Summary Notes 3

More About Functions

3.1 Basic Operations on Functions

f
Given real-valued functions f and g, we can define new functions f + g (sum), f g (product), and (quotient)
g
simply by setting the following rules:
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)

f  f (x)
(x) =
g g(x)
as long as both function values, f (x) and g(x), are well-defined, and the corresponding arithmetic operations
on them are valid.
The main issue is that we need to be careful with the domains of these functions.
• In the case of (f + g)(x) or (f g)(x), the input value x must be in both the domain of f and the domain
of g in order to have well-defined function values to be added or to multiplied. Hence the domain of
f + g, or f g, is
{x : x is is the domain of f and x is also in the domain of g}
f (x)
• For g(x) to be well-defined, f (x) and g(x) have to be well-defined, and g(x) has to be non-zero. Hence
f
the domain of the function g is

{x : x is is the domain of f, and x is in the domain of g, and g(x) 6= 0}

In addition to arithmetic operations, one can also connect two “input-output machines” (functions) to
form a new function, called the composition of f and g and denoted by the notation f ◦ g, which is defined
by
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
g f
x g(x) f(g(x))

Obviously, we need g(x) to be well-defined first, and then g(x) to be in the domain of f in order to have
a well-defined function value f (g(x)). Hence the domain of f ◦ g is given by

domain of f ◦ g = {x : x is in the domain of g and g(x) is in the domain of f }

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3.1. BASIC OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS MATH1013 Calculus IB

Some basic functions can simply be built by applying these basic operations to the constant functions
and the linear function f (x) = x. For examples,

1. a constant function: f (x) = 8 Domain: (−∞, ∞)

2. a linear function: f (x) = 2x + 3 Domain: (−∞, ∞)

3. a quadratic function: f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 8 Domain: (−∞, ∞)

4. a polynomial function of degree 5: g(x) = 3x5 + 5x4 Domain: (−∞, ∞).

x2 + 4x + 4
5. a rational function: r(x) = Domain: (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
x2 − 1
(i.e., x 6= ±1 to avoid a zero denominator.)

Remark

• A polynomial function of degree n is a function of the form

p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,

where, and a0 , . . . , an−1 , and an 6= 0, are some constants.

• A rational function is the quotient of two polynomials, i.e., a function of the form

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
R(x) =
bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · · + b1 x + b0

where n, m are non-negative integers, and a0 , . . . , an , b0 , . . . , bn are some constants with bm 6= 0.

Here are some more examples on basic operations of functions.

Example 1. Consider f (x) = 2x − 1, g(x) = x2 − 1, then

(f + g)(x) = (2x − 1) + (x2 − 1) = 2x − x2 − 2

(f g)(x) = (2x − 1)(x2 − 1) = 2x3 − x2 − 2x + 1

What are the domains
of these functions?
(5f )(x) = 5(2x − 1) = 10x − 5
 
f 2x − 1
(x) = 2
g x −1

Example 2. Suppose f (x) = 2x − 1, g(x) = x2 − 1 as above. Then

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (x2 − 1)

= 2(x2 − 1) − 1 (Note that f (⋆) = 2⋆ − 1)
= 2x2 − 3

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(2x − 1)

= (2x − 1)2 − 1 (Note that g(⋆) = ⋆2 − 1)
= 4x2 − 4x
In general, f ◦ g and g ◦ f are not the same function.

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3.1. BASIC OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS MATH1013 Calculus IB

1 x+1
Example 3. Let f (x) = and g(x) = . Find f ◦ f , f ◦ g and g ◦ f .
x x−2
 
1 1 ?
(f ◦ f )(x) = f (f (x)) = f = 1 =x
x x

Is the function f ◦ f the same as the function h(x) = x?

No! The domain of h is the set of all real numbers, but x = 0 is not in the domain of f ◦ f , since 1/0 is
not a well-defined number.
1
In fact, 1 = x is valid if and only if x 6= 0.
x
Similarly,  
x+1 1
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f = x+1
x−2 x−2

The domain of f ◦ g is given by the conditions

x+1
x 6= 2, and 6= 0 ( is in the domain of f )
x−2
i.e., x 6= 2 and x 6= −1, which is a hidden assumption under the simplification
1 x−2
x+1 = .
x−2
x+1

Finally, we have
1
+1
 
1 x
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g = 1
x x −2
with domain determined by the condition
1
x 6= 0 and − 2 6= 0
x
i.e., x 6= 0, 21 .

Remark If the answer to the function g ◦ f above is given in the “simplified form”, such as
1
x +1 1+x
(g ◦ f )(x) = 1 = ,
x −2 1 − 2x

it should be understood that there is actually a domain restriction x 6= 0, 12 hidden in this formula.
√
Example 4. Let f (x) = x2 − 3, g(x) = x − 1. Find the function (i) f ◦ g, and (ii) g ◦ f .
Note that the domain of f is (−∞, ∞), and the domain of g is [1, ∞) from the requirement x − 1 ≥ 0,
√
since ⋆ is a well-defined real number if and only if ⋆ ≥ 0.
√ √
(i) (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f ( x − 1) = ( x − 1)2 − 3, with domain given by x ≥ 1.
Similarly, (f ◦ g)(x) is not exactly the same as the function h(x) = x − 4 since their domains are
different.
p p
(ii) (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x2 − 3) = (x2 − 3) − 1 = (x − 2)(x + 2).
The domain is determined by the condition (x − 2)(x + 2) ≥ 0.
By working with the sign line of (x − 2)(x + 2), the domain of g ◦ f can be found as (−∞, −2] ∪ [2, ∞).

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3.2. FUNCTIONS WITH CERTAIN SPECIAL PROPERTIES MATH1013 Calculus IB

√
Remark Recall that for any positive even number n, the radical expression n b denotes the positive root
√
of the equation xn = b. For example, 4 16 = 2 since 24 = 16. No such root exists if b is negative, e.g.,
√4
−16 does not exist as a real number since x4 ≥ 0 > −16 for any real number x, i.e., x4 = −16 has no real
solution.
When n is a positive odd number, the equation xn = b has a unique real root for any given real number
√ √ √
b, which is also denoted by n b. For examples, 3 8 = 2 since 23 = 8, and 3 −8 = −2 since (−2)3 = −8.
√ 1
Recall that a radical expression can also be expressed in terms of exponent notation; e.g., n x = x n for
any positive integer n.
√
The relation between the power function y = xn and the n-th root function y = n x will be discussed in
more detail later when we deal with the concept of inverse function.

Remark The composition of more than two functions can also be defined accordingly. For example, the
composition f ◦ g ◦ h is defined by
(f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) = f (g(h(x))) .
It is easy to see also that f ◦ g ◦ h = f ◦ (g ◦ h) = (f ◦ g) ◦ h. What is the domain of this function?

x2 + 1
Exercise Consider f (x) = 2x − 1, g(x) = . Find the following functions, and determine their
x
domains.
(a) f (g(x)) (b) g(f (x)) (c) (f ◦ g ◦ f )(x) = f (g(f (x)))

3.2 Functions with Certain Special Properties

• Even and Odd Functions
(
even function if f (−x) = f (x)
A function y = f (x) is called an for all x in the domain of f .
odd function if f (−x) = −f (x)

Example 5.

(i) y = x2 is an even function (ii) y = x3 is an odd function

since f (−x) = (−x)2 = x2 = f (x) since f (−x) = (−x)3 = −x3 = f (x)

y
25 100
y

x
20
50
3
x
15
0
x
10 -x x
-x3
-50
5 y = x2 y = x2 -x

-100
0
x
-4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4

the graph of an even function is the graph of an odd function is

symmetric with respect to the y-axis symmetric with respect to the origin

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3.2. FUNCTIONS WITH CERTAIN SPECIAL PROPERTIES MATH1013 Calculus IB

1
(iii) y = |x| is an even function (iv) y = is an odd function
x
1
since f (−x) = | − x| = |x| = f (x) since f (−x) = = −f (x)
−x
y
y = |x| 10
y

5 y = 1/x

0 x

-5

x
-10
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

graph is symmetric w.r.t. the y-axis graph is symmetric w.r.t. the origin

• Periodic Functions
A function f (x) is periodic if there is a number T 6= 0 such that f (x+ T ) = f (x) for all x in the domain.
The smallest such T > 0, if it exists, is called the (fundamental) period of the periodic function.

Note that the graph of a periodic function does not change, if it is shifted to the left, or to the right,
by a distance equal to the period (or an integral multiple of the period).
In particular, any function f defined on the interval [a, b) can be extended to a periodic function defined
on the entire real line: just keep shifting the graph by a distance of b − a.

y = f(x)

a b a b

Example 6. Given a function f (x) = x defined for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. Extend f (x) to the whole real line as an
even periodic function of period 2.

y y y

1 1 1

1 x 1 x x
-1 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3

(
x if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,
Example 7. Given a function f (x) = defined on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.
−x + 2 if 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
Extend f (x) to the whole real line as an odd periodic function of period 4.
y y y

1 1 1

2 x -2 2 x -2 x
-6 -4 2 4 6

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3.3. TRANSFORMATIONS OF GRAPHS MATH1013 Calculus IB

• Increasing and Decreasing Functions

(
an increasing function if f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2
A function y = f (x) is called for all
a decreasing function if f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2
x1 , x2 in the domain of f .

Example 8.

Increasing function: y = x3 Decreasing function: y = −x3

30 y 30 y

3
20 y=x 20 y = -x3

10 10

0 x 0 x

-10 -10

-20 -20

-30 -30
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Just a matter of whether the graph is rising/dropping when travelling along the positive x-direction.
Or by simple arithmetic, x32 > x31 whenever x2 > x1 , and hence x3 is an increasing function.
Example 9. Linear Demand and Supply
Here we follow the tradition of Economists when plotting the demand or supply function; i.e., using the
vertical axis as the domain axis (unit price P of the product).
Price per Unit
P
Linear Supply

Equilibrium Point Linear Demand

Quantity of the product

Q

Linear Demand Function: Q = aP + b, where a < 0.

Price ↑, demand ↓, i.e., demand is a decreasing function of unit price: consumers are less willing to buy
when the product price is up.
Linear Supply Function: Q = cP + d, where c > 0
Price ↑, supply ↑, i.e., supply is an increasing function of unit price: manufacturers are more willing to
produce when the product price is up.

3.3 Transformations of Graphs

As long as you are familiar with the graphing process, it is pretty easy to see how the graph of a function
y = f (x) is related to the graphs of y = f (x) + k, y = f (x + k), y = kf (x) and y = f (kx) for some fixed
constant k.
(
upward shifting of the graph of f by k units if k > 0
(i) Graph of y = f (x) + k:
Downward shifting of the graph of f by k units if k < 0
(
Shifting the graph of f to the right by |k| > 0 units if k < 0
(ii) Graph of y = f (x + k):
Shifting the graph of f to the left by k units if k > 0

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3.3. TRANSFORMATIONS OF GRAPHS MATH1013 Calculus IB

(iii) Graph of y = −f (x): Reflecting the graph of f across the x-axis.

(iv) Graph of y = f (−x): Reflecting the graph of f across the y-axis.

(
Stretching the graph of f in y-direction by a factor of k if k > 1
(v) Graph of y = kf (x), where k > 0:
Compressing the graph of f in y-direction by a factor of k if 0 < k < 1
(
Compressing the graph of f in x-direction by a factor of k if k > 1
(vi) Graph of y = f (kx), where k > 0:
Stretching the graph of f in x-direction by a factor of k if 0 < k < 1

For example, compare the graph of y = f (x) and y = f (x − 2):

y
y = f (x)

y = f (x − 2)
f (x−2)

x
x−2 x

Example 10 Given the graph of y = x2 , sketch the graph of y = −2(x + 1)2 − 2 by using suitable
transformations of graphs.
Consider the following sequence of transformations:

9 9 y
y
8 8
7 7
2
6 y=x 6
5 5
4 4
y = x2 3 3
2 2
↓
1 1
y = −x2 0 0
↓
x x
-1 -1
y = −2x2 -2 -2
↓ -3 -3
y = −2(x + 1)2 -4 -4
↓ -5 -5
-6 -6
y = −2(x + 1)2 − 2
-7 -7
-8 -8
-9 -9
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Remark (Completing The Square)

A quadratic polynomial y = ax2 + bx + c, where a 6= 0, can be written as
 b 2 b2
y =a x+ +c−
2a 4a

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3.3. TRANSFORMATIONS OF GRAPHS MATH1013 Calculus IB

b b
Thus the vertex of its graph is given by the coordinate point (− 2a , c − 4a ), which is the lowest point on the
graph if a > 0, and highest point on the graph if a < 0.
b
The graph is symmetric with respect to the vertical line x = − 2a , the axis of symmetry.
√
Example 11 Consider the function defined by f (x) = x. Compare the graph of y = f (x) with the graphs
of y = 3f (x), y = 13 f (x), y = f (3x), and y = f ( x3 ) respectively.

3f (x) ←→ f (x) ←→ 31 f (x) f (3x) ←→ f (x) ←→ f ( x3 )

7 5
y y
6
4
5
y = 3x1/2
3 y = (3x)1/2
4
compress
3 2
stretch y = x1/2 stretch
2 y = x1/2 y = (x/3)1/2
1
1 compress
y = x1/2/3
0
0 x
x
-1 -1
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
√ √
y=3 x y = 3x
√ √
y= x y= x
√
y = 13 x y = x3
p

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