CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION TO TURBOMACHINERY
1.1. Definition of a Turbomachine
The word turbomachine is the combination of two Latin words. The prefix „turbo‟ is a Latin
word meaning „spin‟ or „whirl‟ and machine is device in which energy transfer occurs. So,
turbomachine is a fluid machine in which energy transfer occurs between a flowing fluid and
rotating element (impeller, runner, and blade) due to dynamic action. This results in change of
pressure and momentum of the fluid. The energy transfer occurs either from rotating element to
flowing fluid or from flowing fluid to rotating element.
Machines with flowing fluid and rotating motion in an open channel are called
Turbomachines. Hydraulic machines (turbines and pumps), steam turbine, gas turbine, and,
compressor, etc are some examples of turbomachines. But machines with static fluid and
reciprocating motion in a closed chamber are called Volumetric or positive displacement
machines. I.C. Engine, reciprocating air compressor, reciprocating pump, etc are some examples
of positive displacement machines.

1.2. Principal components of a turbomachines and their functions

The basic concept in turbomachinery is that, there should be energy transfer between one or
more rotating blade rows (rotor) and a continuously flowing fluid.
1. Rotating elements (vane, impeller, runner buckets or blades also called rotors blades) –
The rotor functions to absorb / deliver energy to the flowing fluid.
2. Stationary elements (guide vanes-also called stators blades): The stator is a stationary
element which may be of many types:
a. Guide blades which function to direct the flowing fluid in such a way that
energy transfer is maximized.
b. Nozzles which function to convert pressure energy of the fluid to
kinetic energy
c. Diffusers which function to convert kinetic energy to pressure energy of
the fluid.

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 3. Input/output Shaft: The input/output shafts function to deliver/ receive mechanical
energy to or from the machine. Input shaft is used for power absorbing machines and
output shaft is used for power generating machines.
4. Housing/casing: The housing is a protective enclosure which also functions to
provide a path of flowing fluid. While a rotor & input /output shaft are essential parts
of all turbo machines, the stator & the housing are optional. To keep various rotating,
stationery and other passages safely under dynamic conditions of the flowing fluid. E.g.
Steam turbine and Pelton turbine

Figure 1: Main Parts of Turbomachinery

1.2.1. Some Terminologies Definitions:
Blade: The name given to the part of the turbine, compressor or fan that guides the flow. It can
be stationary or rotating.
Blade passage: The space between two adjust rotor or stator blades. Usually, this is the empty
space that the fluid passes through.
Blade span: The length of the blade in radial direction.
Bucket: Another name for blade.
Runner: Name of the rotating element of a turbomachine, often used in hydraulic turbines.
Vane: Another name for blade.
Guide vane: Another name for stator blades, often used with hydraulic turbines.
Hub: The lower radius at which the blades are attached.

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Impeller: Rotating element of a pump.
Rotor: Rotating row of blades found after stator in a turbine, and before a stator for a
compressor.
Stator: Stationary row of blades found before rotor in a turbine, and after rotor for a compressor.
Stage: A stator and a rotor combined. It can be found either in a compressor or in a turbine.
Casing: A casing that resembles a sea shell for radial turbomachinery which aims to ensure an
equal distribution of flow around the periphery by reducing the area of the device.
Volute: Another name for scroll casing.

1.3. Classification of Turbomachines

Turbomachines can be classified as follow;
1. Based on energy transfer in turbomachine
a) Power generating turbo machine - work is done by the fluid such as turbines (i.e. Pelton
turbine, Francis turbine, Kaplan/Propeller turbine, Steam turbine, Gas turbine, and Wind
turbine).
b) Power absorbing turbo machine - work is done on the fluid such as Pumps, compressors,
blowers and fans. Some of these machines are shown in Error! Reference source not found..
2. Based on direction of flow through the impeller or vanes or rotor blades, with reference
to the axis of shaft rotation
Here, two primary points will be observed: first, the main element is a rotor or runner carrying
blades or vanes; and secondly, the path of the fluid in the rotor may be substantially axial,
substantially radial, or substantially combination of both.
a) Axial flow turbomachines: Turbomachines in which fluid moves inside the rotating member
in the axial direction (entering and leaving direction) with no radial movement of the
streamlines. Such turbomachines are called axial flow machines. E.g. Axial flow pumps, axial
flow compressors fans, Kaplan/Propeller turbines, steam turbines, turbojet engine

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4
 Figure 2: Axial flow turbomachines

b) Radial flow turbomachines: Turbomachines in which fluid moves through the rotating
member in radial direction (entering and leaving direction) with no axial movement of the
streamlines. Such turbomachines are called radial flow machines. E.g. Radial pump, radial
compressor

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 Figure 3: Radial flow turbomachines

c) Mixed flow turbomachines – Mixed flow pump, Modern Francis turbine. Since flow is
entering and leaving at some angle from rotating axis in the runner of Francis turbine.

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 Figure 4: Mixed flow turbomachines

d) Tangential flow turbomachines – Pelton water turbine

3. Based on type of working fluid in turbomachine
a) Incompressible fluid (Constant density): in these types of turbomachines, density of
working fluid remains constant during entire working process. E.g. Liquids like water
b) Compressible fluid (Variable density): in these types of turbomachines, density of working
fluid varies during entire working process. E.g. Liquids like air, hot gas, steam etc.
4. Based on action of fluid in turbomachine on the moving body
Water flowing under pressure has two forms of energy, kinetic and potential energy. The kinetic
energy depends on the mass of water flowing and its velocity while the potential energy exists as
result of the difference in water level between two points which is known as "head".
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a) Impulse type (constant pressure) - at inlet of turbomachine, only kinetic energy of water is
available no change in pressure. E.g. Pelton water turbine
b) Reaction type (change in pressure) - at inlet of turbomachine, kinetic energy as well as
pressure of water is available. E.g. Francis and Kaplan turbines and centrifugal pump

1.4. Dimensional Analysis

To study the performance characteristics of turbomachines, a large number of variables are
involved. The use of dimensional analysis reduces the variables to a number of manageable
dimensional groups. Usually, the properties of interest in regard to turbomachine are the power
output, P, the efficiency,ɳ, and the head, H. The performance of turbomachines depends on one
or more of several variables.
A summary of the physical properties and dimensions is given in table 1.
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.1: Variable or Property, Units and
Dimensions of Variables

Variable Unit Dimension

(Property) (SI) (M, L, T, 𝜽 system )
Mass kg M
Length m L
Time s T
0
Temperature C, or K 𝜃.
Mass flow rate kg/s M/s
Area m2 L2
Volume m3 L3
Volume flow rate m3/s L3/s
Velocity m/s M/s
Angular speed/velocity rad/s 1/S
Force N ML/T2
Pressure, stress N/ m2 M/LT2
Angular momentum, Torque Nm ML2/T2
Work, Energy J, or Nm ML2/T2
Power Watt, or J/s ML2/T3

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Density kg/ m3 M/L3
Dynamic viscosity kg/ms, or Ns/ m2 M/LT
2
Kinetic viscosity m /s L2/T
Surface tension N/m M/T2
Specific heat capacity J/kg K L2/T2 𝜃
Thermal conductivity W/m K ML/T3 𝜃
Transfer coefficient W/ m2 K M/T3 𝜃
Expansion coefficient (m/m)/K 1/ 𝜃
Dimensional analysis applied to turbomachines has three more important uses:
(1) Reduction of the relevant variables to a number of manageable dimensionless groups
(2) Prediction of a prototype‟s performance from tests conducted on a scale model (similitude),
(3) Determination of the most suitable type of machine, on the basis of maximum efficiency, for
a specified range of head, speed, and flow rate.

1.4.1. The Buckingham Pi Theorem

This Pi Theorem was named from Edgar Buckingham. In 1915, he showed that the number of
independent dimensionless 𝛑-groups (dimensionless parameters) which are needed to test the
effect of independent variables on the dependent variable or to correlate the experimental results
in a given process in short period of time. The total number of dimensionless 𝛑-groups is equal
to n-m, where n is the total number of both dependent and independent variables involved in the
problem and m is the number of fundamental or basic dimensions involved in the variables.
Example:
The power developed/absorbed by/from hydraulic machines (turbines and pumps) is found to
depend on the head H, flow rate Q, density ρ, speed N, runner diameter D, and acceleration due
to gravity, g. Obtain suitable dimensionless parameters to correlate experimental results.
Solution:
List of the dependent and independent variables: In this problem the dependent variable is power
developed, P and it can be write as function of the independent variables as follow:
P = f (H, Q, ρ, N, D, g)
Here P is the parameter to measure by varying the independent variables. But it takes more time
to test all the independent variables. So to minimize the number of testing time or experimental

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duration, we have to conduct dimensional analysis method to be grouped these relations in to
dimensionless groups or pi-terms.
List the number of variables and dimensions
S.No. List of Variables involved in the problem Symbol Unit List of Dimension
1 Power developed/absorbed (Dependent) P W ML2/T3
2 Discharge or flow rate Q m3/s L3/T
3 Acceleration due to gravity g m/s2 L/T2
4 Head developed H m L
5 Density of the fluid flow 𝜌 kg/m3 M/L3
6 Speed of the rotor N 1/s 1/T
7 Runner/Impeller diameter D m L
n=7 m = 3 (L,M,T)

Grouped these variables as follow: For incompressible fluid flow, a turbomachine should be
grouped in terms of the flow or kinematics variables (N, g, U, V), geometric variables (D, L,
H), and fluid properties (𝜌, μ).
Choose “m” repeating variables: N, D, and 𝜌. The number of repeating variables is equal to the
number of basic dimensions (m). The Variables or parameters with dimensions are listed above
and MLT are set of basic dimensions.
Calculate the number of dimensionless groups: From the above table we have 7 variables and 3
basic dimensions. So, the numbers of dimensionless groups or Pi‟s are 4 (7-3=4).
Construct the dimensionless groups
Let 𝜋1 = (𝜌)a (N)b (D)c P
Substituting dimensions on both sides
M0L0T0 = (M1L-3T0)a (M0L0T-1)b(M0L1T0)c M1L2T-3
M0L0T0 = Ma+0+0+1L-3a+0+c+2T0-b+0-3
Power of M, 0 = a+1, Power of L, 0 = -3a+c+2, Power of T, 0 = -b-3
From the above simultaneous equation, a = -1, b =-3, c = -5
So, 𝜋1 = (𝜌)a (N)b (D)c P = = 𝜌-1. N-3.D-5.P = P/ 𝜌N3D5 and it is called power coefficient (power
coeff)
Similarly,

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𝜋2 = (𝜌)a (N)b (D)c Q
Substituting dimensions on both sides
M0L0T0 = (M1L-3T0)a (M0L0T-1)b(M0L1T0)c M0L3T-1
M0L0T0 = Ma+0+0+0L-3a+0+c+3T0-b+0+1
Power of M, 0 = a, Power of L, 0 = -3a+c+3, Power of T, 0 = -b-1
From the above simultaneous equation, a = 0, b = -1, c = -3
So, 𝜋2 = (𝜌)a (N)b (D)c Q = 𝜌0. N-1.D-3.Q = Q/ND3 and it is called discharge or flow coefficient
(flow coeff)
Similarly,
𝜋3 = (𝜌)a (N)b (D)c g
Substituting dimensions on both sides
M0L0T0 = (M1L-3T0)a (M0L0T-1)b(M0L1T0)c M0L1 T-2
M0L0T0 = Ma+0+0+0L-3a+0+c+1T0-b+0-2
Power of M, 0 = a, Power of L, 0 = -3a+c+1, Power of T, 0 = -b-2
From the above simultaneous equation, a = 0, b =-2, c = -1
So, 𝜋3 = (𝜌)a (N)b (D)c g = 𝜌0. N-2.D-1.g = g/N2 D and this is used to determine the head
coefficient as follow.
Similarly,
𝜋4 = (𝜌)a (N)b (D)c H
Substituting dimensions on both sides
M0L0T0 = (M1L-3T0)a (M0L0T-1)b(M0L1T0)c M0L1 T0
M0L0T0 = Ma+0+0+0L-3a+0+c+1T0-b+0+0
Power of M, 0 = a, Power of L, 0 = -3a+c+1, Power of T, 0 = -b+0
From the above simultaneous equation, a = 0, b=0, c =-1
So, 𝜋4 = 𝜌)a (N)b (D)c H = 𝜌0. N0.D-1H = H/D
Since the product of two dimensionless 𝜋 terms is other dimensionless 𝜋 terms, therefore replace
the terms 𝜋4 and 𝜋3 by 𝜋5 as follow:
𝜋5 = 𝜋4 × 𝜋3 = gH/ N2D2 and it is called head coefficient (head coeff)
Write the final functional Relation:
𝜋1 = f (𝜋2 , 𝜋5, ) or P/ 𝜌N3D5 = f (Q/ND3, gH/ N2D2)

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These are the relevant parameters in the case of hydraulic machines are used in model testing of
turbomachines. So, they are called model testing Coefficients.
1. Power coefficient (𝑃) = P/𝜌N3D5 = constant  𝑃1/𝜌1𝑁31𝐷51=𝑃2/𝜌2𝑁32𝐷52
2. Discharge or flow coefficient (∅) = Q/ND3 = constant  𝑄1/𝑁1𝐷31=
𝑄2/𝑁2𝐷32
3. Head coefficient (𝜓) = gH/ N2D2 = constant  g𝐻1/𝑁21𝐷21=g𝐻2/𝑁22𝐷22
Hint: the subscript numbers are indicated for the model and prototype (2 for model and 1 for
prototype).
These are very important to determine the most popular dimensional and dimensionless specific
speeds used in hydraulic turbomachines as follow.
1. Dimensionless Specific speed based on power P, for Turbine:
𝑃
𝟏
𝟐 (P/ρN 3 D 5 )
𝟏
𝟐 𝑵 𝑷ρ
Nst = 𝟓 = 𝟓 = 𝟓
𝜓 𝟒 (gH /N 2 D 2 ) 𝟒 (gH ) 𝟒

𝑵 𝑷
(But dimensional specific speed, 𝟓 is commonly used in hydraulic machines)
(𝐇) 𝟒

2. Dimensionless Specific speed based on Discharge Q, for Pump:

𝟏 𝟏
∅ 𝟐 (Q/ND 3 ) 𝟐 𝑵 𝑸
Nsp = 𝟑 = 𝟑 = 𝟑
𝜓 𝟒 (gH /N 2 D 2 ) 𝟒 (gH ) 𝟒

𝑵 𝑸
(But dimensional specific speed, 𝟑 is commonly used in hydraulic machines)
(𝐇) 𝟒

𝟐
𝑵𝒔𝒕 𝑷
3. Hydraulic efficiency for Turbine (𝜼𝒕 ) = 𝑵𝒔𝒑
= ρQgH

𝑵𝒔𝒑 𝟐 ρQgH
4. Hydraulic efficiency for Pump (𝜼𝒑 ) = 𝑵𝒔𝒕
= 𝑷

In model testing at a particular speed, the flow rate at various delivery heads can be measured.
This can be used to predict the performance of the pump at other speeds using the various
coefficients defined. The procedure for turbines will also be similar. The model can be run at a
constant speed when the head is varied; the power and flow rate can be measured. The
performance of the prototype can be predicted from the results of the tests on the geometrically
similar model.
If two similar machines are operated with the same flow coefficient, the power and head
coefficients will also be the same for the machines. This will then lead to the same efficiency.

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Example 1:
A centrifugal pump delivers 2.5m3/s under a head of 14m and running at a speed of 2010 rpm.
The impeller diameter of the pump is 125 mm. If a 104mm diameter impeller is fitted and the
pump runs at a speed of 2210 rpm,
a. What is the volume flow rate of the new pump?
b. Determine the new pump head,
c. Determine dimensional and dimensionless specific speeds of the new pump.
d. Determine the power, flow, and head coefficients.
Solution:
First of all, let us assume that dynamic similarity exists between the two pumps. Equating the
flow coefficients, we get
𝑄1/𝑁1𝐷31= 𝑄2/𝑁2𝐷32  2.5/2010× 0.1253 = 𝑄2/2210× 0.1043
Solving the above equation, the volume flow rate of the new pump is 𝑄2
= 1.58m3/s
Now, g𝐻1/𝑁21𝐷21=g𝐻2/𝑁22𝐷22  𝐻1/𝑁21𝐷21=𝐻2/𝑁22𝐷22
Substituting the given values,
14/(2010 × 0.125)2 = H2/(2210× 0.104)2  H2 = 11.72m of water.
Example 2:
A radial flow hydraulic turbine produces 32 kW under a head of 16 m and running at 100 rpm.
A geometrically similar model (i.e. the ratio of their dimension, width, depth and height, are the
same) is producing 42 kW power at a head of 6 m to be tested under geometrically similar
conditions. If model efficiency is assumed to be 92%,
a. Find the volume flow rate through the model, the speed of the model, diameter ratio
between the model and prototype, and the volume flow rate through the prototype.
b. Determine the power, flow, and head coefficients.
Solution:
Assuming the subscripts 1 for the prototype and 2 for the model, we have
a. Flow Rate of the model:
𝑃 42×1000
Hydraulic efficiency for model Turbine (𝜂𝑡 ) = ρQgH  0.92 = 1000 ×Q×9.81×5  Q2 = 0.776 m3/s

b. Speed of the model diameter ratio:

g𝐻1/𝑁21𝐷21 = g𝐻2/𝑁22𝐷22 16/(100)2 ×(D2/D1)2 = 6/(N2)2 ---------------i

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𝑃1/𝜌1𝑁31𝐷51=𝑃2/𝜌2𝑁32𝐷52 32/42×(D2/D1)5 = (100/N2)3 ----------------ii
Here, we have two equations (i and ii) and to variables (N2 and dia. Ratio, D2/D1).so, using
the two equations,
N2 = 1059rpm and D2/D1 = 0.058
c. the volume flow rate through the prototype
𝑄1/𝑁1𝐷31= 𝑄2/𝑁2𝐷32  (𝑄1/0.776)×(0.058)3 = 100/1059  375.56 m3/s
Reading Assignment about geometry, kinematic and dynamic or kinetic similarity or similitude
The similarity between the model and its prototype is called Similitude. There are three types of
similarities that must exist between the model and the prototype.
1. Geometric similarity:- a model and a prototype are geometrically similar if and only if all
dimensions in all three coordinates have the same linear-scale ratio.
Let, Lm = Length of model and Lp = Length of prototype
Bm = Breadth of model and Bp = Breadth of prototype
Dm = Diameter of model and Dp = Diameter of prototype
Vm = Volume of model and Vp = Volume of prototype
Am = Area of model and Ap = Area of prototype
For geometric similarity between the model and the prototype, the following relations must exist.
• for length ratio,

Lp Bp Dp
   Gr where, Gr is called the scale ratio
Lm Bm Dm
• for area ratio,
Ap Lp  Bp
  Gr  Gr  Gr2
Am Lm  Bm
• for volume ratio,
3 3 3
Vp  Lp   B p   Dp 
       Gr
3

Vm  Lm   Bm   Dm 
In addition,
i) all angles are preserved in geometric similarity,
ii) all flow directions are preserved,
iii) the orientation of the model and prototype with respect to the surrounding must be
identical,

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 iv) the homologous points ( the points which have the same relative location ) must be
related by the same linear-scale ratio.
2. Kinematic similarity:- a model and prototype are kinematically similar if and only if they have
the same velocity or acceleration scale ratio. That is, the homologous particles lie at homologous
points and homologous time as shown in Fig. 2.
Let, Vm1 = velocity of fluid at point 1 in the model,
Vm2 = velocity of fluid at point 2 in the model,
Vp1 = velocity of fluid at point 1 in the prototype,
Vp2 = velocity of fluid at point 2 in the prototype.
• for velocity,
V p1 Vp2
  Vr
Vm1 Vm 2

• for acceleration,

Where, Vr is the velocity ratio,

ar is the acceleration ratio.
3. Dynamic similarity:- a model and prototype are dynamically similar if and only if they have
the same force-scale ratio and the ratios of corresponding forces acting at the corresponding
points are equal and also the directions are the same.
Let, Fim = inertia force at a point in the model,
Fgm = gravity force at a point in the model,
Fip = inertia force at a point in the prototype,
Fgm = gravity force at the point in the prototype,
Fip Fgp and,
  Fr Fi  Fp  Fg  Ff
Fim Fgm
Where, Fr is the force ratio

1.5. Fluid Flow Assumptions (Vane-Congruent Flow)

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The flow of the fluid in turbomachinery is very complex. To make this complexity easier, several
assumptions have been made (such as, the flow of the fluid is symmetrical, streamline, steady
and vane congruent flow, and a velocity triangle is constructed for the analysis).
The streamline of the flow is always follows the vane or the blade angle exactly; in other words,
streamlines of the flow are congruent to the vane‟s angle and it is called vane congruent flow. If
there is a deviation between the direction of the flow and the direction of the vane at the entrance
of the vane channel, the flow approaches to the vane with a ‘Shock’.
The control volume considered for analysis is unchanging (see figure 2.2)

Figure 5: Vane-congruent flow pattern

1.6. Actual Flow Patterns in the Rotors

 The flow cannot be symmetrical in the circumferential direction,

 There is circulation flow rather than streamline flow especially in long blades,

 The flow is unsteady,

 The flow cannot follow the blade angle exactly

 The flow follows a natural process (i.e. irreversible process); and hence, there is a
positive entropy generation (example, the flow in steam and gas turbine an compressors).

 There is a leakage associated with the flow (example, the flow in pump and hydraulic
turbines).

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  The flow can create cavitation (example, the flow in pump and hydraulic turbines).
Comparing the actual flow pattern to the theoretical flow pattern can be used for the
analysis of energy losses and efficiencies of turbomachines.

1.7. Velocity Triangle and Euler’s Equation for Turbomachines

Consider the following velocity diagram

Figure 6: Velocity triangle

Where, “U” is the blade velocity which is perpendicular to the radius of the blade or tangent to
the circle in the direction of rotational motion, 𝜔. “W” is the relative velocity which is tangent to
the blade. “V” is the absolute or resultant velocity which is drawn between “U” and “W” to be
consider as a resultant vector in the completed parallelogram. Every velocity triangle should
form the following form of equation V = U + W since they are vector quantities.
“Vr “and “Vt “are the radial and the tangential components of absolute velocities, respectively.
The angle, “𝛽” is the angle between relative and “U” axis. The angle, “𝛼” is the angle between
absolute velocities and “U” axis respectively.
From the moment of momentum Principle (Rate Change of Momentum):
The force with which the fluid strikes the bucket along the direction of vane shape is given by
Newton‟s second law of motion along the x-axis.

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Fx = rate change of momentum = Mass flow rate x change in tangential velocity of the absolute
velocity not radial velocity from inlet to outlet due to mechanical loss from inlet to outlet across
the blade.
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚[𝑉𝑡1 − 𝑉𝑡2 ] = 𝜌𝑄[𝑉𝑡1 − 𝑉𝑡2 ].
Torque, T = r× 𝐹𝑥 =𝜌𝑄[𝑟1 𝑉𝑡1 − 𝑟2 𝑉𝑡2 ].
Work done per second (power developed) by the jet on the vane is given by the product of force
exerted on the vane and the distance moved by the vane in one second (U):
Power developed by the hydraulic turbomachine
𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 = 𝜔 × 𝑇 = 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑈 = 𝜌𝑄[𝑈1 𝑉𝑡1 − 𝑈2 𝑉𝑡2 ] = 𝑚[𝑈1 𝑉𝑡1 − 𝑈2 𝑉𝑡2 ]
Dividing this equation by the mass flow rate m gives an expression for the work done per unit of
mass, i.e. specific work done, w = 𝑈1 𝑉𝑡1 − 𝑈2 𝑉𝑡2 ]. Hence, this equation is called Euler’s
equation.
Pump head, H = 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 /𝜌Qg
The general equation for turbomachinery (also called Euler’s equation)
𝑊𝑡 = Pt = 𝑚 x (U1 Vu1- U2Vu2) – For turbines
𝑊𝑡 = Pt = 𝑚 x (U2 Vu2- U1Vu1) – For pumps

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Exercis-1
1. The efficiency of a fan depends on density𝜌, dynamic viscosity 𝜇 of the fluid, angular
velocity𝜔, diameter D of the rotor and discharge Q. Express efficiency in terms of
dimensionless parameters.
2. The resisting force of a supersonic plane during flight can be considered as dependent on
the length of the aircraft L, velocity V, viscosity , mass density , Bulk modulus K.
Express the fundamental relationship between resisting force and these variables.
3. The specific speed of a Kaplan turbine is 450 when working under a head of 12m at 150
rpm. If under this head, 30,000kW of energy is generated, estimate how many turbines
should be used. (7 turbines).
4. The resisting force F of a supersonic plane in flight is given by:

where L = the length of the aircraft, V = velocity, 𝜌 = air density, 𝜇 =

air viscosity, and k = the bulk modulus of air. Show that the resisting force is a function of
Reynolds number and Mach number.
5. The torque of a turbine is a function of the rate of flow Q, head H, angular velocity𝜔,
specific weight w of water, and efficiency. Determine the torque equation.
6. One-fifth scale of a pump was tested in a laboratory at 1000 rpm. The head developed
and the power inputs at the best efficiency point were found to be 8 m and 30 kW
respectively. If the prototype pump has to work against a head of 25 m, determine its
working speed, the power required to drive and the ratio of the flow rates handled by the
two pumps.
7. An axial-flow pump is to be operated at a speed of 2500 rpm against a head of 400 m.
What flow rate will be delivered by the most efficient pump?

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