster.
 Modular design and compatibility between equipment
 Special application programs
 Versatility of input/ output devices
 Increased use of minicomputers
 Introduction of microcomputers. This generation marked the origin of microcomputers in use today
 Applications: mathematical modeling and simulation, electronic funds transfer, computer-aided instruction
and home computers. Internet Explosion.
 Enabled creation of Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN) which facilitates
connection and communication of hundred of computers located across multiple locations.
 Operating systems includes; DOS and Windows. Use of GUI – Graphical User Interface – a user friendly
interface that provides ICONS and Menus to the user to interact with the various computer applications.
 No air conditions
Fifth generation computers (1990-current)

The Fifth Generation Computer Systems project (FGCS) was an initiative by Japan's Ministry of International
Trade and Industry, begun in 1982, to create a "fifth generation computer" which was supposed to perform
much calculation using massive parallel processing.
 The design of these computers was based on VLSI (very large scale integration) technology, the micro chip
technology that gave rise to the smaller computers known as the micro computers in use today.

 These computers are used in networking .examples of micro computers are IBM PCs BBC micro etc. the
micro computers are usually described as PCs or stand alone or desktop computers because they were
designed primarily to serve single person at a time.
 The fifth generation is still a state of the art technology that relies on predictions and further technological
refinements.
 It has been predicted that such a computer will be able to communicate in natural spoken language with its
user;
 store vast knowledge databases;
 search rapidly through these databases,
 making intelligent inferences and drawing logical conclusions; and
 process images and ‘see’ objects in the way that humans do.
 Reliable and vault tolerance
Summary
Research shows that the trend in computer technology revolution is that there is;
o Continual decrease in computer size
o Improved speed and power processing
o Decrease in computers and the related facilities cost
o Number of components in computer per circuit (IC) greatly increased over 500,000 physical elements
e.g. transistors, capacities, diodes etc per chip(IC).
1.4. Generations of Computer Languages

1) First Generation – machine language
 Machine language is the only programming language that the computer can understand directly without
translation. It is a language made up of entirely 1s and 0s.
2) Second Generation Assembly mnemonic Language
 Assembly languages use mnemonic operation codes and symbolic addresses in place of 1s and 0s to
represent the operation codes. A mnemonic is an alphabetical abbreviation used as memory aid. This
means a programmer can use abbreviation instead of having to remember lengthy binary instruction
codes.
 Assembly language uses symbolic addressing capabilities that simplify the programming process
because the programmer does not need to know or remember the exact storage locations of instructions
or data
3) Third Generation Language
 Third generation languages, also known as high-level languages. Most high level languages are
considered to be procedure-oriented, or Procedural languages, because the program instructions
comprise lists of steps, procedures, that tell the computer not only what to do but how to do it. High-
level language statements generate, when translated, a comparatively greater number of assembly
language instructions and even more machine language instructions.
 A language translator is required to convert a high-level language program into machine language. Two
types of language translators are used with high level languages: compilers and interpreters.
4) Fourth Generation Language

 High level Language also. They are non-procedural languages, so named because they allow
programmers and users to specify what the computer is supposed to do without having to specify how
the computer is supposed to do it.
 Five basic types of language tools fall into the fourth generation language category.
a) Query languages
b) Report generators.
c) Applications generators.
d) Decision support systems and financial planning languages.
e) Some microcomputer application software.
5) Fifth Generation Language

 These languages did not appear until the 1990s, and have primarily been concerned with Artificial
Intelligence and Fuzzy Logic. The programs that have been developed in these languages have
explored Natural Language (making the computer seem to communicate like a human being).
 Natural languages widely known as fifth generation languages, are designed to make a computer to
behave like an expert and solve problems. The programmer just needs to specify the problem and the
constraints for problem solving. Natural languages such as LISP and PROLOG are mainly used to
develop artificial intelligence and expert systems.
1.5. Characteristics of Computers

Computers are so versatile that they have become indispensable to engineers, scientists, business executives,
managers, administrators, accountants, teachers and students. Modern computers posses certain characteristics
and abilities peculiar to them.
1) Perform complex and repetitive calculations rapidly and accurately.
2) Store large amounts of data and information for subsequent manipulation.
3) Compare items and make decisions.
4) Provide information to the users in many different forms
5) Automatically correct or modify the parameters of a system under control
6) Converse with the users interactively
7) Receive and display audio and video signals
8) Speed – a computer is a very fast machine. It can perform in a very few seconds the amount of work that a
human being can do in a year if he/she worked day and night doing nothing else.
9) Accuracy – the computer accuracy is consistently high.
10) Diligence – computers are free from monotony, tiredness and lack of concentration etc. It can therefore
work for hours without creating an error. For example if 10 million calculations are to be done, a computer
will do the tenth million calculations with exactly the same speed and accuracy as the first one.
11) Versatility – a computer performs various tasks with ease. The computer perform three basic operations
a) It is capable to access and accept information through various input-output devices from the user.
b) It performs basic Arithmetic and Logic operations on data as desired.
c) It is capable to generate the desired output in the desired form.
Example i.e. it can search for a letter, the next moment prepare an electricity bill, and write a report
next then do an arithmetic calculation all with ease.
12) Power of remembering – a computer can store and recall any information due to its secondary storage
capability.
13) No intelligence Quotient (IQ) – a computer cannot make its own decisions and has to be instructed on what
to do.
14) No feelings – computers are devoid of emotions. They have no feelings or instincts and none possesses the
equivalent of a human heart and soul.
1.6. Limitation of Computer

2. Computer does not work on itself, it requires set of instructions to be provided, else computer (Hardware) is
waste.
3. Computer are not intelligent, they have to be instructed about each and every step which they have to
perform
4. Computers cannot take decisions on its own, one has to program the computer to take an action if some
conditional prevail.
5. Computers, unlike humans cannot learn by experience.
1.7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Computers

Advantages - Application Areas
Computers can be used in the following application areas
1) Data processing (Commercial use).
2) Numerical computing (Scientific use).
3) Text (word) processing (Office and Education)
4) Message communication (E-mails)

5) Image processing (Animation and industrial use).
6) Voice recognition (Multimedia)
Disadvantages
1) Unemployment
2) Computer Crime
3) Data Security
4) Violation of Privacy
5) Waste of Time and Energy
6) Health Risks
7) Impact on Environment
1.8. Classification of Computers

Computers can be classified many different ways –by type, size, purpose, function, and/or by processing
capacity.
1.8.1. Basic Type:
 Digital computers: process data that is represented in the form of discrete values (eg. 0,1,2,3,.. ) by
operating on its in steps. Discrete values occur at each step in the operation
 Analog Computers: akin to measuring instruments such as thermometers and voltmeters with pointers on
circular dials. They process data in the form of electrical voltages, which are variable like the positions of a
pointer on a dial.
 Hybrid: computers that have the combined features of digital and analog computers.
1.8.2. Classification by purpose

This give rise to;
 Special purpose computers: designed for a particular job only; to solve problems of a restricted nature,
example computers used in digital watches, programmable pocket calculators, petrol pumps etc.
 General purpose computers: designed to solve a wide variety of problems.
1.8.3. Classification by function

Classification by the work the computer is used for. This result in;-
 Word processor: used for production of documents.
 Home Computers: designed for domestic use, have limited capacity etc. eg, computer games
 Desktop computers: designed for use on an office desktop
 Workstation: have more features and capabilities than the desktop computers, such as inbuilt capabilities for
interconnection and operation in conjunction with other computers.
 Lap-top: smaller than a PC and portable.
 Embedded computers: inserted within some device or system and are not accessed directly.
1.8.4. Classification by size

This gives rise to;
Mainframe computers
A mainframe is another giant computer after the super computer and can also process millions of instruction
per second and capable of accessing billions of data .They are physically very large in size with very high
capacity of main memory. This computer is commonly used in big hospitals, air line reservations companies,
and many other huge companies prefer mainframe because of its capability of retrieving data on a huge basis.
They can be linked to smaller computers and handle hundreds of users they are also used in space exploitation.
A large number of peripherals can be attached to them. They are expensive to install.
Minicomputers
They are smaller than the main frame but bigger than minicomputers. They support concurrent users. They can
be used as servers in companies. They are slower and less costly compared to mainframe computers but more
powerful, reliable and expensive than micro computers.

Micro computers
They are of advanced technology i.e. the micro chip era based on large scale integration that confines several
physical components per small elements thumb size IC, hence the size reduced. It is the smallest of the three
computers. They are usually called personal computers since they are designed to be used by individuals. The
micro chip technology has enabled reduction of size of computers. Microcomputers can be a desktop, laptop,
notebooks, or even palmtop
o Notebook computer An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers typically weigh
less than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size and portability.
Notebook computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, to produce a
lightweight and non-bulky display screen.
o Desktop Computer is an independent personal computer that is made especially for use on a desk in an
office or home. The term is used mainly to distinguish this type of personal computer from portable
computers and laptops, but also to distinguish other types of computers like the server or mainframe.
o Laptop A small portable computer light enough to carry comfortably, with a flat screen and keyboard that
fold together. Laptops are battery-operated, often have a thin, backlit or sidelit LCD display screen, and
some models can even mate with a docking station to perform as a full-sized desktop system back at the
office.
o Palmtop A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers, palmtops are
severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and calendars. Palmtops
that use a pen rather than a keyboard for input are often called hand-held computers or PDAs. Because of
their small size, most palmtop computers do not include disk drives.
o
1.8.5. Classification by processing power
Super Computers
They are very large in size and use multiple processors and superior technology. Super computers are biggest in
size, the most expensive in price than any other is classified and known as super computer. It can process
trillions of instructions in seconds. This computer is not used as a PC in a home neither by a student in a college.
Governments specially use this type of computer for their different calculations and heavy jobs. Different
industries also use this huge computer for designing their products.
1.9. Main Activities of a Computer

A computer is an electronic device that operates under the control of a set of instructions that is stored in its
memory unit. A computer accepts data from an input device and processes it into useful information which it
displays on its output device.
Input Output
Process
Feedback
The relationship between Computer, Data and Information can be depicted as follows;
Data Information
Process
Instructions
1.10 Components of a Computer

A computer is an electronic device that operates under the control of a set of instructions that is stored in its
memory unit. A computer accepts data from an input device and processes it into useful information which it
displays on its output device. Actually, a computer is a collection of hardware and software components that

help you accomplish many different tasks. Hardware consists of the computer itself, and any equipment
connected to it. Software is the set of instructions that the computer follows in performing a task.
A computer has to main components;

I. Hardware
II. Software
Computer hardware refers to the physical components of a computer such as the monitor, Keyboard, Mouse,
system unit etc shown in the diagram below.
Computer software
A set of programs associated with the operation of a computer
The two components (hardware, software) will be discussed later in other chapters.
The primary / basic component of a computers are;

 Input: devices used to capture and send data and instructions to the processing component / unit of the
computer
 Storage: used to store the data and instructions until needed to be worked on. Also used to hold the
processed information until required for output. There are two types of storage; main memory(storage) and
secondary storage
 Control: used to fetch instructions from the main storage, interprets them, and issues the necessary signals
to the components making the computer system. It directs all hardware operations necessary in obeying
instructions.
 Processing: processing is done by the Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) which obeys the instructions and
performs the required arithmetic operations, and logical operations
 Output: devices used to output the processed data (information). This includes, screen, printer etc.
The Relationship can be depicted as follows;

Main Memory
Input Devices Output Devices

Processor
Secondary/Backing
Storage
Summary: Definition of terms

 Data: basic facts that have not been processed and have no meaning
 Information: processed data, useful and have meaning.
 Program: set or series of instructions that is written in the language of the computer, which specifies
processing / tasks that the computer is to carry out on data.
 Hardware is the name given to all the physical devices found in a computer system.
 Software is the general term used to describe all the various programs that may be used on a computer
system together with their associated documentation.
Computer Performance
Features that affect the performance of the computer include:
a) microprocessor
b) Operating System
c) RAM
d) disk drives
e) display
f) input/output ports
1.7 Chapter Review Questions

1. The second generation of computers used
(a) Vacuum tubes (b) Capacitors (c) Transistors (d) Integrated circuits
2. The third generation of computers used
(a) Vacuum tubes (b) Capacitors (c) Transistors (d) Integrated circuits
3. The analytical engine was the vase for the modern digital computer in which year was is developed?
(a) 1833 (b) 1933 (c) 1923 (d) 1893
4. Which one of the following types of computers is commonly used in offices
(a) Supercomputers (b) Mainframe (c) Mini computer (d) Micro computer
5. Computers have continued to decrease in size but the processing power has increased. True or false?

CHAPTER 2: BASIC HARDWARE UNITS OF A COMPUTER

 Explain the different hardware units of a computer system such as input, output, Central processing
unit (CPU), main memory and secondary storage
 Explain how the different units of a computer interact witch each other to give the user output
 Explain how information is stored in a computer
 Explain the different storage units of a computer such as byte, Kilobyte, megabyte, Gigabyte and
Terabyte
Hardware units (Devices) of a computer can be categorized into five units;

i. Input unit
ii. Output Unit
iii. Central processing unit (CPU) or processor
iv. Primary Memory
v. Secondary Storage/Backing Storage
2.1 Input Devices

An input device lets you communicate with a computer. They are used to enter information and issue
commands to the computer. Commands tell the computer to do something, like save the file. A keyboard,
mouse, scanner, digital camera, touch pads and joystick are examples of input devices.
a) Keyboard Used to type data into the computer. It has special keys for giving the computer commands
called command or function keys
b) Pointing Devices Pointing devices move some object on the screen and can do some action Mouse is a
common pointing device
c) Scanner allows you to scan documents, pictures, or graphics and view them on the computer. You can
also use software to edit the items you scan. Used to put printed pictures and text into a computer. It
Converts an image into dots that the computer can understand .To scan text, optical character
recognition (OCR) software is needed
d) Digital Camera Used to take electronic pictures of an object. The pictures taken by a digital camera can
be used directly by a computer
e) Microphone Used to put sound into a computer. Need sound recording software
f) Video Capture Card Usually place inside the computer's case. Use to put video into a computer. Need
a video source, either a video camera or video recorder
g) Voice input device-A computer I/O device in which vocal commands may be entered into a computer
system.
h) Optical character recognition (OCR) is computer software designed to translate images of
handwritten or typewritten text (usually captured by a scanner) into machine-editable text, or to translate
pictures of characters into a standard encoding scheme representing them (e.g. ASCII or Unicode).
i) Optical Mark Reader (OMR) A special scanning device that can read carefully placed pencil marks on
specially designed documents. OMR is frequently used in forms, questionnaires, and answer-sheets
2.2 Output device

An output device displays information on a screen, creates printed copies or generates sound. A monitor,
printer, and speakers are examples of output devices.
a) Monitors and Displays Shows the processed information on a screen. A monitor uses a Picture Tube like a
television with the image displayed on the front of the tube, which is called the screen.
b) Printers produce a hard copy. The information is printed on paper and can be used when the device is off.
It is also called a printout. There different types of printers;
Impact printers: In case of Impact printer an inked ribbon exists between the print head and paper ,the
head striking the ribbon prints the character. Impact printers are basically divided into 2 types
 Serial/Character printers eg. Dot matrix printers
 Uses metal pins to strike an inked ribbon to make dots on a piece of paper.
 Lowest print quality of all of the printers.
 Very low in cost per page to use.
 Daisy wheel printers eg. Line Printers
Intro. to Computers – Chapter 2 Hardware Components Page 1

Non-Impact Printers: Non Impact printers use techniques other than the mechanical method of head
striking the ribbon. Non Impact Printers are divided into 3 categories
 Thermal printers
 Ink jet printers
 Use drops of magnetic ink to produce dots on a page to produce text or images.
 The print quality is almost the same as a laser printer's.
 The ink is very expensive
 The ink is water soluble and will run if the paper gets wet
 Highest cost per page of all the printers
 For producing color documents, it has the highest quality at a reasonable price.
 Laser printers
 A laser or LEDs make dots on a light sensitive drum
 Toner (very tiny particles of plastic) stick to the drum where the dots where made
 For black and white printouts, very low cost per page
 Printout is permanent
 Color laser printers are still fairly expensive
Classification of Printers
Printers are classified by the following characteristics:
1) Quality of type: The output produced by printers is said to be either letter quality (as good as a
typewriter), near letter quality, or draft quality. Only daisy-wheel, ink-jet, and laser printers produce
letter-quality type. Some dot-matrix printers claim letter-quality print, but if you look closely, you can
see the difference.
2) Speed: Measured in characters per second (cps) or pages per minute (ppm), the speed of printers varies
widely. Daisy-wheel printers tend to be the slowest, printing about 30 cps. Line printers are fastest (up
to 3,000 lines per minute). Dot-matrix printers can print up to 500 cps, and laser printers range from
about 4 to 20 text pages per minute.
3) Impact or non-impact: Impact printers include all printers that work by striking an ink ribbon.
Daisywheel, dot-matrix, and line printers are impact printers. Non-impact printers include laser printers
and ink-jet printers. The important difference between impact and non-impact printers is that impact
printers are much noisier.
4) Graphics: Some printers (daisy-wheel and line printers) can print only text. Other printers can print
both text and graphics.
5) Fonts: Some printers, notably dot-matrix printers, are limited to one or a few fonts. In contrast, laser
and ink-jet printers are capable of printing an almost unlimited variety of fonts. Daisy-wheel printers
can also print different fonts, but you need to change the daisy wheel, making it difficult to mix fonts in
the same document.
c) Speakers Used to output sound
d) LCD Projectors Similar to monitors but projects an image on to a screen. They are mainly used for
presentations.
e) Scanners
Scanners create a digital reproduction of an image or document and come in a variety of shapes and sizes
designed to perform different types of tasks. There are three types of office scanners usually seen in the
market and the functions they serve are as follows:
1) Flatbed: The flatbed scanner consists of its own base with a flat piece of glass and cover just as is
found on most copiers. The scanning component of flatbeds runs over the length of the image in order
to gather data. Flatbeds are useful when a user needs to scan more than single page documents.
2) Sheetfed: Sheetfed scanners are only used if one wants to scan for anything other than sheets of paper.
The scanning component of a sheetfed is stationary while the document being scanned passes over it's
'eyes' similar to a fax machine. It is so thin just a couple of inches deep, such that it can easily fit
between keyboards and monitor. Sheetfeds usually work best in conjunction with an automatic
document feeder for large projects. Pictures and other documents which are smaller than a full page can
also be scanned using a sheetfed scanner. They have been known to bend pictures and reproduce less
than quality images.
3) Slide: There is a need for accurate reproduce of very small images. For such application the resolution
required is very sharp and slide types of scanner create a totally different scanner market. Slides are
usually inserted into a tray, much like a CD tray on ones computer, and scanned internally. Most slide
scanners can only scan slides, though some newer models can also handle negative strips.

2.3 Central Processing Unit (CPU)/Processor:
Composed of the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and the Control unit. The CPU is the brain of the computer.
The CPU consists of electronic circuits that interpret and execute instructions; it communicates with the input,
output, and storage devices. The CPU of a microcomputer is called a microprocessor.
The microprocessor contains the CPU which is made up of three components-the control unit supervises all that
is going on in the computer, the arithmetic/logic unit which performs the math and comparison operation, and
temporary memory. Because of the progress in developing better microprocessors, computers are continually
evolving into faster and better units.
The processor and main memory of a PC are commonly held on a single board called a mother board. The
processor has the following functions:
a) It controls the transmission of data from input devices to memory;
b) It processes the data held in main memory;
c) It controls the transmission of information from main memory to output devices.
Central Processing Unit is implemented in a single piece of silicon device known as a computer chip.
2.3.1. CPU Operation

The Control unit of the CPU, with the help of memory, executes instructions in the repetition of machine cycles.
A machine cycle consists of four steps – fetch, decode, execute, and write back:
1. The control unit fetches an instruction and data associated with it from memory.
2. The control unit decodes the instruction.
3. The arithmetic/logic unit executes the instruction.
4. The arithmetic/logic unit stores / writes back the result in memory.
The arithmetic/logic unit(ALU) plays two roles.

 Arithmetic operations – these operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division..
 Logical operations – it compares two data items to determine whether the first one is smaller than,
equal to or greater than the second item.
Processors
The term processor is a sub-system of a data processing system which processes received information after it
has been encoded into data by the input sub-system. These data are then processed by the processing sub-system

before being sent to the output sub-system where they are decoded back into information. However, in common
parlance processor is usually referred to the microprocessor, the brains of the modern day computers.
There are two main types of processors: CISC and RISC.

1) CISC: A Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) is a microprocessor Instruction Set
Architecture (ISA) in which each instruction can indicate several low-level operations, such as a load
from memory, an arithmetic operation, and a memory store, all in a single instruction. The term was
coined in contrast to Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC).
Examples of CISC processors are the VAX, PDP-11, Motorola 68000 family and the Intel x86/Pentium
CPUs.
2) RISC: Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC), is a microprocessor CPU design philosophy that
favors a smaller and simpler set of instructions that all take about the same amount of time to execute.
Most types of modern microprocessors are RISCs, for instance ARM, DEC Alpha, SPARC, MIPS, and
PowerPC.
2.3.2. Components of CPU

The components of the CPU includes;
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The Arithmetic Logic Unit or the ALU is a digital circuit that performs arithmetic and logical operations. Where
arithmetic operations include things such as ADD and SUBTRACT and the logical operations include things
such as AND, OR, NOT. The ALU is a fundamental building block in the central processing unit (CPU) of a
computer and without it the computer wouldn't be able to calculate anything!
Control Unit (CU)

The control unit controls the movement of data and instructions into and out of the CPU and controls the
operation of the ALU. The control unit sits inside the CPU and coordinates the input and output devices of a
computer system. It coordinates the fetching of program code from main memory to the CPU and directs the
operation of the other processor components by providing timing and control signals.
Clock
In order to synchronise the various steps carried out during the fetch-execute cycle, all the processors have an
internal clock which generates regularly timed pulses. All the processor activities, such as fetching an instruction,
reading data into the memory register etc. must begin on a clock pulse, although some activities take more than
one clock pulse to complete. Typically the clock pulse rate in 2000 is around 500 megahertz (million cycles per
second). The clock speed, therefore, is one of the factors which will influence the speed at which instructions are
executed; a 600MHZ processor will in general operate faster than a 500MHz processor.
Clock speed is measured in Hertz, which means 'per second' (cycles/second). You have probably heard of clock
speeds such as 1 MHz, this means 1,000,000 cycles per second and potentially a million calculations. A
computer of speed 3.4 GHz means it might be capable of processing 3,400,000,000 instructions per second!
 One megahertz (MHz): one million cycles per second
 One gigahertz (GHz): one billion cycles per second
Common ratings for motherboard buses: 2600 MHz, 2000 MHz, 1600 MHz, 1333 MHz, 1066 MHz, 800 MHz,
533 MHz, or 400 MHz
Range of CPU speeds: 166 MHz to 4 GHz
Registers
A register is a storage device that holds a word exactly like a memory location. Registers are used as temporary
storage places to hold frequently used data In principle, there’s no difference between a location in memory and
a register because they both do the same thing. The real difference is one of accessibility. Registers are located
within the CPU and can be accessed faster than memory locations
Four registers are essential to instruction execution:

 Program counter (PC): Contains the address of an instruction to be fetched.
 Instruction register (IR): Contains the instruction most recently fetched.

 Memory address registers (MAR): Contains the address of a location in memory.
 Memory buffer register (MBR): Contains a word of data lo be written to memory or the word most
recently read.
Others includes;
 General purpose registers are used for performing arithmetic functions. In some computers, there is
only one general purpose register, usually called an accumulator, which acts as the working area.
 Current instruction register (CIR) contains both the operator and the operand of the current
instruction.
 Memory address register (MDR) holds the address of the memory location from which data will be
read or to which data will be written.
 Memory data register (MDR) is used to temporarily store data read from or written to memory.
 Status register (SR) contains bits that are set or cleared based on the result of an instruction.
System Bus – Communication pathways

The communication links between the registers, ALU and control unit are called buses. The buses are the
electrical paths for data to flow from point to point in a circuit. There are three types of Buses for
Communication in CPU are
1) Control Bus: - The Path for all controlling and timing functions sent by the control unit to other units of
CPU.
2) Address Bus: - This Path is used for locating the address of the memory location where the next instruction
to be executed or the next piece of data is found. This is used for data retrieval storage and manipulations
where address of storage locations are required.
3) Data Bus:- This is the path on which actual data transfer takes place.
2.4 Memory:
Memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs (sequences of instructions) or data on a temporary
or permanent basis for use in a computer or other digital device.
2.4.1. Types;
1) Primary Memory Primary storage is directly connected to the central processing unit of the computer. It
must be present for the CPU to function correctly.
2) Secondary Memory: (also known as external memory or auxiliary storage), differs from primary storage in
that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its input/output channels to access
secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate in primary storage
It includes the
a) Secondary Storage; storage inside the computer – Hard disk

b) Offline storage: storage using removable media drives – Flash disks, CD’s. The storage is a computer
data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a processing unit.
 Off-line storage increases general information security, since it is physically inaccessible from a
computer, and data confidentiality or integrity cannot be affected by computer-based attack
techniques.
c) Tertiary Storage; Typically it involves a robotic mechanism which will mount (insert) and dismount
removable mass storage media into a storage device according to the system's demands; these data are
often copied to secondary storage before use. It is primarily used for archiving rarely accessed
information since it is much slower than secondary storage This is primarily useful for extraordinarily
large data stores, accessed without human operators. Typical examples include tape libraries and
optical jukeboxes
These are devices which are used to store huge information for future use. This is mostly hard drives and
removable media such as floppy disks, optical media (CD ROM) etc.
2.4.2. Primary Memory

It contains the programs that are currently being run and the data the programs are operating on. The arithmetic
and logic unit can very quickly transfer information between a processor register and locations in main storage,
also known as a "memory addresses".
a). Processors Register

It is the internal to the central processing unit. Registers contain information that the arithmetic and logic unit
needs to carry out the current instruction. They are technically the fastest of all forms of computer storage.
b). Cache memory

It is a special type of internal memory used by many central processing units to increase their performance or
"throughput". Some of the information in the main memory is duplicated in the cache memory, which is slightly
slower but of much greater capacity than the processor registers, and faster but much smaller than main
memory.
c). Virtual Memory

Virtual memory is a special memory that lets your computer handle many programs and applications with only a
small amount of RAM!. It is a Primary memory stored on secondary memory is called “Virtual Memory”.
Virtual memories are very helpful in that they free up space on the Ram.
d). Main Memory

It contains the programs that are currently being run and the data the programs are operating on. The arithmetic
and logic unit can very quickly transfer information between a processor register and locations in main storage,
also known as a "memory addresses".
Types of the Main Memory

1. Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Is the basic kind of internal memory that holds data and instructions while the computer is in use.
 It can be read from and written to.
 It is called random access because the processor or computer can access any location in memory in any
order as contrasted with sequential access devices which must be accessed in order.
 RAM is volatile; losing the stored information in an event of power loss, and quite expensive.
There are two basic types of RAM.

a) Static RAM (SRAM) does not need to be refreshed, which makes it faster; but it is also more expensive
than dynamic RAM.
b) Dynamic RAM (DRAM) needs to be refreshed thousands of times per second. Both types of RAM are
volatile, meaning that they lose their contents when the power is turned off.
2. ROM (Read only memory)

 Is also random access but only for reads, once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be
removed and can only be read.
 It refers to special memory used to store programs that boot the computer and perform diagnostics.
Most personal computers have a small amount of ROM (a few thousand bytes).

 Retains its contents even when the computer is turned off and is therefore referred to as being
nonvolatile.
Types of ROM
a). PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
A variation of the ROM chip is programmable read only memory. PROM can be programmed to record
information using a facility known as PROM-programmer. However once the chip has been programmed
the recorded information cannot be changed, i.e. the PROM becomes a ROM and the information can only
be read.
b). EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

As the name suggests the Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, information can be erased and the
chip programmed a new to record different information using a special PROM-Programmer. When EPROM
is in use information can only be read and the information remains on the chip until it is erased.
2.5 Secondary Storage

These are devices which are used to store huge information for future use. This is mostly hard drives and
removable media such as floppy disks, optical media (CD ROM) etc.
Hard Drive:
Floppy Disk: Floppy disks allow information to be transported easily from one computer to another they have
limited storage capacity, generally 1.44 MB. Saving and retrieving information from a floppy disk is slower than
on a hard drive. They are more susceptible to physical damage and viruses than the hard drive. The size of a
hard drive is usually expressed in terms of megabytes and gigabytes.
Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD ROM): CD ROMs are read only storage medium. Typically, a CD
ROM holds up to 650 MB of information. While information retrieval is faster than from a floppy disk, it is still
not as fast as from the hard drive.
Compact Disk-Writable (CD-R): A CD-R is highly effective for storing a large amount of data. Can hold up to
700MB of information. A CD-R is a one time recordable compact disc.
Compact Disk-Re-Writable (CD-RW):

A CD-RW allows you to read, write, erase and write again. Writing takes place in a single pass of the focused
laser beam. This is sometimes referred to as direct overwriting and can be repeated several thousand times per
disc.
2.6. Memory Size

The unit of measure of the memory used in computers is Byte
Byte – a string of 8 bits ( a sequence of 1 or 0 digits)
Kilobyte – 1,000 bytes
Megabyte – 1,000,000 bytes
Gigabyte – 1,000,000,000 bytes
Terabyte – 1,000,000,000,000 bytes

2.7 Computer units interaction diagram
The processor and main memory of a PC are commonly held on a single board called a mother board
2.8. Mother Board

The motherboard is a large printed circuit board, which has lots of chips, connectors and other electronics
mounted on it. It contains CPU, expansion slots, other devices. Most of the data exchange takes place on the
motherboard itself, where all the components are connected to each other. All devices communicate with
motherboard CPU via:
a) Buses
b) Expansion Slots
c) Cables.
The motherboard is mounted in the PC box using small plastic brackets and screws. The cabinet and the
motherboard are made to suit each other, so there are holes in the metal for the connectors mounted on the
board. Finally, the motherboard has to be connected to the PC’s power supply installed in the cabinet. This is
done using a standard connector

In relation to the PC’s external devices, the motherboard functions like a central railway station. The
motherboard is the Hub of all communication/ data exchanger. All traffic originates from or ends up in the
motherboard; which is appropriately called the most important component of the PC
2.9 Mother Board Components

Chips
The active devices on the motherboard are gathered together in chips. These are tiny electronic circuits which
are crammed with transistors. The chips have various functions. For example, there are:
 ROM chips, which store the BIOS and other programs.
 CMOS storage, which contains user-defined data used by the setup program.
 The chipset, which normally consists of two, so-called controllers, which incorporate a number of very
essential functions.
Sockets
These are holders, which have been soldered to the motherboard. The sockets are built to exactly match a card
or a chip. A number of components are directly connected to the motherboard using the sockets. For example,
there are sockets (slots) to mount:
 The CPU and working storage (the RAM modules).
 Expansion cards, also called adapters (PCI, AGP and AMR slots, etc.).
They facilitate the installation of components directly on the motherboard without needing special tools. The
component has to be pushed carefully and firmly into the socket, and will then hopefully stay there.
Input / Output Ports

A motherboard provides ports for common I/O devices. These motherboard ports may be outside of the case.

 Ports for the keyboard and mouse.
 Serial ports, the parallel port, and USB ports.
 Sockets for speakers/microphone etc.
2.9. 1. Personal Computer Ports and Connectors

In a computer there are various connectors and ports, which help in establishing a communication path between
the CPU and the various Storage devices. Before learning about the various available connectors, it is essential
to be familiar with the following terms:
a) Cable is a wire
b) Socket is the female side of a connector.
c) Pin is the male side of a connector.
d) Port is generally a place for physically connecting to some other device usually with a socket.
Parallel Port
Parallel ports can be used to connect a host of popular computer peripherals like:
a) Printers
b) Scanners
c) CD burners
d) External hard drives
e) Iomega Zip removable drives
f) Network adapters
g) Tape backup drives
Parallel ports were originally developed by IBM as a way to connect a printer to PC. Parallel ports are also
known as LPT ports. Facilitates Bi-directional communication that allows each device to receive data as well as
transmit it.
Serial Port
Serial ports, also called communication (COM) ports, support sequential data transmission and are bi-
directional. Bi-directional communication allows each device to receive data as well as transmit it. The name
"serial" comes from the fact that a serial port "serializes" data. That is, it takes a byte of data and transmits the 8
bits in the byte one at a time serially one after the other. A serial port is commonly used to connect external
modems, scanners or the older computer mouse to the computer. It comes in two versions, 9-pin and 25-pin. 25-
pin COM connector is the older version while the 9-pin connector is the current standard. Data travels over a
serial port at 115 Kb per second.
USB (Universal Serial Bus) Port

USB, introduced in 1997 is a plug and play peripheral connection, which was invented to solve all these
headaches. It is used to connect various devices, for example, digital joystick, a scanner, digital speakers, digital
cameras, or a PC telephone etc. to the computer. USB is generally a two-and-a half-inch long port on the back of
computers or built into a hatch on the front of a computer.

The Universal Serial Bus provides a single, standardized, easy-to-use way to connect up to 127 devices to a
computer. Just about every peripheral made now comes in a USB version. A sample list of USB devices that
you can buy today includes:
a) Printer
b) Scanner
c) Mic
d) Joystick
e) Flight yoke
f) Digital camera
g) WebCam
h) Scientific data acquisition device
i) Modem
j) Speaker
k) Telephone
l) Video phone
m) Storage device such as Zip drive
n) Network connection
Fire-wire Port
This port was originally created by Apple and standardized in 1995 as the specification IEEE 1394 High
Performance Serial Bus and is very similar to Universal Serial Bus (USB). The most important features of
Firewire port are:
 Fast transfer of data - the latest version achieves speeds up to 800 Mbps. At some time in the future,
that number is expected to jump to an unbelievable 3.2 Gbps
 Ability to put lots of devices on the bus. It is possible to connect up to 63 devices to a FireWire bus.
Windows operating systems (98 and later) and Mac OS (8.6 and later) both support it.
 Hot-pluggable ability - they can be connected and disconnected at any time, even with the power on.
 Provision of power through the cable - FireWire allows devices to draw their power from their
connection.
Plug-and-play performance - if you connect a new FireWire device to your computer, the operating system
auto-detects it and asks for the driver disc. If you've already installed the device, the computer activates it and
starts talking to it.
PS/2 Port
IBM developed the PS/2 port. It is also called a mouse port. It is used to connect a computer mouse or keyboard.
A PS/2 connector is a round connector with 6 pins. Nowadays few computers have two PS/2 ports, one for
keyboard and one for mouse. A colour code is used to distinguish between the two ports the keyboard port is
green and the mouse has a purple port.
Monitor Socket
This connector is used to attach a computer display monitor to a computer's video card. The connector has 15
holes.
Audio/Speaker and Microphone Socket

At the back of the computer system we can find three small sockets of blue, green and pink colors used to
connect speakers, audio input devices and microphones to the PC respectively. The connectors for microphone
and speakers look like as shown in the adjacent figure. They are color coded to help in troubleshooting.
In addition to these sockets, connectors and ports, the motherboard contains a number of other contacts. These
include:
 The big connector which supplies the motherboard with power from the power supply.
 Other connectors for the secondary storage devices, and CD-ROM drive etc
 Jumpers which are used on some motherboards to configure voltage and various operating speeds etc

 A number of pins used to connect the reset button, LED for hard disk activity, built-in speaker, etc
Mother Board
2.10. Chapter Review Questions

1. Which are the five basic units of a computer?
(a) Central processing unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit, Input Unit, Output Unit, Visual Display unit
(b) Central processing unit, Random Access Memory, Input Unit, Output Unit, Visual Display unit
(c) Central processing unit, Random Access Memory, Input Unit, Output Unit, Visual Display unit
(d) Central processing unit, Main Memory, Input Unit, Output Unit, Backing Storage
2. Which of the following is not an input device

(a) Mouse (b) speaker (c) Scanner (d) Digital Camera
3. Which of the following is not an output device

(a) Printer (b) Scanner (c) speaker (d) Monitor
4. Which of the following is not a task of the Central Processing Unit?

(a) It controls the transmission of information from application programs to output devices
(b) It controls the transmission of data from input devices to memory;
(c) It processes the data held in main memory;
(d) It controls the transmission of information from main memory to output devices
5. Which of the following is used to store programs and data that are currently being used
(a) Read only Memory (b) Hard Disk
(c) Random Access Memory (d) Magnetic Disk

CHAPTER THREE: COMPUTER SOFTWARE

 Explain computer software and the classification of computer software
 Explain system software and the different software in that category and their application and importance in
computing
 Explain application software and the different software in that category such general purpose and special
purpose software
 Explain Ready made software vs tailor made software
3.1. Introduction
Software is simply set of instructions that cause a computer to perform one or more tasks. The set of instructions is
often called a program or, if the set is particularly large and complex, a system. Computers cannot do any useful
work without instructions from software; thus a combination of software and hardware (the computer) is necessary
to do any computerized work. A program must tell the computer each of a set of tasks to perform, in a framework of
logic, such that the computer knows exactly what to do and when to do it. Data are raw facts and ideas that have not
been processed while Information is data that has been processed so as to be useful to the user
3.2. Classification of software

Software can be broadly classified into
The Software is categorized on the basis of functions into system software and application software
Software
System software Application software

+
Operating system Service programs General /ready Special/tailor

made applications made applications
Utilities Development Communication

programs programs
Intro to Computer – Chapter 4 Software Page 1

3.3. System Software
Systems software: Also called Operating Systems (OS) are programs with associated documentation that controls
the way the computer operates or provide facilities that extend the general capabilities of the system.
System Software:- Which controls all processing activities and makes sure that the resources and the power of the
computer are used in most efficient manner . The System software can categorized in to
1. Operating System
2. Language Processors ( Assemblers, Compilers, Interpreters)
3. Utilities Programs
4. Device Drivers
5. Basic Input Output system (BIOS)
Classification;
1. Operating systems and control programs: a complex program and most important program that runs on a
computer and which controls the operation of a computer. It perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from
the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and
controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. In general the operating system supervises and
directs all the software components and the hardware components. Sophisticated operating system could handle
multi-processors, many users and tasks simultaneously. Examples of computers operating systems are UNIX,
Microsoft windows 95/98, Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista and Linux.
2. Language Processors
Translators: used to translate programs developed using standard programming languages into machine
language that is understood by the computer.
There are three basic types of translators they are
i. Compilers: - A compiler is a software that will convert the high level instructions into equivalent
Machine level instructions at a time.
ii. Interpreters:- A Interpreter is a software that will convert the high level instructions into equivalent
Machine level instructions step by step.
iii. Assembler:- Assembler is a software that will convert the high level instructions into equivalent
Machine level instructions but here, the input programs are in assembly language. The output is in
machine language.
3. Utilities Programs: systems programs that provides useful service to the users of the computer by providing
facilities for performing common tasks of a routine nature. Common types includes
 Sort: used for sorting data
 Editor: also called text editors are used at a terminal and provide facilities for the creation or amendment of
programs
 File copying: also called media conversion are used to copy data from one medium to another.
 Dump: used to copy the content of the main memory to an external storage device.
 File maintenance: program used to carry out the process of insertion/deletion of records in any file. It can
also make amendments to the standing data contained in a record.
 Tracing and Debugging: used in conjunction with the debugging and testing of application programs.
Tracing involves producing diagnostic information after obeying specified instructions so that the cycle of
operation can traced and errors located. Debugging is the term given to the process of locating and
eliminating errors (bugs) from a program.
 Libraries- commonly used parts or portions of a program which can be called or included in the
programmer’s code without having to recode that portion.
 Anti-virus applications protect your computer from the damage that can be caused by viruses and similar
programs

 Compression utilities make files smaller for storage (or sending over the Internet) and then return them to
normal size.
 Data recovery utilities attempt to restore data and files that have been damaged or accidentally deleted.
 Disk defragmenters reorganize the data stored on disks so that it is more efficiently arranged.
 Firewalls prevent outsiders from accessing your computer over a network such as the Internet.
4. Device Drivers (Service Drivers)
These utilities are those software programs which are provided by the manufacturer of various hard wares to
perform specific tasks which are common to all data processing installations. The commonly available service
utilities are:
a) Device Drivers: These are special programs which are used to enhance the capability of operating systems,
so that it can support many input/output devices like mouse, joysticks, printers etc.
b) Communication programs- refer to programs that make it possible to transmit data.
c) Directory and File management Utilities: These are those software programs which are used to manage
data.
d) Database management systems (DBMS): a software that constructs, expands and maintains a database. It
provides the control interface between the user and the data in a database.
5. BIOS (Basic Input/ Output System)
The BIOS, or basic input/output systems is a type of software that is encoded within the computer's read-only
memory (ROM) chip located on the motherboard. This is to make sure that the BIOS is never altered and to make
sure that it will always be available for the central processing unit to use when the computer is first turned on.
Functions of the BIOS:

The most important job of the BIOS is to give the microprocessor its first instructions and to load the operating
system when the computer is turned on. It then performs a POST, or Power-On Self Test. This is an inspection
to check that everything in the computer is working and functioning properly.
In addition, there is more than one BIOS in your computer. The one commonly referred to is the main system
BIOS. However, there are other BIOS chips that can be found in many of your computer's peripherals. The system
BIOS activates all of the other BIOS chips.
If everything is found to be working properly during the POST, the BIOS will then try to boot the computer from
the hard drive. This is the process of launching the Operating system so that you can use many different computer
programs, like playing games or surfing the Internet!
When you turn your computer on:

1) The first thing you see is your BIOS working
2) The BIOS checks the CMOS for the settings that you have specified for your operating system (such as
background, font, etc.). CMOS is an acronym for Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. It is a
RAM chip that stores basic information about your computer system and your configurations.
3) The BIOS will check this to find out the type of hard drive and floppy disks in the computer, how much
memory there is, etc.
4) The BIOS loads interrupt handlers, which are software that act like translators, and the device drives, which
are software identifying hardware components like a keyboard, mouse, hard disk and floppy disk. It will
check the ports to make sure these devices are in tact.
5) The BIOS performs the POST to make sure that everything is working properly.
6) It will display system settings.
3.4 Functions of OS
Operating System:- Which is set of programs that controls and support hardware and provide various services which
are used for better performance of computer . Operating system hides the hardware from the user. The major
functions of O.S are

3.4.1. Process Management
The CPU executes a large number of programs. While its main concern is the execution of user programs, the CPU
is also needed for other system activities. These activities are called processes. A process is a program in execution.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with processes managed.
a) The creation and deletion of both user and system processes
b) The suspension and resumption of processes.
c) The provision of mechanisms for process synchronization
d) The provision of mechanisms for deadlock handling.
3.4.2 Memory Management

Memory is central to the operation of a modern computer system. Memory is a large array of words or bytes, each
with its own address. Interaction is achieved through a sequence of reads or writes of specific memory address. The
CPU fetches from and stores in memory. In order for a program to be executed it must be mapped to absolute
addresses and loaded in to memory. In order to improve both the utilization of CPU and the speed of the computer's
response to its users, several processes must be kept in memory.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with memory management.
a) Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
b) Decide which processes are to be loaded into memory when memory space becomes available.
c) Allocate and de-allocate memory space as needed.
d) Secondary Storage Management
3.4.3. Secondary Storage Management

The main purpose of a computer system is to execute programs. These programs, together with the data they access,
must be in main memory during execution. Since the main memory is too small to permanently accommodate all
data and program, the computer system must provide secondary storage to backup main memory. Most modem
computer systems use disks as the primary on-line storage of information, of both programs and data. The operating
system is responsible for the following activities in connection with disk management
a) Free space management
b) Storage allocation
c) Disk scheduling.
3.4.4 Input Output System – Input/output management

One of the purposes of an operating system is to hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the user.
For example, in UNIX, the peculiarities of Input/Output devices are hidden from the bulk of the operating system
itself by the INPUT/OUTPUT system. The Input/Output system consists of:
a) A buffer caching system
b) A general device driver code
c) Drivers for specific hardware devices.
Only the device driver knows the peculiarities of a specific device.
3.4.5. File Management

A file is a collection of related information defined by its creator. File management is one of the most visible
services of an operating system. Computers can store information in several different physical forms; magnetic tape,
disk, and drum are the most common forms. Each of these devices has it own characteristics and physical
organization. For convenient use of the computer system, the operating system provides a uniform logical view of
information storage. The operating system abstracts from the physical properties of its storage devices to define a
logical storage unit, the file. Files are mapped, by the operating system, onto physical devices.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with file management:

a) The creation and deletion of files
b) The creation and deletion of directory
c) The support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
d) The mapping of files onto disk storage.
e) Backup of files on stable (non volatile) storage.
3.4.6. Protection System – Data Security and Integrity

The various processes in an operating system must be protected from each other’s activities. For that purpose,
various mechanisms which can be used to ensure that the files, memory segment, CPU and other resources can be
operated on only by those processes that have gained proper authorization from the operating system.
Protection refers to a mechanism for controlling the access of programs, processes, or users to the resources defined
by a computer controls to be imposed, together with some means of enforcement. An unprotected resource cannot
defend against use (or misuse) by an unauthorized or incompetent user.
3.4.7. Command Interpreter System

One of the most important components of an operating system is its command interpreter. The command interpreter
is the primary interface between the user and the rest of the system. Many commands are given to the operating
system by control statements. When a new job is started in a batch system or when a user logs-in to a time-shared
system, a program which reads and interprets control statements is automatically executed.
Others include;
1) Handling job transactions
2) Co-ordinating and managing peripheral devices
3) Input-Output Management
4) Maintains account of processor time for billing purposes.
5) Maintains Internal clock; Provides data and time services etc.
6) Scheduling of various tasks
7) Establishing and enforcing priorities for different jobs
Operating system concepts:- User programs interact with operating system using set of extended instructions.
These instructions are called “system calls”. These system calls are used to create, delete and use various software
objects that are manages by the Operating systems. The following are common in any Operating system.
1. Process
2. Files
3. System Calls
4. The shell
5. Booting Process i. Boot Strap Loader
i. Check Programs
ii. Monitor Program
iii. Basic input/output System (BIOS) Program
iv. Utility Programs
v. File Maintenance Programs
3.5. Types of Operating Systems:

Operating systems are basically capable to do all functions but The way of processing or approach of the systems
may vary from one Operating systems to another.

The Operating systems can be classified as Single user and Multiuser (number of users working on it at a given
point of time) and Multitasking operating systems,
 Single user Operating systems - MSDOS
 Multi-user Operating System - UNIX, Linux etc
 Multitasking Operating System - Windows
3.6. Classification of OS
Basing on the features of the operating systems and the interface provided they can be classified as
 User friendly Operating system :- These Operating systems provide a pleasant and easy to work environment,
they are usually graphical based, where the various options are represented as icons, menus etc.
Windows operating systems are some of the user friendly Operating systems.
Programming friendly Operating systems:- The programmer is anyone who has fair knowledge about
programming concepts and he is expected to know the computer in a detailed manner. The programmer much
concerned about various utilities, functionalities, flexibility and powerful environment. UNIX, XENIX,LINUX etc.
are some of the character based interfaces which are very powerful and programming friendly.
3.7. Computer User interface

There are two types of interface that can be provided by the operating system.
Command based Interface

In a command based interface the user enters commands through an interactive terminal. The commands are
entered on a prompt for example the Ms Dos prompt looks like this
Once the commands are entered on the prompt a command line interpreter(CLI) identifies and executes the
commands. A command based interface is quick to operate and very flexible, but the user needs to learn all the
commands and type them in correctly. Examples operating systems that use command based interface are Ms
DOS and UNIX.
Graphical user interface

A graphical user interface (GUI) allows the user to interact with the system using Windows, Icons, Menus, and
Pointers to control the operating system. Icons represent programs, groups of programs, folders, devices and files.
Instead of typing a command or file name, selection is achieved by moving a pointer with a mouse and clicking a
mouse button. Windows is a Graphical user interface based operating system.

The GUI has many advantages such as;
a) GUIs are easier for the novice user because they are more intuitive
b) The graphical symbols represent familiar objects such as a garbage bin
c) Only valid options are available to avoid confusing the user
d) No need to memorize commands
e) Help is available online showing the only relevant options
Graphical user interface has some disadvantages such as

a) GUI require more memory
b) They require faster processors and better graphics display
c) For experienced users they appear slow to operate because they require more operations for simple
tasks.
3.8. Application Software

Applications Software allows you to perform a particular task or solve a specific problem. A word processor is the
most widely used example of applications software; it can be used to create a letter or memo or anything else you
need to type. Other examples include games, spreadsheets, tax preparation programs, typing tutor, etc.
a) User application software; Custom software / programs with associated documentations designed and
developed to specifically to carry out particular task.
b) Application packages: Prewritten commercial software purchased in stores most often, personal computers
utilize packaged software.
Application packages are of major importance to small computer-system users who do not have the necessary
resources or expertise to produce their own software.
Advantages includes;
a) Saves programming efforts and expense as the development costs are effectively shared between the
purchasers.
b) Use gets a well-tried and tested program.
c) Relatively quick implementation results.
Disadvantages
a) Purchaser have no direct control over the package.
b) Packages usually developed to meet general needs and may not be ideal to a particular customer.
Sometimes a lot of customization of the software is required to meet the unique needs of a customer.
The most important applications software categories included in office suites are described in the table below:

Software Category Function
Word Processor Provides the tools for entering and revising text, adding graphical elements,
formatting and printing documents.
Spreadsheets Provides the tools for working with numbers and allows you to create and edit
electronic spreadsheets in managing and analyzing information.
Database Management Provides the tools for management of a collection of interrelated facts. Data can
be stored, updated, manipulated, retrieved, and reported in a variety of ways.
Presentation Graphics Provides the tools for creating graphics that represent data in a visual, easily
understood format.
Communication Provides the tools for connecting one computer with another to enable sending
Software and receiving information and sharing files and resources.
Internet Browser Provides access to the Internet through a service provider by using a graphical
interface.
o General/ready made Software is developed to perform a variety of tasks, usually determined by use. Such
software can be customized by user to achieve specific goals e.g. ms office which is a suit of programs
performing a variety of tasks e.g. word processing for producing documents, database for storing, retrieving and
manipulating data and various calculations on spreadsheets. General purpose programs are discussed below;
 Word processing applications. Writing tasks previously done on typewriters with considerable effort can
now be easily completed with word-processing software. Documents can be easily edited and formatted.
Revisions can be made by deleting (cutting), inserting, moving (cutting and pasting), and copying data.
Documents can be stored (saved) and opened again for revisions and/or printing. Many styles and sizes of
fonts are available to make the document attractive. Example: MS Word, Word Pad etc.
 Spreadsheet applications. spreadsheet software permits performance of an almost endless variety of
quantitative tasks such as budgeting, keeping track of inventory, preparing financial reports, or
manipulating numbers in any fashion, such as averaging each of ten departmental monthly sales over a six-
month period. A spreadsheet contains cells, the intersection of rows and columns. Each cell contains a
value keyed in by the user. Cells also contain formulas with many capabilities, such as adding, multiplying,
dividing, subtracting, averaging, or even counting. An outstanding feature is a spreadsheet's ability to
recalculate automatically. If one were preparing a budget, for example, and wanted to change a variable
such as an increase in salary or a change in amount of car payments, the formulas would automatically
recalculate the affected items and the totals.. Example: Excel, Lotus1-2-3 etc.
 Database software: A database contains a list of information items that are similar in format and/or nature.
An example is a phone book that lists a name, address, and phone number for each entry. Once stored in a
database, information can be retrieved in several ways, using reports and queries. For example, all the
names listed for a given area code could be printed out and used for a commercial mailing to that area.
Examples of database software is Ms Access, Dbase, Oracle etc.
 Presentation software: for making slide shows. Allows users to create visual presentation A speaker may
use presentation software to organize a slide show for an audience. Text, graphics, sound, and movies can
easily be included in the presentation. An added feature is that the slide show may be enhanced by

inclusion of handouts with two to six slides printed on a page. The page may be organized to provide space
for notes to be written in by the audience as the presentation ensues. An example of this is Power Point.
Preparation of the software is simplified by the use of 'wizards' that walk the user through the creation of
the presentation.
 Desktop publishing software: This software permits the user to prepare documents by using both word-
processing devices and graphics. Desktop publishing software uses word-processing software, with all its
ease of entering and revising data, and supplements it with sophisticated visual features that stem from
graphics software. For example, one can enhance a printed message with virtually any kind of illustration,
such as drawings, paintings, and photographs. . Examples of Desktop publishing software is PageMaker,
Corel Draw, and Ms Publisher
 Multimedia applications for creating video and music. Allows users to create image, audio, video etc.
Example: Real Player, Media Player etc.
 Activity management programs like calendars and address books
Software Suites
A suite is a collection of related software packages, such as Microsoft Office (which includes Word, Excel,
PowerPoint, etc.) A group of programs that are sold as a package to solve common problems. Although there are
suites for graphics, mathematics and other applications, the most popular are "office suites." Also known as
"productivity suites," they are a set of basic business programs designed with a uniform user interface and common
functions such as spell checking. The primary programs are word processing, spreadsheet, presentation graphics,
database and e-mail, although each suite has its own mix, and a variety of other programs and utilities may also be
included. Some of the programs may be for sale as individual products
Integrated packages
Software that combines several applications in one program, typically providing at least word processing,
spreadsheet and database management. Presentation graphics, page layout, paint, calendar, address book, e-mail and
other applications may also be included. All programs in an integrated package are accessed via a common
launching pad. Microsoft Works and AppleWorks are two primary examples of integrated software packages.
o Tailor made/special purpose software Tailor-made computer system refers to computer application developed
by in-house IT personnel or outside software house according to specific user requirements in a firm. They are
developed for given purpose e.g. Payroll system, stock control system etc.
3.9. Programming Languages

Definition:
A programming language is a formal computer language or constructed language designed to
communicate instructions to a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to
create programs to control the behavior of a machine or to express algorithms.
3.9.1 Types of Programming Languages

There are three levels of programming languages;
a) Machine language (low level language)
b) Assembly (or symbolic) language
c) Procedure-oriented language (high level language)
Machine language – First Generation Language

The lowest-level programming language (except for computers that utilize programmable microcode) Machine
languages are the only languages understood by computers. While easily understood by computers, machine
languages are almost impossible for humans to use because they consist entirely of numbers. It is a programming
language in which the instructions are in a form that allows the computer to perform them immediately, without any

further translation being required. Instructions are in the form of a Binary code also called machine code and are
called machine instructions. Commonly referred to as the First Generation language
Assembly Language – Second Generation Language

Also referred to second generation language. The 1 and 0 in machine language are replaced by with abbreviations or
mnemonic code. It consists of a series of instructions and mnemonics that correspond to a stream of executable
instructions. It is converted into machine code with the help of an assembler. Common features includes;
 Mnemonic code; used in place of the operation code part of the instruction eg SUB for substract, which are
fairly easy to remember
 Symbolic Addresses which are used in place of actual machine addresses. A programmer can choose a symbol
and use it consistently to refer to one particular item of data. Example FNO to represent First No.
 The symbolically written program has to be translated into machine language before being used operationally.
A 1 to 1 translation to machine language, ie one symbolic instruction produces one machine instruction/code.
Advantages of Assembly language over machine language

 It is easy to locate and identify syntax errors, thus it is easy to debug it.
 It is easier to develop a computer application using assembly language in comparison with machine language
 Assembly language operates very efficiently.
High level language

A Machine independent and a Problem oriented (POL) programming language. High level language is portable
across different machine types (architectures); The machine independence of the high level languages means that in
principle it should be possible to make the same high-level language run on different machines. It reflects the type of
problem solved rather than the features of the machine.
High level languages are more abstract, easier to use and more portable across platforms as compared to low-level
programming languages. A programmer uses variables, arrays or Boolean expressions to develop the logic to solve a
problem. Source programs are written in statements akin to English. A high level language code is executed by
translating it into the corresponding machine language code with the help of a compiler or interpreter. High level
languages can be classified into the following categories;
 Procedure-oriented languages (third generation)
 Problem-oriented languages (fourth generation)
 Natural languages (fifth generation).
Procedure languages.
High-level languages designed to solve general-purpose problems, example BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, C, C++
and JAVA. They are designed to express the logic and procedure of a problem. Though the syntax of the languages
may be different, they use English-like commands that are easy to follow. They are portable.
Problem-oriented languages
Problem-oriented languages also known as Fourth Generation Languages (4GL) are used to solve specific problems
and includes query languages, report generators and Application generators which have simple English like syntax
rules. The 4GLs have reduced programming efforts and overall cost of software development. They use either visual
environment or a text environment for program development similar to that of third-generation languages. A single
statement of the 4GL can perform the same task as multiple line of a third-generation language. It allows a program
to just drag and drop from the toolbar, to create various items like buttons, text boxes, label etc. A program can
quickly create a prototype of the software applications
Natural Languages

Natural languages widely known as fifth generation languages, are designed to make a computer to behave like an
expert and solve problems. The programmer just needs to specify the problem and the constraints for problem
solving. Natural languages such as LISP and PROLOG are mainly used to develop artificial intelligence and expert
systems.
Features of high level language

 Extensive vocabulary of words, symbols and sentences
 Whole sentences are translated into many machine codes instructions
 Portable across different machine types (architectures)
 Libraries of macros and sub-routines can be incorporated
 As they are problem oriented, the programmer is able to work at least to some extent independently of the
machine.
 Have a set of rules that must be obeyed.
 Syntax: the structure of the statements and the grammatical rules governing them. Grammatical rules that
govern the way in which words, symbols, expressions and statements may be formed and combined.
 Semantics: the meaning of the statements written in the language. The rules that governs its meaning. –
what happens when the program is executed/run most are standardized by ISO/ANSI to provide an official
description of the language
4.9. Chapter Review Questions

1. Which of the following is not General Purpose software?
(a) Stock Control (b) Word Processing (c) Internet software (d) Presentation
2. Which of the following is not part of the Ms. Office suite?

(a) Ms Word (b) Ms Access (c) Outlook (d) Ms QuickBooks
3. Which of the following is not an operating system

(a) Windows XP (b) Windows Explorer (c) Ms Dos (d) Linux
4. Which of the software below would assist a secretary in preparing a report for an annual general meeting?
(a) Ms Word (b) Ms Access (c) Outlook (d) Ms QuickBooks
5. Which of the software below would assist a salesman in recording daily sales for different items for which he
needs totals among other analysis?
(a) Ms Word (b) Ms Access (c) Outlook (d) Ms Excel

Chapter 4: Data Representation and Computer Files Systems
4.1. Introduction
Data Representation refers to the methods used internally to represent information stored in a computer.
Computers store lots of different types of information:
 numbers
 text
 graphics of many varieties (stills, video, animation)
 sound
At least, these all seem different to us. However, ALL types of information stored in a computer are stored
internally in the same simple format: a sequence of 0's and 1's
Computers work with a binary number system that consists of only two digits - zero and one. Inside the computer
binary number is represented by an electrical pulse. One means a pulse of electricity and zero means no pulse. All
the data entered into computers is first converted into the binary number system. One digit in binary number
system is called bit and combination of eight bits is called byte. A byte is the basic unit that is used to represent
the alphabetic, numeric and alphanumeric data.
4.2. Types of Data

Data is the combination of characters, numbers and symbols collected for a specific purpose. Data is divided into
three types;
1) Alphabetic data is used to represent 26 alphabetic. It consist of capital letters from A to Z, small letters from a
to z and blank space. Alphabetic data is also called non numerical data. Alphanumeric data used to represent
alphabetic data, numeric data, special character and symbols.
2) Numeric data consist of ten digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, two signs + and - and decimal point. There are
different types of number system that are used to represent numeric data. These number systems are decimal
number system, binary number system, octal number system and hexadecimal number system.
3) Alphanumeric data. Combines both Numeric and Alphabetic numbers as well as special symbols
4.3. Data Representation

 Numbers. Assigned a numeric number
 Text: Text can be represented easily by assigning a unique numeric value for each symbol used in the text.
For example, the widely used ASCII code (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) defines
128 different symbols (all the characters found on a standard keyboard, plus a few extra), and assigns to each
a unique numeric code between 0 and 127. In ASCII, an "A" is 65," B" is 66, "a" is 97, "b" is 98, and so forth.
When you save a file as "plain text", it is stored using ASCII. ASCII format uses 1 byte per character 1 byte
gives only 256 (128 standard and 128 non-standard) possible characters The code value for any character can
be converted to base 2, so any written message made up of ASCII characters can be converted to a string of
0's and 1's.
 Graphics: Graphics that are displayed on a computer screen consist of pixels: the tiny "dots" of color that
collectively "paint" a graphic image on a computer screen. The pixels are organized into many rows on the
screen. In one common configuration, each row is 640 pixels long, and there are 480 such rows. Another
configuration (and the one used on the screens in the lab) is 800 pixels per row with 600 rows, which is
referred to as a "resolution of 800x600." Each pixel has two properties: its location on the screen and its
color.
4.4. Data Types
Intro to Computers: Chapter 4: Data Representation & Computer File System Page 1
A data type or simply type is a classification identifying one of various types of data, that determines the possible
values for that type; the operations that can be done on values of that type; the meaning of the data; and the way
values of that type can be stored
Primitive data types

A primitive data type is either of the following
 a basic type is a data type provided by a Programming language as a basic building block. Most
languages allow more complicated composite types to be recursively constructed starting from basic
types.
 a built-in type is a data type for which the programming language provides built-in support.
In most programming languages, all basic data types are built-in. In addition, many languages also provide a set of
composite data types. Opinions vary as to whether a built-in type that is not basic should be considered
"primitive". The actual range of primitive data types that is available is dependent upon the specific programming
language that is being used.
Classic basic primitive types may include:

1. Character (character, char);
A character type (typically called "char") may contain a single letter, digit, punctuation marks, symbol,
formatting code, control code, or some other specialized code.
2. Integer (integer, int, short, long, byte) with a variety of Precisions;
an integer is a datum of integral data type, a data type which represents some finite subset of the
mathematical integers. Integral data types may be of different sizes and may or may not be allowed to contain
negative values. Integers are commonly represented in a computer as a group of binary digits
An integer data type can hold a whole number, but no fraction. Integers may be either signed (allowing
negative values) or unsigned (nonnegative values only
 Literals for integers consist of a sequence of digits
 Negation is indicated by a minus sign (−) before the value
 42
 10000
 −233000
3. Floating Point number (float, double, real, double precision);
A floating-point number represents a limited-precision rational number that may have a fractional part.
example
o 20.0005
o 99.9
4. Boolean, logical values true and false.
A Boolean type, typically denoted "bool" or "boolean", is typically a logical type that can be either "true" or
"false". Although only one bit is necessary to accommodate the value set "true" and "false", programming
languages typically implement boolean types as one or more bytes.
4.5. How information is stored in computers

Data is represented inside a computer as a series of on and off pulses. Humans think of those pulses in terms of a
binary-based numbering system.
Information is stored in computers in the form of bits. A bit is used to represent information in the computer.
They are referred to as binary digits i.e. the 0’s and 1’s with 0 representing an OFF state and 1 representing an ON
state. The stored bits are usually retrieved from computers memory for manipulation by the processor
A single bit alone cannot represent a number, letters or special characters, to represent information; bits are
combined into groups of eight. A group of eight bits is called a byte. Each byte can be used to represent a number,
letter or special character.
Binary Numbers
Normally we write numbers using digits 0 to 9. This is called base 10. However, any positive integer (whole
number) can be easily represented by a sequence of 0's and 1's. Numbers in this form are said to be in base 2 and
they are called binary numbers. Base 10 numbers use a positional system based on powers of 10 to indicate their
value. The number 123 is really 1 hundred + 2 tens + 3 ones. The value of each position is determined by ever-
higher powers of 10, read from left to right. Base 2 works the same way, just with different powers. The number
101 in base 2 is really 1 four + 0 twos + 1 one (which equals 5 in base 10).
4.6. Computer Files System

A computer file is a resource for storing information, which is available to a computer program and is usually
based on some kind of durable storage.
4.6.1. File Contents

A computer file must have a file name. On most modern operating systems, files are organized into one-
dimensional arrays of bytes. The format of a file is defined by its content since a file is solely a container for data,
although, on some platforms the format is usually indicated by its filename extension, specifying the rules for how
the bytes must be organized and interpreted meaningfully.
For example,
 .txt – plain text files -
 .doc/ .docx – word processing file
 .xls – spreadsheet file (excel)
 .pdf – portable document format
 .exe – executable file
NB. A computer file must have a file name and an extension that indicates the content of the file.
4.6.2. File Size

File size measures the size of a computer file. Typically it is measured in bytes and indicates how much storage is
associated with the file. The actual amount of disk space consumed by the file depends on the file system. The
maximum file size a file system supports depends on the number of bits reserved to store size information and the
total size of the file system. Some common file size units are:
 1 byte = 8 bit
 1 KiB = 1,024 bytes
 1 MiB = 1,048,576 bytes
 1 GiB = 1,073,741,824 bytes
 1 TiB = 1,099,511,627,776 bytes
4.6.3. Organizing the data in a file

Information in a computer file can consist of smaller packets of information (often called "records" or "lines") that
are individually different but share some common traits. For example, a payroll file might contain information
concerning all the employees in a company and their payroll details; each record in the payroll file concerns just
one employee, and all the records have the common trait of being related to payroll—this is very similar to
placing all payroll information into a specific filing cabinet in an office that does not have a computer. A text file
may contain lines of text, corresponding to printed lines on a piece of paper.
The way information is grouped into a file is entirely up to how it is designed. This has led to a plethora of more
or less standardized file structures for all imaginable purposes, from the simplest to the most complex. Most
computer files are used by computer programs which create, modify or delete the files for their own use on an as-
needed basis. The programmers who create the programs decide what files are needed, how they are to be used
and (often) their names. In some cases, computer programs manipulate files that are made visible to the computer
user. For example, in a word-processing, the user manipulates document files that the user personally names.
Although the content of the document file is arranged in a format that the word-processing program understands,
the user is able to choose the name and location of the file and provide the bulk of the information (such as words
and text) that will be stored in the file.
Many applications pack all their data files into a single file called archive file, using internal markers to discern
the different types of information contained within. The benefits of the archive file are to lower the number of
files for easier transfer, to reduce storage usage, or just to organize outdated files. The archive file must often be
unpacked before next using.
4.7. File Operations

The most basic operations that programs can perform on a file are:
 Create a new file
 Change the access permissions and attributes/characteristics of a file
 Access permissions – rights on how the users can use the file
 File attributes are metadata associated with computer files that define file system behavior. Each
attribute can have one of two states: set and cleared
 Open a file, which makes the file contents available to the program
 Read data from a file
 Write data to a file
 Close a file, terminating the association between it and the program
4.8. Computer File Systems

A filesystem is the methods and data structures that an operating system uses to keep track of files on a disk or
partition; that is, the way the files are organized on the disk. It is a method for storing and organizing computer
files and the data they contain to make it easy to find and access them. A file system is used to control how
information is stored and retrieved. A file system is a set of abstract data types that are implemented for the
storage, hierarchical organization, manipulation, navigation, access, and retrieval of data.
Most computers have at least one file system. Some computers allow the use of several different file systems.
File systems are used to implement type of data store to store, retrieve and update a set of file. Without a file
system, information placed in a storage area would be one large body of information with no way to tell where
one piece of information stops and the next begins. File systems may use a data storage device such as a hard disk
or CD-ROM and involve maintaining the physical location of the files, or they may be virtual and exist only as an
access method for virtual data or for data over a network (e.g. NFS).
The file system manages access to both the content of files and the metadata about those files. It is responsible for
arranging storage space; reliability, efficiency, and tuning with regard to the physical storage medium are
important design considerations.
4.9. Functions of File System

a). Space Management
File systems allocate space in a granular manner, usually multiple physical units on the device. The file system is
responsible for organizing files and directories, and keeping track of which areas of the media belong to which file
and which are not being used.
File System Fragmentation

File system fragmentation occurs when unused space or single files are not contiguous. As a file system is used,
files are created, modified and deleted. When a file is created the file system allocates space for the data. Some
file systems permit or require specifying an initial space allocation and subsequent incremental allocations as the
file grows. As files are deleted the space they were allocated eventually is considered available for use by other
files. This creates alternating used and unused areas of various sizes. This is free space fragmentation. When a file
is created and there is not an area of contiguous space available for its initial allocation the space must be assigned
in fragments. When a file is modified such that it becomes larger it may exceed the space initially allocated to it,
another allocation must be assigned elsewhere and the file becomes fragmented.
b). Restricting and permitting access

There are several mechanisms used by file systems to control access to data. Usually the intent is to prevent
reading or modifying files by a user or group of users. Another reason is to ensure data is modified in a controlled
way so access may be restricted to a specific program. Examples include passwords stored in the metadata of the
file or elsewhere and file permissions in the form of permission bits, access control lists, or capabilities. The need
for file system utilities to be able to access the data at the media level to reorganize the structures and provide
efficient backup usually means that these are only effective for polite users but are not effective against intruders.
Methods for encrypting file data are sometimes included in the file system. This is very effective since there is no
need for file system utilities to know the encryption seed to effectively manage the data. The risks of relying on
encryption include the fact that an attacker can copy the data and use brute force to decrypt the data. Losing the
seed means losing the data.
c). Maintaining integrity

One significant responsibility of a file system is to ensure that, regardless of the actions by programs accessing the
data, the structure remains consistent. This includes actions taken if a program modifying data terminates
abnormally or neglects to inform the file system that it has completed its activities. This may include updating the
metadata, the directory entry and handling any data that was buffered but not yet updated on the physical storage
media. Other failures which the file system must deal with include media failures or loss of connection to remote
systems.
In the event of an operating system failure or "soft" power failure, special routines in the file system must be
invoked similar to when an individual program fails. The file system must also be able to correct damaged
structures. These may occur as a result of an operating system failure for which the OS was unable to notify the
file system, power failure or reset. The file system must also record events to allow analysis of systemic issues as
well as problems with specific files or directories.
d). Manage User data

The most important purpose of a file system is to manage user data. This includes storing, retrieving and updating
data. Some file systems accept data for storage as a stream of bytes which are collected and stored in a manner
efficient for the media. When a program retrieves the data it specifies the size of a memory buffer and the file
system transfers data from the media to the buffer. Sometimes a runtime library routine may allow the user
program to define a record based on a library call specifying a length. When the user program reads the data the
library retrieves data via the file system and returns a record.
Some file systems allow the specification of a fixed record length which is used for all write and reads. This
facilitates updating records.
An identification for each record, also known as a key, makes for a more sophisticated file system. The user
program can read, write and update records without regard with their location. This requires complicated
management of blocks of media usually separating key blocks and data blocks. Very efficient algorithms can be
developed with pyramid structure for locating records.
4.10. Types of File Systems

File system types can be classified into disk/tape file systems, network file systems and special-purpose file
systems.
Disk file systems

Disk file systems are file systems which manage data on permanent storage devices, A disk file system takes
advantages of the ability of disk storage media to randomly address data in a short amount of time. Additional
considerations include the speed of accessing data following that initially requested and the anticipation that the
following data may also be requested. This permits multiple users (or processes) access to various data on the disk
without regard to the sequential location of the data.
Examples; File Allocation Table (FAT) New Technology File System (NTFS)
Flash file systems

A flash file system considers the special abilities, performance and restrictions of flash memory devices.
Frequently a disk file system can use a flash memory device as the underlying storage media but it is much better
to use a file system specifically designed for a flash device.
Tape file systems

A tape file system is a file system and tape format designed to store files on tape in a self-describing form.
Magnetic tapes are sequential storage media with significantly longer random data access times than disks, posing
challenges to the creation and efficient management of a general-purpose file system.
Database file systems

Another concept for file management is the idea of a database-based file system. Instead of, or in addition to,
hierarchical structured management, files are identified by their characteristics, like type of file, topic, author, or
similar rich metadata
Transactional file systems

Some programs need to update multiple files "all at once". For example, a software installation may write
program binaries, libraries, and configuration files. If the software installation fails, the program may be unusable.
Transaction file systems creates temporary files that keeps records of the current transactions. The transaction
files are used to update the master files.
Transaction processing introduces the isolation guarantee, which states that operations within a transaction are
hidden from other threads on the system until the transaction commits, and that interfering operations on the
system will be properly serialized with the transaction. Transactions also provide the atomicity guarantee, that
operations inside of a transaction are either all committed, or the transaction can be aborted and the system
discards all of its partial results. This means that if there is a crash or power failure, after recovery, the stored state
will be consistent. Either the software will be completely installed or the failed installation will be completely
rolled back, but an unusable partial install will not be left on the system.
Ensuring consistency across multiple file system operations is difficult, if not impossible, without file system
transactions. File locking can be used as a concurrency control mechanism for individual files, but it typically
does not protect the directory structure or file metadata. For instance, file locking cannot prevent race conditions
on symbolic links. File locking also cannot automatically roll back a failed operation, such as a software upgrade;
this requires atomicity.
Journaling file systems are one technique used to introduce transaction-level consistency to file system structures.
Journal transactions are not exposed to programs as part of the OS API; they are only used internally to ensure
consistency at the granularity of a single system call.
Data backup systems typically do not provide support for direct backup of data stored in a transactional manner,
which makes recovery of reliable and consistent data sets difficult. Most backup software simply notes what files
have changed since a certain time, regardless of the transactional state shared across multiple files in the overall
dataset. As a workaround, some database systems simply produce an archived state file containing all data up to
that point, and the backup software only backs that up and does not interact directly with the active transactional
databases at all. Recovery requires separate recreation of the database from the state file, after the file has been
restored by the backup software.
Network file systems
The Network File System, or NFS, is a distributed file system that allows you to access files and directories
located on remote computers and treat those files and directories as if they were local. For example, you can use
operating system commands to create, remove, read, write, and set file attributes for remote files and directories.
A network file system is a file system that acts as a client for a remote file access protocol, providing access to
files on a server.
Features
a) Access transparency is that clients are unaware that files are distributed and can access them in the same way
as local files are accessed.
b) Location transparency A consistent name space exists encompassing local as well as remote files. The name
of a file does not give its location.
c) Concurrency transparency All clients have the same view of the state of the file system. This means that if
one process is modifying a file, any other processes on the same system or remote systems that are accessing
the files will see the modifications in a coherent manner.
d) Failure transparency The client and client programs should operate correctly after a server failure.
e) Heterogeneity File service should be provided across different hardware and operating system platforms.
f) Scalability The file system should work well in small environments (1 machine, a dozen machines) and also
scale gracefully to huge ones (hundreds through tens of thousands of systems).
g) Replication transparency To support scalability, we may wish to replicate files across multiple servers.
Clients should be unaware of this.
h) Migration transparency Files should be able to move around without the client's knowledge.
Chapter 5: Computer Number Systems
5.1 Introduction to Digital Systems

Electronic circuits/systems are classified as being analogue or digital, the distinction between the two circuits is
not the semicircular material used to construct them but rather the way they are operating, that is Current and
voltage variations during performance. Analog electronics deals with things that are continuous in nature and
digital electronics deals with things that are discrete in nature. But they are very much interlinked. By contrast,
the digital circuit is the one which voltage levels alternate among a finite number of distance value that is, they
are 2 voltage levels high a low.
Digital circuits produce discrete outputs, distinct circuits have individual components e.g. resistors, and
transistors. Hybrids circuits contain both integrated and discrete components. Digital circuits are often called
logic circulatory because the level of each output voltage depends on several input voltages and the inputs
voltage may appear in many different combinations.
5.2 Number Systems.

Number System- A number system defines a set of values to represent quantity. We talk about the number of
people attending a class, the number of modules taken by each student and use numbers to represent grade.
Number System can be categorized in two systems:-

a) Non-Positional Number System- In ancient times, people used to count on fingers, when the fingers
became insufficient for counting, stones, pebbles or sticks were used to indicate values. But it was very
difficult to perform arithmetic with such a number system as there is no symbol for zero.
b) Positional Number System- In this system the value of each digit is defined not by the symbol but also by
the symbol position. Positional Number System is used to perform arithmetic. Existing Positional number
system is decimal number system. Apart from the decimal number system, there are binary number system,
octal number system and hexadecimal number system.
The base of a number system is indicated by a subscript (decimal number) and this will be followed by the value
of the number. For example (952)10, (456)8, (314)16
Number System that are used by the computers-

 Decimal System
 Binary System
 Octal System
 Hexadecimal System
Numbers are difficult to define, they are simply a symbolic representation of ideas; number systems are
positional in nature and therefore a symbolic of numbers has weights.
5.3. Decimal Number System

The decimal system is the system which we use in everyday counting. The number system includes the ten
digits from 0 through 9 (0 – 9). These digits are recognized as the symbols of the decimal system and are thus
called decimal digits. The position of each digital has a numerical weight and each digital is a multiplier of the
weight of its position e.g. 102, 101 ,100 –weights. When our count exceeds the highest digit available, the next
digit to the left is incremented and the original digit is reset to zero. For example:
910 + 110 = 1010
Each digit in a base ten number represents units ten times the units of the digit to its right. For example-
954210 = 9000 + 500 + 40 +2 = (9 × 103) + (5 × 102) + (4 × 101) + (2× 100)
13010 = 100 + 30 + 0 = (1x102) + (3x101) + (0x100)
Introduction to Computers. Chapter 5: Computer Number Systems Page 1

Because we are dealing with a base-10 system, each digit to the left of another digit is weighted ten times
higher. Using exponential notation, we can imagine the number 10 as representing:
5.4. Binary Number Systems

Computers do not use the decimal system for counting and arithmetic. Their CPU and memory are made up of
millions of tiny switches that can be either in ON and OFF states. 0 represents OFF and 1 represents ON. The
number system includes the two digits from 0and 1(0,1). Counting Similar to decimals, binary digits have a
positional weight. Each bit is weighted twice as much as the bit to the right of it
5.5. Octal Number System

The octal system is commonly used with computers. The name octal implies eight; octal number system has a
radix of eight and uses the following 8 digit 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, and 7 has base 8. The octal system uses a power of 8
to determine the digit of a number’s position.
5.6. Hexadecimal System

Hexadecimal System- Hexadecimal is another number system that works exactly like the decimal, binary and
octal number systems, except that the base is 16. Each hexadecimal represents a power of 16. The system uses 0
to 9 numbers and A to F characters to represent 10 to 15 respectively.
5.7. Number Systems Conversions

Any number in one number system can be converted into any other number system. There are the various
methods that are used in converting numbers from one base to another.
Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

Number Number Number Number
0 0000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
10 1010 A
11 1011 B
12 1100 C
13 1101 D
14 1110 E
15 1111 F
5.8. Conversions of Decimal to other Number System

a). Decimal to Binary- The method that is used for converting of decimals into binary is known as the
remainder method. We use the following steps in getting the binary number-
1) Divide the decimal number by 2.
2) Write the remainder (which is either 0 or 1) at the right most position.
3) Repeat the process of dividing by 2 until the quotient is 0 and keep writing the remainder after each
step of division.
4) Write the remainders in reverse order.
Example- Convert (45)10 into binary number system.

Remainder
2 45 1
2 22 0
2 11 1
2 5 1
2 2 0
2 1 1
0
Thus (45)10 = (101101)2
Note- In every number system-

 The first bit from the right is referred as LSB (Least Significant Bit)
 The first bit from the left is referred as MSB (Most Significant Bit)
b). Conversion of Decimal to Octal- In converting decimal to octal, we follow the same process of converting
decimal to binary. Instead of dividing the number by 2, we divide the number by 8.
Example- Convert (45)10 into octal number system.
Remainder
8 45 5
8 5 5
8 0
Thus (45)10 = (55)8.
c). Conversion of Decimal to Hexadecimal- We divide by 16 instead of 2 or 8. If the remainder is in between

10 to 16, then the number is represented by A to F respectively.
Example- Convert (45)10 into hexadecimal.

Remainder
16 45 D
16 2 2
0
Thus (45)10= (2D)16.
5.8.1. Conversion of Decimal Fractions

Conversions of Decimal Fractions to Binary Fractions- For converting decimal fractions into binary
fractions, we use multiplication. Instead of looking for a remainder we look for an integer. The following steps
are used in getting the binary fractions-
1) Multiply the decimal fraction by 2.
2) If a non-zero integer is generated, record the non-zero integer otherwise record 0.
3) Remove the non-zero integer and repeat the above steps till the fraction value becomes 0.
4) Write down the number according to the occurrence.
Example- Find the binary equivalent of (0.75)10.

Number (to be recorded)
0.75 × 2 = 1.50 1
0.50 × 2 = 1.00 1
Thus (0.75)10= (0.11)2.

Moreover, we can write (45.75)10= (101101.11)2.
Remark- If the conversion is not ended and still continuing; we write the approximation in 16 bits.
Example- Find the binary equivalent of (0.9)10.

0.9 × 2 = 1.8 1
0.8 × 2 = 1.6 1
0.6 × 2 = 1.2 1
0.2 × 2 = 0.4 0
0.4 × 2 = 0.8 0
0.8 × 2 = 1.6 1
0.6 × 2 = 1.2 1
0.2 × 2 = 0.4 0
0.4 × 2 = 0.8 0
0.8 × 2 = 1.6 1
0.6 × 2 = 1.2 1
0.2 × 2 = 0.4 0
0.4 × 2 = 0.8 0
0.8 × 2 = 1.6 1
0.6 × 2 = 1.2 1
0.2 × 2 = 0.4 0
0.4 × 2 = 0.8 0
0.8 × 2 = 1.6 1
Thus (0.9)10 = (0.111001100110011001)2.
Conversions of Decimal Fractions to Octal Fractions –We follow the same steps of conversions of decimal
fractions to binary fractions. Here we multiply the fraction by 8 instead of 2.
Example- Find the octal equivalent of (0.75)10.
0.75 × 8 = 6.00 6
Thus (0.75)10= (0.6)8.

And (45.75)10= (55.6)8.
Conversions of Decimal Fractions to Hexadecimal Fractions – Here we multiply the fraction by 16 instead of
2 or 8. If the non-zero integer is in between 10 to 16, then the number is represented by A to F respectively.
Example- Find the hexadecimal equivalent of (0.75)10.

0.75 × 16 = 12.00C (12 = C)
Thus (0.75)10= (0.C)16.

And (45.75)10= (2D.C)16.
5.9. Conversions of Binary to Other Numbers

5.9.1. Conversions of Binary to Decimal
In converting binary to decimal, we use the following steps-
1) Write the weight of each bit.
2) Get the weighted value by multiplying the weighted position with the respective bit.
3) Add all the weighted value to get the decimal number.
Example- Convert (101101)2 into decimal number system.
Binary Number 1 0 1 1 0 1
Wt. of Each bit 25 24 23 22 21 20

Weighted Value 1 x 25 0 x 24 1 x23 1 x 22 0 x 21 1 x 20
Solved Multiplication 32 0 8 4 0 1
Thus (101101)2 = (1 × 25) + (0 × 24) + (1 × 23) + (1 × 22) + (0 × 21) + (1 × 20).

= 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 4510
5.9.1.1. Conversions of Binary Fractions to Decimal Fractions

The conversions of binary fractions to the decimal fractions is similar to conversion of binary numbers to
decimal numbers. Here, instead of a decimal point we have a binary point. The exponential expressions (or
weight of the bits) of each fractional placeholder is 2-1, 2-2………
Example- Convert (101101.11)2 into decimal number system.
Binary Number 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
Wt. of Each bit 25 24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2
Weighted Value 1 x 25 0 x 24 1 x23 1 x 22 0 x 21 1 x 20 1 x 2-1 1 x 2-2
Solved Multiplication 32 0 8 4 0 1 0.5 0.25
Thus (101101.11)2 = (1 x 25) + (0 x 24 ) + (1 x23 )+ (1 x 22) + 0 x 21 + (1 x 20 ) + (1 x 2-1 )+ (1 x 2-2)

= 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.25 = 45.7510
5.9.2. Conversions of Binary to Octal

We use the following steps in converting binary to octal-
1) Break the number into 3-bit sections starting from LSB to MSB.
2) If we do not have sufficient bits in grouping of 3-bits, we add zeros to the left of MSB so that all the
groups have proper 3-bit number.
3) Write the 3-bit binary number to its octal equivalent.
Example- Convert (101101)2 into octal.

Binary Number 101 101
Octal Number 5 5
Thus (101101)2 = (55)8.
Example- Convert (1101101)2 into octal.

Binary Number 001 101 101
Octal Number 1 5 5
Thus (1101101)2= (155)8.
5.9.2.1. Conversion of Binary Fractions to Octal Fractions

We use the following steps in converting binary fractions to octal fractions-
1) Break the fraction into 3-bit sections starting from LSB to MSB.
2) In order to get a complete grouping of 3 bits, we add trailing zeros in MSB.
3) Write the 3-bit binary number to its octal equivalent.
Example- Convert (101101.11)2 into octal.

Octal Number 5 5 6
Thus (101101)2 = (55.6)8.

5.9.3. Conversion of Binary to Hexadecimal
We convert binary to hexadecimal in the similar manner as we have converted binary to octal. The only
difference is that here, we form the group of 4 bits.

Hexadecimal Number 2 D
Thus (101101)2 = (2D)16.
5.9.3.1. Conversion of Binary Fractions to Hexadecimal Fractions

We convert binary fractions to hexadecimal fractions in the similar manner as we have converted binary
fractions to octal fractions. The only difference is that here we form the group of 4 bits.
Example- Convert (101101.11)2 into hexadecimal.

Decimal Number 2 13 12
Hexadecimal Number 2 D C
Thus (101101.11)2 = (2D.C)16.
5.10. Conversions of Octal to Other Numbers

5.10.1. Conversions of Octal to Decimal
We follow the same steps of conversion of binary to decimal. The only difference is that here weight of nth bit
is 8 n-1 instead of 2 n-1.
Example- Convert (55)8 into decimal number system.

Octal Number 5 5
Wt. of Each bit 81 80
1
Weighted Value 5x8 5 x 80
Solved Multiplication
40 5
Thus (55)8 = 40 + 5.
= 4510
5.10.1.1. Conversions of Octal Fractions to Decimal Fractions-

The weight of the bit of the fraction placeholder is 8-1, 8-2 …We follow the same steps of conversion of binary
fractions to decimal fractions.
Example- Convert (55.6)8 into decimal number system.
Octal Number 5 5 6
Wt. of Each bit 81 80 8-1
Weighted Value 5 x 81 5 x 80 6 x 8-1
40 5 0.75
Thus (55.6)8 = 40 + 5 + 0.75 = 45.7510
5.10.2. Conversions of Octal to Binary-

We use the following steps in converting octal to binary-

1) Convert each octal digit into 3-bit binary equivalent.
2) Combine the 3-bit section by removing the spaces to get the binary number.
Example- Convert (55)8 into binary.
Octal Number 5 5
Thus (55)8 = (101101)2.
Example- Convert (456)8 into binary.

Octal Number 4 5 6
Thus (456)8 = (100101110)2.
5.10.2.1. Conversion of Octal Fractions to Binary Fractions

We follow the same steps of conversion of octal to binary.
Example- Convert (55.6)8 into binary.

Octal Number 5 5 6
Thus (55.6)8 = (101101.11)2.
5.10.3. Conversion of Octal to Hexadecimal

The conversion involves the following steps-
1) Convert each octal digit to 3–bit binary form.
2) Combine all the 3-bit binary numbers.
3) Group them in 4-bit binary form by starting from LSB to MSB.
4) Convert these 4-bit blocks into their hexadecimal symbols.

Octal Number 5 5
Combining the 3-bit binary block, we have 101101.

Grouping them in 4 bit binary form we get

Thus (55)8 = (2D)16.
5.10.3.1. Conversions of Octal Fractions to Hexadecimal Fractions

The method of conversion is based on the same procedure that we have discussed in conversions of octal to
hexadecimal.
Example- Convert (55.6)8 into hexadecimal.
Octal Number 5 5 6
1) Combining the 3-bit binary block, we have 101101.110.

2) Grouping them in 4 bit binary form (ignoring the decimal point)

Thus (55)8 = (2D.C)16.
5.11. Conversions of Hexadecimal to Other Numbering systems

5.11.1 Conversions of Hexadecimal to Decimal
We do the conversion of hexadecimal to decimal as we have done the conversion of binary to decimal. Here
weight of nth bit is 16n-1 instead of 2n-1.
Example- Convert (2D)16 into decimal.

Hexadecimal
Number 2 D (=13)
Wt. of Each bit 161 160
1
Weighted Value 2 x 16 13 x 160
Solved Multiplication 32 13
Thus (2D)16= 32 + 13 = 4510.
5.11.1.1 Conversions of Hexadecimal Fractions to Decimal Fractions

We do the conversion of hexadecimal fractions to decimal fractions in the similar manner as we have done the
conversion of binary fractions to decimal fractions. Here weight of bit is 16-1, 16-2 …….
Example- Convert (2D.C)16 into decimal.
Hexadecimal Number 2 D (13) C (12)

Wt. of Each bit 161 160 16-1
Weighted Value 2 x 161 13 x 160 12 x 16-1
32 13 0.75
Thus (2D.C)16 = 32 + 13 + 0.75 = 45.7510.
5.11.2. Conversions of Hexadecimal to Binary

We use the following steps-
1) Convert each hexadecimal digit to its 4-bit binary equivalent.
2) Combine all the binary numbers.
Example- Convert (2D)16 into binary.

Thus (2D)16 = (00101101)2= (101101)2.
5.11.2.1. Conversions of Hexadecimal Fractions to Binary Fractions

We use the same steps of hexadecimal to binary conversion.
Example- Convert (2D.C)16 into binary.

Thus (2D)16 = (00101101.1100)2= (101101.11)2.

5.11.3. Conversions of Hexadecimal to Octal
We convert each hexadecimal digit in binary. Combine all the binary numbers. Again group them into 3-bit
form. Convert the 3-bit block in octal.
Example- Convert (2D)16 into octal.

Combining the binary number, we get 00101101=101101

Grouping the binary number in 3-bit

Octal Number 5 5
Thus (2D)16 = (55)8.
5.11.3.1. Conversions of Hexadecimal Fractions to Octal Fractions

We follow the same steps of hexadecimal to octal conversion.
Example- Convert (2D.C)16 into octal.
Hexadecimal Number 2 D (=13) C (=12)

Combining the binary number, we get 00101101.1100=101101.11

Grouping the binary number in 3-bit

Octal Number 5 5 6
Thus (2D.C)16 = (55.6)8.

CHAPTER SIX: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS
A. Definition:
A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware
devices that are linked together through communication channels to facilitate
communication and resource-sharing among a wide range of users (Technopedia).
A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of sharing
resources. The most common resource shared today is connection to the Internet. Other
shared resources can include a printer or a file server. The Internet itself can be
considered a computer network.
Computer network, two or more computers that are connected with one another for the
purpose of communicating data electronically (Brittanica).
NB: Connection is physically established through cables, lasers, microwaves, fiber optics and
communication satellite.
B. Objectives/ Characteristics/properties
Objectives of Computer Network
The following are the objectives of the computer networks.
1. Resource sharing is the main objective of the computer network. The goal is to provide
all the program, date and hardware is available to everyone on the network without
regard to the physical location of the resource and the users.
2. The second objective is to provide the high Reliability. It is achieved by replicating
the files on two or more machines, so in case of unavailability (due to fail of hardware)
the other copies can be used.
3. Computer organization has helped organization in saving money. This is due to the
fact that the small computer has much better price to the performance ratio comparison
than the large computer like mainframe. Mainframe computer are approximately ten
times faster than the microcomputers, but they cost thousands times more. As a result of
this imbalance, organization has preferred to install interconnected microcomputer
connected to the mainframe computer.
4. Computer network have provided means to increase system performance as the work
load increases (load balancing). In the days of mainframe when the system was full it
was to replace with the other large mainframe computer, usually at and expensive rate
not convenience for user.
5. Computer network help people who live or work apart to report together. So, when
one user prepared some documentation, he can make the document online enabling
other to read and convey their opinions. Thus computer network is a powerful
communication medium.
6. Only authorized user can access resource in a computer network. Users are
authenticated by their user name and password. Hence it is not possible to access the
data without proper account. This increases security.
Types of computer networks:
There are many types of computer networks, including the following:
1. LAN or Local Area Network: – It is a computer network that covers a small

geographical area like an office building, school, colleges etc., where wired or wireless
LAN network is used for connecting devices like PC’s, printers to Internet. Wired
connection can be done through cables like twisted pair wire, co-axial or optical fiber
cable for speed data transmission. Similarly Wireless LAN network is performed
through radio wave technology or Infrared communication that helps to connect
multiple devices within an area. Ethernet or IEEE 802.11LAN is used for connecting a
device to a router or modem for speed data transmission. The five main components of
LAN are networking devices like workstations, printers, servers that can be accessed by
other Computers, network communication devices like router, hub, and switches for
connectivity, NIC or Network Interface card, Cables as medium and a Network OS.
2. WAN or Wide Area Network: – It is a Computer network type that helps to connect the
Computers placed on other countries or cities through telephone lines, radio waves or
other communication links. It mainly connects the LANs and other types of network
that can be used for communicating to a Computer in one location to another location.
The leased lines are used to build WAN that connects LAN through a router or a hub
for data communication. It is very expensive and is used by big organizations for their
business purposes.
3. MAN or Metropolitan Area Network: – The Metropolitan area network is designed to
be used in a city or a town through wireless medium or using optical fiber cables. It is
owned and operated by a single organization or an individual that can be used as
public communication. It provides connectivity for LAN networks and connects them
to WAN for sharing connection using Internet. The network size of MAN falls between
LAN and WAN which initially covers a range of 5 to 50 km diameter.
4. CAN or Campus Area Network: – It is a Computer network designed to be used by a
particular campus or a military base with Computers placed within a limited area.
5. HAN or Home Area Network: – The network is connected within user home that
connects various digital devices over a network for communicating with other devices.
Computer Network Topology

The graphical arrangement of computer systems, or nodes to form a computer network,
is called the network topology. A network topology can be one of two types: physical
topology and logical topology.
Physical topology refers to the physical arrangement of computer nodes based on
hardware configuration while logical topology defines how data is flowing through
the network.
Both topologies exist in a Local Area Network (LAN). All the nodes in LAN are
connected with each other through a valid media which shows its physical
arrangement based on hardware used while data flow through this arrangement shows
logical topology.
There are many types of physical topology. Some popular types are discussed as
follows:
Types of Network Topology
1. Peer–to–Peer Arrangement
Sometimes this is called as a point-to-point link. Each point–to–point link contains one
transmitter and one receiver. Each station receives data exactly from one transmitter
and each transmitter transmits data to exactly one receiver. Receiving and transmission
process can be done over a single wire or can use separate wires for better performance.
2. Bus Topology
Bus topology is also called as point–to–multi–point arrangement. In a bus topology, all

nodes or devices are linked with one transmitter or server computer via a single cable
(mostly coaxial cable) called Backbone. All nodes are connected to the bus cable by
drop lines. A drop line is a connection running between the nodes and the main cable.
3. Star Topology
In a star topology, each node has a dedicated point–to–point connection only with a
central server, normally called a hub. The nodes are not directly connected to each
other. Hence, direct data flow is not allowed in between the nodes. The central server
or hub acts as a data exchanger as one node sends data exactly to hub and hub
transmits this data to another node.
4. Tree Topology
Tree topology is a combination of one or more star topology arrangements. All the sub-
central hubs are connected to a main central hub to form a tree topology. A cable TV
network is a good example of this type of topology.
5. Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each node has a dedicated point–to–point line configuration only
with the two nodes on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one
direction, from node to node, until it reaches its receiver. Each node in the ring is
integrated as a repeater. When a node receives a signal intended from another node, its
repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
6. Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, each node has a dedicated point–to–point connection with rest of
the nodes in the network. Dedicated connection means data can only be flown between
two nodes, it connects.
7. Hybrid Topology
This topology is a common arrangement of one or more topologies described above. It

means one or more above described topologies connected with each other to form a
hybrid network arrangement.
Star - Ring - Hybrid Topology
Characteristics of Computer Network
i. Sharing Resources from one Computer to another Computer over a network

ii. Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other
computer(s) connected over the network.
iii. Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the
network and let other computers of the network use the machines available
over the network.
iv. Reliability makes easy to use an alternative source for data communication in
case of hardware failure or connectivity issues
v. Performance by measuring the speed of data transmission with number of
users, connectivity and the software used
vi. Scalability increases the system performance by adding more processors
vii. Security is the main characteristics of Computer network where you can take
necessary steps for protecting your data from unauthorized access
Properties of Computer networks:

Facilitate communications: Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and
easily via email, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and
video conferencing.
Permit sharing of files, data, and other types of information: In a network

environment, authorized users may access data and information stored on other
computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data and information
on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks.
Share network and computing resources: In a networked environment, each computer

on a network may access and use resources provided by devices on the network, such
as printing a document on a shared network printer. Distributed computing uses
computing resources across a network to accomplish tasks.
May be insecure: A computer network may be used by computer hackers to deploy

computer viruses or computer worms on devices connected to the network, or to
prevent these devices from normally accessing the network (denial of service).
May interfere with other technologies: Power line communication strongly disturbs
certain forms of radio communication, e.g., amateur radio. It may also interfere with
last mile access technologies such as ADSL and VDSL.
May be difficult to set up: A complex computer network may be difficult to set up. It
may also be very costly to set up an effective computer network in a large organization
or company.
Application of Computer Networks:

Some of the network applications of the different fields are the following.
1. Marketing and sales: Marketing professional uses them to collect exchange and
analyze data relating to customer needs and product development cycles.
Sales application includes Teleshopping, which uses order entry computers or

telephone connected to an order processing network, and online reservation services
for railways, hotels, airlines, restaurants theatre etc.
2. Financial services: It include credit history searches, foreign exchange and

investment services and electronic fund transfer (EFT), which allow a user to transfer
money without going to bank.
3. Manufacturing: computer networks are used today in many aspects of

manufacturing, including the manufacturing processes itself. Two aspects that uses
network to provide essential services are computer Assisted design (CAD) and
computer Assisted manufacturing (CAM), both of which allow multiple user to work
on a project simultaneously.
4. Electronic Messaging: E-mails transfer the messages between two and more users in
a network. With this application user can transfer the information in the form of text,
picture and voice.
5. Directory Services: It allows list of files to be stored in central location to speed up

the worldwide search operation. E.g. search engines like Google, Britannia, and Yahoo
etc.
6. Information Services: It includes Bulletin Boards and data bank. A ‘www’ site
offering the technical specification for a new product in a information services.
7. Electronic Data Exchange (EDI): EDI allows business information (including

documents such as purchase orders and services) to be transferred without using
paper.
8. Teleconferencing: It allows conference to occur without the participant being in the
same location. It includes:
Text Conferencing: Participant communicates through their keywords and computer

monitors.
Voice Conferencing: Participant at a number of locations communicates

simultaneously through phone (talk).
Video Conferencing: Participant can see as well as talk to another.
9. Cellular Telephone: Wireless phone communication even while travelling through

long distance.
10. Cable TV: This is widest usable thing today throughout the world.
C. Computer Network Components

Computer networking has become much easier over the years, and it is now possible to
set up your own computer network in your home with just a little bit of help. There are
multiple components that go into computer networks, but not all of these are needed in
every type of network. An understanding of the various components that are available
can help you design the right network for your home or business environment.
The following are the basic computer network components:

1. Network Interfaces
A stand-alone NIC for a desktop computer. Every device on the network has to
have a network interface of some design. The network interface is sometimes
referred to as a NIC (network interface card) and may be integrated into the
computer's motherboard or may be a separate card. The NIC is the component that
takes information from the computer and sends it out onto the network wire, or into
the air in the case of a wireless network.
2. Hubs
When you connect multiple computers on a network, they all plug into a central
device called a hub. The hub has the job of moving the network signal from one
wire to another. In the case of a basic hub, the signal from one computer is sent to all
other computers on the hub, and each NIC decides whether to pass the information
to the computer or just drop it if it is not the intended recipient.
3. Switches
Switches are really smart hubs in that they are able to build tables that keep up with
which computer is on which switch port. With this intelligence, a switch does not
transmit all information to all other computers on the switch, just to the destination
computer. Switching technology helps to reduce congestion on a network and
should be used for networks of 10 or more computers.
4. Routers
Routers are really smart switches in that they are aware of other networks, while
hubs and switches are only aware of the network they facilitate. Routers are used to
connect one local area network (LAN) to another, many times across long distances
via commercial data carriers. Another way routers are smart is they can
dynamically update their routing information, detecting when one route to a
network is down, and checking to see if another route is available.
5. Media (Cabling)
Typical network cable connector of course, none of these networking devices work
well unless they are connected to each other, and that is done with various media.
The most ubiquitous media is commonly called Ethernet cabling, which is actually
one of several categories of unshielded twisted pair (UTP) wiring. The higher the
cable rating -- i.e., Cat5, Cat6, Cat7 -- the higher the bandwidth the cable can
support. In addition, there is fiber optic cable, which is more expensive and uses
laser or LED light rather than electrical pulses. Wireless has become popular in
homes due to the ease and low expense of setting up a network. The "media" for a
wireless network is the air, through which the wireless NICs transmit radio signals
that carry information.
6. Software
Software is the intelligence that causes all of the components to function together.
The most popular network software today uses what is known as the TCP/IP
protocol suite, or stack. The suite is constructed from actual layers of software,
where each has its own function. While the seven-layer OSI model -- Physical, Data
Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation and Application -- is the starting
point for network stacks, the Internet model has four layers -- Link, Internet,
Transport and Application -- that combine several of the seven OSI layers into the
other layers. These layers play by the same set of rules so heterogeneous computer
systems can communicate with each other, regardless of differences in hardware or
operating systems.
Chapter Seven: Impact of Computers in Society
A. Objectives
i. Understand that computers have made a tremendous difference in daily living

ii. Explain the impact of computers at office and home
iii. Describe how computers change the way society interacts with disciplines such as
education, entertainment, finance, government, health care, science, publishing,
and travel
iv. Recognize the issues associated with the digital divide
v. Understand how e-commerce affects the way people conduct business
vi. Identify ways virtual reality, intelligent agents, and robots are being used in daily
life
vii. Learn how to prevent health related Disorders and injuries due to computer use
viii. Understand how to design a workspace ergonomically
ix. Recognize symptoms of computer addiction
x. Explain green computing
xi. Understand ethical issues surrounding computer use
B. Impact of Computers in Society

In this section we look at how computers have impacted on the various perspectives of
the society.
i) At the National / Government Level
The impact of computers at the National /Government level is immense. For examples
one third (1/3) of economic growth in the developed countries is attributed to digital
technologies. Individual in the general population can make well informed decisions
due to instant access to information from anywhere.
How the government use computers?
Government Web sites provide citizens with up-to-date information. They also allow
citizens to file taxes, apply for permits and licenses, pay parking tickets etc.
ii) Impact of Computers at Home and Work Place
Computer at home and workplace are used for: -
• Entertainment
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• Research and education
• budgeting, personal financial management, and home/office business management
• Web access
• personal and business communications
The following are the main reasons computers have infiltrated homes and offices.
 Office work automation

 Web-based news, research
 Distance education
 Online shopping
 Download and listen to music
 Download and watch movies
Computers changed home/Office communications by transmitting text, voice, sounds,

video, and graphics over the Web.
The following image demonstrates a video conferencing software which is an enhanced

mode of communication where people at home/office can have live conversations with
others.
iii) Impact of Computers in Education
There are various ways computers have impacted in education. Students have more
tools to assist them in learning process. Some of these are outlined below: -
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Computer-based training (CBT)
• Learn by using computers with instructional software

• Also called computer-aided instruction (CAI)
• Web-based training (WBT) uses Internet technology
Advantages of CBT over traditional training are:-
 Self-paced study
 Unique content
 Unique instructional experience, such as simulations
 Reduced training costs
Distance learning (DL)
 Delivery at one location and learning at another

 Most colleges offer some form of distance learning; some include degrees
E electronic books (e-books)
Some Web sites allow you to download entire book to your computer. The Cost is about
the same or less than cost of purchasing print version. It allows access of books not
available in local book stores.
Computers in Edutainment
Edutainment is a type of educational software combining education with entertainment

This is especially useful for early years of education and for learners with some
challenges.
iv) Social Impact of Computers
Digital divide in the society
• Digital divide Separates the haves from the have nots
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Entertainment
Computers have created and availed multiple music and video options for entertainment
as outlined below: -
 Play CDs or DVDs

 Online Audio and Video
 Online Movies
 Online Radio and Television
 Purchase on Web and download to hard disk
Managing Finances
Computers are largely being use by individuals to balance their checkbooks, pay bills,
track personal income and expenses, track investments, and evaluate financial plans
They are also being used in online stock trading. This is buying and selling stocks
online without using a broke. Individuals also use computers to organize other
investments and set up alerts.
v) Impact of Computers in health care
Computers are used in health care to:-
 Maintain and share patient records

• Monitor patient’s vital signs
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• Assist in research and diagnosis
• File insurance claims
• Conduct medical tests
• Communicate with patients
• Surgically implant computerized devices
• Assist in operations with computer-controlled devices
• Aid in surgery
Computer and the Web can aid Patients to:-
 Provide up-to-date medical, fitness, nutrition, or exercise information

• Access databases of doctors and dentists
• Talk to others diagnosed with similar conditions using chat rooms
• Order prescriptions Online
How can a computer aid in fitness?
Exercise equipment often has a built-in computer to

– track progress
– monitor physical conditions
• heart rate
• pulse
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vi) Impact of Computers at the Work Environment & How to ensure a
Healthy Work Environment.
There are various areas of concern for a healthy work environment. Long-time computer
use can lead to health Complication including; Job-related injuries and illnesses,
Computer Addiction, Ergonomics and workplace design, and Green computing.
The following are the precautions to reduce the chance of developing tendonitis or carpal
tunnel syndrome. Take frequent breaks during computer session
• Use wrist rest
• Exercise hands and arms
• Minimize number of times you switch between mouse and keyboard
How can you ease eyestrain when working at the computer?
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What is computer addiction?
Occurs when computer consumes someone’s entire social life
Symptoms
• Craves computer time
• Overjoyed when at computer
• Unable to stop computer activity
• Irritable when not at computer
• Neglects family and friends
• Problems at work or School
What is green computing?
• Involves reducing electricity and environmental wastes while using a computer
What are some green computing suggestions?
vii) Impact of Computers in Science and Research
Scientists use computers for the following tasks: -
• Help them collect, analyze, and model data

• Use Internet to communicate with colleagues around world
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An example of a scientific use of computer is the cochlear implant (chip) that allows
deaf person to hear. The device does the following: -
i. Microphone picks up sound and carries it to computer

ii. Computer digitizes sound
iii. Coil carries signals to implant
iv. Implant delivers electrical energy to electrodes in cochlea
v. Electrodes stimulate auditory nerve fibers
vi. Auditory nerve sends sound information to brain.
C. Emerging Computer Technologies
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There are numerous emerging computer technologies with varying impacts on society.
We shall sample just a few.
i) Global Positioning System (GPS)
An example of use of this technology is in vehicles. The features of global positioning

system (GPS) in a car are: -
 Provide Directions
 Make Reservations
 Automatically call for help in emergency
 Dispatch roadside Assistance
 Track stolen Vehicle
 Perform remote Diagnostics
 Unlock door
 Honk horn
ii) E-Commerce
E-commerce -- electronic commerce or EC -- is the buying and selling of goods and

services, or the transmitting of funds or data, over an electronic network, primarily the
internet. These business transactions occur either as business-to-business, business-to-
consumer, consumer-to-consumer or consumer-to-business
For example, the following online e-commerce services are available for car buyers.
 Shop online for a car

 Obtain loans, leases, insurance, and warranties
 Sell a used Car
E- commerce facilitates the concept of telecommute. Telecommute has the following

advantages: -
• Reduce time and expense spent in traveling to office

• Eliminate travel during unsafe weather conditions
• Allow flexible work schedule
• Provide convenient, comfortable work environment
• Further advantages
– Higher job satisfaction rates
– More productive workers
– Reduction in employer overhead
– Healthy for environment
9|Page
iii) Virtual Reality (VR)
Use of computers to simulate real or imagined environment that appears as three-

dimensional (3-D) space. VR is mostly Used for games, training, engineering, e-
commerce, science, and medicine
The experience of a simulated environment is sometimes enhanced by wearing

specialized headgear, body suits, and gloves. Headgear displays artificial environment
in front of both eyes.
iv) Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Artificial Intelligence is the application of human intelligence to computers. The

computer can sense actions and, based on logical assumptions and prior experience, take
appropriate action to complete task. Smart software is the term used for Software with
built-in intelligence.
What is an intelligent agent?
Any software that independently asks questions, pays attention to work patterns, and
carries out tasks on behalf of user
What is a network agent?
Sophisticated type of intelligent agent that performs tasks on remote computers before
bringing results back to user. It is sometimes called a bot. Example is the google search
engine.
What is a robot?
Computer controlled device that moves and reacts to feedback from outside world.
D. Ethics and Society

i) What are computer ethics?
Computer Ethics refers to Moral guidelines that govern use of computers and
information systems
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Ethics deals with good, right and just behaviour as well as evil, wrong and unjust
behaviour. It is important because it can affect a stakeholder’s ability to achieve his/her
goals. Areas of computer ethics include the following: -
 Unauthorized use of computer systems

 Information privacy
 Software theft (piracy)
 Information Accuracy
 Intellectual property rights
 Codes of conduct
ii) Why is information accuracy important?

Inaccurate input can result in erroneous information and incorrect decisions based
on that information. For example; evaluate Web page’s value before relying on its
content
iii) What are the ethics of using computers to alter output?
Alteration could lead to deliberately misleading Photographs
iv) What are intellectual property rights?
Intellectual property (IP) refers to work created by inventors, authors, and artists
Intellectual property rights are rights to which creators are entitled for their
inventions, writings, and works of art.
v) Copyright
Copyright Protects copying the expression of an idea (protects software)

Most acts in law recognize software as “literary” work. Thus prohibit copying, issuing
of copies, performing/showing/playing the work in public, adapting, etc.
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Most acts permit certain actions (“fair dealing”), e.g. use for research, private study,
criticism, review, news reporting, taking back-ups, etc. Software license issued to
permit actions forbidden by copyright. Damages for contravening copyright usually
a notional cost of license fee, e.g. 10% royalty
vi) Trademark and Trade Names
Trademark is any sign or combination of signs, capable of distinguishing the goods

and services of one under taking from those of other undertakings
Tradename is the name or designation which identifies an enterprise
Most laws:
 require trademarks & trade names be registered with a government authority
 protect against use of a trademark or a sign similar to it, at least in connection

with the same or similar goods for which trademark was registered
 protect against use of trade name by another enterprise, if likely to mislead the
public
vii) Patents
Patent are used to protect inventions. Generally, in order for an invention to be

patented, patent laws require that it must be new, involve an inventive step (non-
obvious), be industrially applicable Patent is applicable to either a process or
product.
Patent is issued by government authority, gives patentee (owner of patent) exclusive

rights, has a territory & is for specified term of years.
Patent protection means anyone who wishes to exploit the invention must obtain the
authorization of the patentee, otherwise prosecution (patent given on first to file
basis)
Patented invention may be exploited without patentee’s authority, e.g. in the public
interest by or on behalf of the government or after expiry of term.
viii) Software Piracy
Usually refers to clearly detectable copying of commercially available software.
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There is no legal distinction between breach of copyright of mass-marketing of
software product & bespoke software – but concerns are different
What are the issues?
There is huge investment cost in producing and therefore software houses will
attempt to protect their investment e.g. by having pressure groups (funded by SW
developers) dedicated to reduce the extent of piracy.
Detection of breach of software is done by carrying out external raids and audits by
lobby groups.
ix) What is an IT Code of Conduct?
Code of ethics / Conduct is a written guideline that helps determine whether specific
computer action is ethical or unethical. Code of Ethics asks; how does this choice relate
to the ethical standards of my profession? This test is about the decision-maker's
duties in his or her role as a professional. Example of established computer codes of
ethic includes: -
 Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Code of Ethics and

Professional Conduct.
Commitment to ethical professional conduct is expected of every member

(voting members, associate members, and student members) of the Association
for Computing Machinery (ACM).
This Code, consisting of 24 imperatives formulated as statements of personal

responsibility, identifies the elements of such a commitment. It contains many,
but not all, issues professionals are likely to face. Section 1 outlines
fundamental ethical considerations, while Section 2 addresses additional, more
specific considerations of professional conduct. Statements in Section 3 pertain
more specifically to individuals who have a leadership role, whether in the
workplace or in a volunteer capacity such as with organizations like ACM.
Principles involving compliance with this Code are given in Section 4.
 Software Engineering Code Of Ethics And Professional Practice
Computers have a central and growing role in commerce, industry,

government, medicine, education, entertainment and society at large. Software
engineers are those who contribute by direct participation or by teaching, to
the analysis, specification, design, development, certification, maintenance and
testing of software systems. Because of their roles in developing software
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systems, software engineers have significant opportunities to do good or cause
harm, to enable others to do good or cause harm, or to influence others to do
good or cause harm. To ensure, as much as possible, that their efforts will be
used for good, software engineers must commit themselves to making software
engineering a beneficial and respected profession. In accordance with that
commitment, software engineers shall adhere to the following Code of Ethics
and Professional Practice.
The Code contains eight Principles related to the behavior of and decisions
made by professional software engineers, including practitioners, educators,
managers, supervisors and policy makers, as well as trainees and students of
the profession. The Principles identify the ethically responsible relationships in
which individuals, groups, and organizations participate and the primary
obligations within these relationships. The Clauses of each Principle are
illustrations of some of the obligations included in these relationships. These
obligations are founded in the software engineer’s humanity, in special care
owed to people affected by the work of software engineers, and the unique
elements of the practice of software engineering. The Code prescribes these as
obligations of anyone claiming to be or aspiring to be a software engineer.
 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) Code of Ethics
The IEEE Code of Ethics in its preamble states that; we, the members of the
IEEE, in recognition of the importance of our technologies in affecting the
quality of life throughout the world, and in accepting a personal obligation to
our profession, its members and the communities we serve, do hereby commit
ourselves to the highest ethical and professional conduct and agree:
to accept responsibility in making engineering decisions consistent with the

safety, health and welfare of the public, and to disclose promptly factors that
might endanger the public or the environment;
 to avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible, and to

disclose them to affected parties when they do exist;
 to be honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on available
data;
 to reject bribery in all its forms;

 to improve the understanding of technology, its appropriate application,
and potential consequences;
 to maintain and improve our technical competence and to undertake
technological tasks for others only if qualified by training or experience, or
after full disclosure of pertinent limitations;
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 to seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to acknowledge
and correct errors, and to credit properly the contributions of others;
 to treat fairly all persons regardless of such factors as race, religion, gender,
disability, age, or national origin;
 to avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by false
or malicious action;
 to assist colleagues and co-workers in their professional development and
to support them in following this code of ethics.
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Chapter Eight: Windows Operating Environment
A) Windows Desktop
Desktop is your work area on which program and files icons are located. It is basically a workspace
where you can access everything you need to operate your computer, such as system components,
applications, the Internet, etc.
The
des
kto
p
con
tain
s:
Sta
rt
butt
on:
one
of
the
mos
t
imp
orta
nt
tool
s you will use while working with Windows. The
Start button allows you to open menus and start applications. Taskbar: primarily used to switch
between open windows and applications
Icons (or graphical pictures): represent applications, files, folders and other parts of the operating
system. By default Windows provides you with one desktop icon, the Recycle Bin. My Computer.
The My Computer icon provides access to the resources on your computer. You can access your
drives and other peripherals by clicking on the My Computer icon. You can also access the Control
Panel through My Computer.
Internet Explorer. The Internet Explorer icon launches the Internet Explorer browser.
My network places. If you are working on a network, this displays all of the computers on the
network
System Tray. The part of the task bar that holds the clock, volume control, and icons for other
utilities that runs in the background of your system.
Recycle Bin. This is where you dump any files you want to delete.
Parts of a Window
Windows contain buttons and menus to control the program and window. Windows are used in
most programs, and once you learn the window of one program, you will be familiar with the
windows for most programs since the window, menu and button layout appears n just about every
window program.
Close
Button
Closes the
window or
program,
removing
it from the
screen and
the
computer’
s memory.
Minimize
Button
Minimizes
a program
from view.
The
program is
still ready
for use and can be found in the task bar.
Maximize Button Enlarges the window so that it fills the entire screen, allowing you to see your
entire workspace. Notice, when a window is maximized, this button is not shown.
Restore Button When a window is maximized, this button is shown. Clicking it will make the
window smaller.
Menu Bar Controls what a program does. The menu functions listed will change from program to
program, but the bar is always located at the top.
Status Bar Displays information about the program, such as instructions or special information.
Title Bar Displays the name of the program and name of the file in use.
Main Window .This is where you work within a program. If it is Microsoft Word, this is where you
would type, if it is a web browser this is where the web page would be displayed.
Toolbar. Have shortcuts to the menu items
B) Computer Booting Process
A PC cannot do anything useful unless it is running its operating system software that acts as a
supervisor for all its software applications. It sets the rules for using memory , drives and other
hardware devices on the computer. Before a PC can run the operating system, it needs some way to
load it from disk into RAM. The way to do this is with the bootstrap- a small amount of code that is
executed on startup or system boot.
The boot-up process is a list of detailed procedures that the system undergoes to perform all
system checks and load all necessary files to bring the computer to an operable state.
There are essentially two forms of booting - the soft boot and the hard boot. The warm boot or hard
boot involves powering the computer up from an initial zero power supply. A cold boot on the other
hand takes place when a software application or operating system triggers the computer to perform
a reboot. A successful boot is dependent on three conditions - the hardware, BIOS and operating
system files to function without errors. When an error occurs, you will be notified by error
messages, beeping sounds or in the worst scenario, a blank screen.
The ROM memory chip stores the Basic Input Output System (BIOS). BIOS provides the
processor with the information required to boot the system. It provides the system with the settings
and resources that are available on the system. BIOS is a permanent part of the computer. It does
not load from disk but instead is stored in a ROM memory chip. The program code in the BIOS
differs from ordinary software since it acts as an integral part of the computer.
BIOS is the basic program used as an interface between the operating system and the motherboard.
The BIOS is stored in the ROM and cannot be rewritten.
The boot up sequence of events

The boot-up process is a list of detailed procedures that the system undergoes to perform all system
checks and load all necessary files to bring the computer to an operable state.
When the computer is switched on, it needs instructions to start. BIOS contain the instructions for
the starting up of the computer. The BIOS runs when the computer is switched on. It performs a
Power On Self Test (POST) that checks that the hardware is functioning properly and the
hardware devices are present. It checks whether the operating system is present on the hard drive.
BIOS invokes the bootstrap loader to load the operating system into memory. BIOS can be
configured using an interface named BIOS setup, which can be accessed when the computer is
booting up (by pressing the DEL key).
BIOS setup program, which is a built-in utility in BIOS, lets the user set the many functions that
control how the computer works. BIOS displays the system settings and finds the bootable devices.
It loads the interrupt handlers and device drivers. It also initializes the registers.
Bootstrap Loader is a program whose purpose is to start the computer software for operation when
the power is turned on. It loads the operating system into RAM and launches it. It generally seeks
the operating system on the hard disk. The bootstrap loader resides in the ROM. The BIOS initiates
the bootstrap sequence.
Chip BIOS ROMs are accompanied by a smaller CMOS (CMOS is a type of memory technology)
memory chip. CMOS chip saves some system information, such as time, system date and essential
system settings. CMOS is kept powered by a button battery located on the motherboard. The CMOS
chip is working even when the computer power is switched off. Information of the hardware
installed in the computer (such as the number of tracks or sectors on each hard drive) is stored in the
CMOS chip.
The Windows boot-up process comprises of the following procedures:
a. The Power-On Self Test Phase
b. BIOS ROM Phase
c. Boot Loader Phase
d. Operating System Configuration Phase
e. Security & Logon Phase
C) Working With Files and Folders

Computer folders are named memory spaces that can be used to store files.
Creating a Folder
Folders can be create in a hierarchical tree format where folders can hold sub-folders etc.
Folder A
Folder B (Sub-folder of A)
Folder C (Sub-folder of B)
Create a folder on the C-Drive

Open the C-Drive
Double Click the My Computer Icon on the Desktop OR
Click New, then select and click Computer
Double Click the Local Disk (C:) to open it

Select and click New folder option on the Menu Bar. The folder will appear at the bottom of your
list. When it displays as a black rectangle with the words New Folder highlighted in blue, it is
prompting you to give it a name. Type in the name of the folder created and press Enter Key
To Create a folder in side another folder – Sub-folders.

Double Click the proposed parent folder and open it Select and click New folder option on the
Menu Bar. The folder will appear at the bottom of your list.
When it displays as a black rectangle with the words New Folder highlighted in blue, it is
prompting you to give it a name. Type in the name of the folder created and press Enter Key
Open your Folders

Double click my computer and locate your file.
Double click on the folder.
The contents of the folder will be displayed in the open window. To get back to the previous
folder, click the Back Button.
Renaming a Folder
To rename an existing folder, move your mouse over the name and right click. A menu will appear.
Close to the bottom you will see the word Rename. Click it, and the black rectangle with the word
highlighted in blue will appear. Rename your folder and hit Enter.
Deleting a folder
Right click on the folder and select delete or.
Select the file, go to file menu and select delete
A dialog box appears asking if you want to delete the folder, click yes
Once files are deleted they go to the recycle bin which is a holding or storage location for files not
required. Such files are still in the hard disk. These files can be retrieved from recycle bin as long as
recycle bin have not been emptied.
Copying files in folders

Copying file between folders allows you to have two duplicate copies of the file in different folders.
A copy of the file is left in the Source folder while a duplicate copy is maintained in any subsequent
folder it is copied to.
Source Folder
Select the file from the Source folder
Select and Click Organize menu
Select and click copy
Destination folder
Select and double click the Destination folder
Select and click Organize menu
Select and Click Paste
By dragging
Open the source and destination folders and place them next to each other
Click on the file on source folder and hold the mouse left button down
Drag it to the destination folder and release the button
Short cuts
Short cuts are icons placed on the Desktop that allows you to quickly open a program or file
Procedure of creating shortcuts
Locate the item and right click
Select Send to menu
Select Desktop (create shortcut)
Recycle Bin
Windows provides us with a folder called recycle bin where all deleted files are stored. If you
accidentally delete a file you can be able to retrieve it from the recycle bin and restore it to the
folder it originally was stored in. The Recycle bin icon is always placed on the desktop.
The folder is the equivalent of dust bin in an office.
Retrieving files
Select and double click the recycle bin Icon on the Desktop to open it
Locate the file and right click on it and select restore.
D) Memory Formatting
A format is a pre-established layout for data. A computer program accepts data as input in a certain
format, processes it , and provides it as output in the same or another format. All data is stored in
some format with the expectation that it will be processed by a program that knows how to handle
that format. Generically data formats tend to fall into bitmaps (strings of 0s and 1s) that describe
images or sound patterns (or both) , text formats ( in which usually each byte value is mapped to
character) and numeric data formats ( used by spreadsheet and other database programs)
Disk formatting is the configuring process of a data storage media such as hard disk drive, floppy
disk or flash drive for initial usage . Any existing files on the drive would be erased with disk
formatting. Disk formatting is usually done before initial installation or before installation of a new
operating system. It is also done if there is a requirement for additional storage in the computer.
Disk formatting can be performed on both magnetic platter hard drives and solid-state drives. The
formatting comprises low-level formatting, partitioning and high level formatting. Low- level
formatting aids in preparing the physical structure on the storage media. The partitioning process
involves the division of the hard drive into logical volumes for data storage. High- level formatting
helps in creating the file system format within the logical volume or within the disk partition. Disk
formatting is usually done with the help of a disk formatting utility.
While preparing the hard drive for initial use, disk formatting checks for errors in the drive. It can
scan and repair bad sectors. Another benefit associated with disk formatting is its capability to erase
bad applications and remove sophisticated viruses.
Disk formatting is an action which must be done with caution. As it deletes data and removes
programs installed, backup of the necessary data or applications are required. Disk formatting takes
time. Frequent disk formatting can gradually decrease the life of a hard drive.
A hard disk or other storage device is also said to be formatted when its space has been organized
and divided into pieces that can be controlled for convenient storage and access. For example a
hard disk maybe formatted into areas called sectors, tracks, and clusters. To format a hard disk is to
set up the space divisions on the medium and initiate a space allocation table that will know exactly
how to reach each bit of data that may be stored there later
To format a drive means to prepare the chosen partition on the drive to be used by an operating
system by deleting all of the data and setting up a file system.
The most popular file system to support Windows is NTFS but FAT32 is also sometimes used.
In Windows, formatting a partition is usually done from the Disk Management tool. You can also
format a drive using the format command in a command line interface like Command Prompt or
with a free disk partition software tool.
In order to use a disk, it has to be formatted. Formatting includes assigning addresses to

various locations on disk, assigning location of root directory and checking for defects on
the surface of disk.
During formatting, the tracks and sectors of a disk are labeled, which provides an address
to each location of the disk.
Four areas are created when a disk is formatted using FAT-
Boot Sector It contains the program that runs when the computer is started. The program checks if
the disk has files required to run the operating system. It then transfers control to an operating
system program which continues the startup process. Boot sector also contains information about
the disk, like number of bytes per sector and number of sectors per track. This information is
required by the operating system to access the data on the disk.
File Allocation Table It records the location of each file and status of each sector.
While reading or writing to disk, operating system checks the FAT to find free area or locate where
data is stored on disk, respectively.
Root Directory This is the main folder of disk. It contains other folders in it, creating a hierarchical
system of folders. The root directory contains information about all folders on the disk.
Data Area The remaining area of the disk (after boot sector, FAT, root directory)
is the data area. It stores the program files and data files that are stored on the disk.

Computer Notes

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Computer Notes

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UCC 103: PRINCIPLES OF COMPUTING

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF COMPUTERS

1.1 Basic Computer Concepts

1.2. History of Computers

1.3 Generation of Computers

Intro to Computers: Chapter 1 Page 1

Examples: IBM 650 UNIVAC I

Second Generation Computers (1959-1964)

Examples:IBM 1401*(most popular business-oriented computer. Honeywell 200 CDC 1604

Third generation computers (1965-1970)

Intro to Computers: Chapter 1 Page 2

Examples: IBM System/360 NCR 395 Burroughs B6500

Fourth Generation (1970-)

Fifth generation computers (1990-current)

Intro to Computers: Chapter 1 Page 3

1.4. Generations of Computer Languages

4) Fourth Generation Language

Intro to Computers: Chapter 1 Page 4

1.5. Characteristics of Computers

1.6. Limitation of Computer

1.7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Computers

Intro to Computers: Chapter 1 Page 5

1.8. Classification of Computers

1.8.2. Classification by purpose

1.8.3. Classification by function

1.8.4. Classification by size

Intro to Computers: Chapter 1 Page 6

1.9. Main Activities of a Computer

1.10 Components of a Computer

Intro to Computers: Chapter 1 Page 7

A computer has to main components;

The primary / basic component of a computers are;

The Relationship can be depicted as follows;

Intro to Computers: Chapter 1 Page 8

Input Devices Output Devices

Summary: Definition of terms

1.7 Chapter Review Questions

Intro to Computers: Chapter 1 Page 9

CHAPTER 2: BASIC HARDWARE UNITS OF A COMPUTER

Hardware units (Devices) of a computer can be categorized into five units;

2.1 Input Devices

2.2 Output device

Intro. to Computers – Chapter 2 Hardware Components Page 1

Intro. to Computers – Chapter 2 Hardware Components Page 2

2.3.1. CPU Operation

The arithmetic/logic unit(ALU) plays two roles.

Intro. to Computers – Chapter 2 Hardware Components Page 3

There are two main types of processors: CISC and RISC.

2.3.2. Components of CPU

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

Control Unit (CU)

Four registers are essential to instruction execution:

Intro. to Computers – Chapter 2 Hardware Components Page 4

System Bus – Communication pathways

Intro. to Computers – Chapter 2 Hardware Components Page 5

2.4.2. Primary Memory

a). Processors Register

b). Cache memory

c). Virtual Memory

d). Main Memory

Types of the Main Memory

There are two basic types of RAM.

2. ROM (Read only memory)

Intro. to Computers – Chapter 2 Hardware Components Page 6

b). EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

2.5 Secondary Storage

Compact Disk-Re-Writable (CD-RW):

2.6. Memory Size

Intro. to Computers – Chapter 2 Hardware Components Page 7

2.8. Mother Board

Intro. to Computers – Chapter 2 Hardware Components Page 8

2.9 Mother Board Components

Input / Output Ports

Intro. to Computers – Chapter 2 Hardware Components Page 9

2.9. 1. Personal Computer Ports and Connectors

USB (Universal Serial Bus) Port