OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING

DIGITAL NOTES

B.E.
(I YEAR – II SEM)
(2023-24)

DEPARTMENT OF CSE
BTI
Overview of C++ language:
1. C++ can be considered as an incremental version of c language which consists
all programming language constructs with newly added features of object oriented
programming.
2. c++ is structure(procedure) oriented and object oriented
programming language. 3.The file extension of C++ program is
“.CPP”
4. Function overloading and operator overloading are possible.
5. Variables can be declared in inline i.e when required
6. In c++ more emphasis is give on data rather than procedures
7. Polymorphism, encapsulation and inheritance are possible.
8. Data abstraction property is supported by c++.
9. Data access is limited. It can be accessed by providing various visibility
modes both for data and member functions. there by providing data security by
data hiding
10. Dymanic binding is
supported by C++ 11..It
supports all features of c
language
12. It can be called as an incremental version of c language
Difference Between Procedure Oriented Programming (POP) & Object Oriented
Programming (OOP)

Procedure Oriented Programming Object Oriented Programming

1 program is divided into small program is divided into parts called objects.
parts called functions.
Importance is not given to data but Importance is given to the data rather
2 to functions as well as sequence of than procedures or functions because it
actions to be done. works as a real world.
3 follows Top Down approach. OOP follows Bottom Up approach.
4 OOP has access specifiers
It does not have any access specifier.
named Public, Private,
Protected, etc.
5 Data can move freely from objects can move and communicate
function to function in the with each other through member
system. functions.
To add new data and function in POP is OOP provides an easy way to add new
6 not so easy. data and function.
Most function uses Global data for In OOP, data can not move easily from
7 sharing that can be accessed freely from function to function,it can be kept public
function to function in the system. or private so we can control the access of
data.
It does not have any proper way for hiding OOP provides Data Hiding so provides more
8
data so it is less secure. security.
In OOP, overloading is possible in the form
9 Overloading is not possible. of Function Overloading and Operator
Overloading.
 Example of Procedure Oriented
10 Example of Object Oriented Programming
Programming are : C, VB,
FORTRAN, Pascal. are : C++, JAVA, VB.NET, C#.NET.

Principles( or features) of object oriented programming:

1. Encapsulation
2. Data abstraction
3. Polymorphism
4. Inheritance
5. Dynamic binding
6. Message passing
Encapsulation: Wrapping of data and functions together as a single unit is known as
encapsulation. By default data is not accessible to outside world and they are only
accessible through the functions which are wrapped in a class. prevention of data direct
access by the program is called data hiding or information hiding

Data abstraction :
Abstraction refers to the act of representing essential features without
including the back ground details or explanation. Classes use the concept of abstraction
and are defined as a list of attributes such as size, weight, cost and functions to operate on
these attributes. They encapsulate all essential properties of the object that are to be
created. The attributes are called as data members as they hold data and the functions
which operate on these data are called as member functions.
Class use the concept of data abstraction so they are called abstract data type (ADT)

Polymorphism: Polymorphism comes from the Greek words “poly” and “morphism”.
“poly” means many and “morphism” means form i.e.. many forms. Polymorphism means
the ability to take more than one form. For example, an operation have different behavior
in different instances. The behavior depends upon the type of the data used in the
operation.
Different ways to achieving polymorphism in C++ program:
1) Function overloading 2)
Operator overloading #include<iostream>
usin
g
nam
espa
ce
std;
int
main
()
{int a=4; a=a<<2;
cout<<”a=
”<<a<<en
dl; return
0;
}
 Inheritance: Inheritance is the process by which one object can acquire the properties of
another.
Inheritance is the most promising concept of OOP, which helps realize the goal of
constructing software from reusable parts, rather than hand coding every system from
scratch. Inheritance not only supports reuse across systems, but also directly facilitates
extensibility within a system. Inheritance coupled with polymorphism and dynamic binding
minimizes the amount of existing code to be modified while enhancing a system.
When the class child, inherits the class parent, the class child is referred to as
derived class (sub class) and the class parent as a base class (super class). In this case, the
class child has two parts: a derived part and an incremental part. The derived part is
inherited from the class parent. The incremental part is the new code written specifically
for the class child.
Dynamic binding:
Binding refers to linking of procedure call to the code to be executed in response to
the call. Dynamic binding(or late binding) means the code associated with a given
procedure call in not known until the time of call at run time.

Message passing:
An object oriented program consists of set of object that communicate with each other.
Objects communicates with each other by sending and receiving information .
A message for an object is a request for execution of a procedure and
there fore invoke the function that is called for an object and generates result

Benefits of object oriented programming (OOPs)

 Reusability: In OOP‟ s programs functions and modules that

are written by a user can be reused by other users without any
modification.
 Inheritance: Through this we can eliminate redundant code and extend the use of
existing classes.
 Data Hiding: The programmer can hide the data and functions in a class from other
classes. It helps the programmer to
build the secure programs.

Reduced complexity of a problem: The given problem can be viewed as a
collection of different objects. Each object is responsible for a specific task. The
problem is solved by interfacing the objects. This technique reduces the
complexity of the program design.

Easy to Maintain and Upgrade: OOP makes it easy to maintain and modify
existing code as new objects
can be created with small differences to existing ones. Software complexity can be
easily managed.
 Message Passing: The technique of message
communication between objects makes the interface with
external systems easier.
Modifiability: it is easy to make minor changes in the data representation or the
procedures in an OO program. Changes inside a class do not affect any other part of
a program, since the only
public interface that the external world has to a class is through the use of methods.

APPLICATION OF OOP:
The most popular application of oops up to now, has been in the area of user interface
design such as windows.
There are hundreds of windowing systems developed using oop techniques.
 Real business systems are often much more complex and contain many more objects
with complicated attributes and methods.
Oop is useful in this type of applications because it can simplify a complex problem.
The promising areas for application of oop includes.
1. Real – Time systems.
2. Simulation and modeling
3. Object oriented databases.
4. Hypertext,hypermedia and expertext.
5. Al and expert systems.
6. Neural networks and parallel programming.
7. Dicision support and office automation systems.
8. CIM / CAM / CAD system

BASIC STRUCTURE OF C++ LANGUAGE : The program written in C++

language follows this basic structure. The sequence of sections should be as they are
in the basic structure. A C program should have one or more sections but the
sequence of sections is to be followed.
1. Documentation section
2. Linking section
3. Definition section
4. Global declaration section &
class declarations 5.Member
function definition
6. Main function
section main()
{
Declar
ation
section
Execut
able
section
}

1. DOCUMENTATION SECTION : comes first and is used to document the

use of logic or reasons in your program. It can be used to write the program's
objective, developer and logic details. The documentation is done in C language
with /* and */ . Whatever is written between these two are called comments.
2. LINKING SECTION : This section tells the compiler to link the
certain occurrences of keywords or functions in your program to the
header files specified in this section.
e.g. #include<iostream>
using namespace std;
 directive causes the preprocessor to add the contents of the iostream file to the
program. It contains declarations
for cout and cin.

cout is a predefined object that represents the standard output stream. The operator <<
is an
insertion operator, causes the string in double quotes to be displayed on the screen.
screen
 cout << “C++”
Object
Insertion Operator variable

The statement cin>>n; is an input statement and causes the program to wait for the user to
type in a number. The number keyed is placed on the variable “n”. The identifier cin is a
predefined object in C++ that corresponds to the standard input stream. The operator >> is
known as extraction operator. It extracts the value from the keyboard and assigns it to the
value variable on its right.

Object Extraction operator variable

cin 45.5
>>

Keyboard

3. DEFINITION SECTION : It is used to declare some constants and

assign them some value. e.g. #define MAX 25
Here #define is a compiler directive which tells the compiler whenever
MAX is found in the program replace it with 25.
4. GLOBAL DECLARATION SECTION : Here the variables and class
definations which are used through out the program (including main and other
functions) are declared so as to make them global(i.e accessible to all parts of
program). A CLASS is a collection of data and functions that act or manipulate the
data. The data components of a class are called data members and function
components of a class are called member functions
A class ca also termed as a blue print or prototype that defines the variable or
functions common to all objects of certain kind. It is a user defined data type

e.g.
int i; //this declaration is done outside and before main()

5. SUB PROGRAM OR FUNCTION SECTION : This has all the sub programs or the
functions which our program needs.

void display()
{
cout<<”C++ is better that C”;
}
SIMPLE „C++‟ PROGRAM:
#include<iostream> using
namespace std; void
display()
{
cout<<”C++ is better that C”;
}
int main()
{
display()
 }

6. MAIN FUNCTION SECTION : It tells the compiler where to

start the execution from main()
{
point from execution starts
}
main function has two sections
1. declaration section : In this the variables and their data types are declared.
2. Executable section or instruction section : This has the part of program which
actually performs the task we need.

namespace:
namespace is used to define a scope that could hold
global identifiers. ex:-namespace scope for c++ standard
library.
A classes ,functions and templates are declared within the
namespace named std using namespace std;-->directive can be
used.

user defined name space:

syntax for defining name space is

namespace namespace_name
{
//declarations of variables.functions,classes etc...
}
ex:
#include
<iostrea
m> using
namespa
ce std;
namespa
ce
sample
{`
int m;
void display(int n)

{
cout<<"in namespace N="<<n<<endl;
}
}

using
namespace
sample; int
main()
{
i
n
t
 a
=
5
;

m
=
1
0
0
;
display(200);
cout<<"M in sample name
space:"<<sample::m; return 0;}

#include<iostream>
This directive causes the preprocessor to add content of iostream file
to the program. some old versions of C++ used iostream.h .if complier
does not support ANSI (american nation standard institute) C++ then
use header file iostream.h

SLNO ABSTRACTION ENCAPSULATION

1 Abstraction is the process or While encapsulation is the process or
method of gaining the information. method to contain the information.
2 In abstraction, problems are solved While in encapsulation, problems are
at the design or interface level. solved at the implementation level.
3 Abstraction is the method of Whereas encapsulation is a method to
hiding the unwanted information hide the data in a single entity or unit
along with a method to protect
information from outside.
4 We can implement abstraction Whereas encapsulation can be
using abstract class and interfaces. implemented using by access
modifier i.e. private, protected and
public.
5 In abstraction, implementation While in encapsulation, the data is
complexities are hidden using hidden using methods of getters and
abstract classes and interfaces. setters.
6 The objects that help to perform Whereas the objects that result in
abstraction are encapsulated. encapsulation need not be abstracted.

ABSTRACTION

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

 class Summation {

private:

// private variables

int a, b, c;

public:

void sum(int x, int y)

a = x;

b = y;

c = a + b;

cout<<"Sum of the two number is : "<<c<<endl;

};

int main()

Summation s;

s.sum(5, 4);

return 0;

Output:

Sum of the two number is: 9

In the this example, we can see that abstraction has achieved by using class. The class
‘Summation’ holds the private members a, b and c, which are only accessible by the member
functions of that class.
Encapsulation:
Encapsulation is the process or method to contain the information. Encapsulation is a method
to hide the data in a single entity or unit along with a method to protect information from
outside world. This method encapsulates the data and function together inside a class which
also results in data abstraction.

Example of Encapsulation:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class EncapsulationExample {

private:

// we declare a as private to hide it from outside

int a;

public:

// set() function to set the value of a

void set(int x)

a = x;

// get() function to return the value of a

int get()
 {

return a;

};

// main function

int main()

EncapsulationExample e1;

e1.set(10);

cout<<e1.get();

return 0;

Output:

Key Points of Abstract class in C++:

1. The class having a pure virtual function is an abstract class
2. An abstract class can have concrete also.
3. The object of abstract class cannot be created
4. A derived class must override pure virtual function, otherwise, it will also become an
abstract class.
5. The pointer of the abstract class can be created
6. The pointer of the abstract class can hold the object of the derived class
7. Abstract classes are used for achieving polymorphism
8. The base class can be concrete
9. Abstract with some concrete and some pure virtual functions

Abstract class program

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Base
{
public:
void Fun1()
{
cout << "Base Class Fun1"<<endl;
}
virtual void Fun2() = 0; // Pure Virtual Function
};
class Derived:public Base
{
public:
void Fun2()
{
cout << "Derived Class Fun2"<<endl;
}
};
int main()
{
Derived d;
d.Fun1();
d.Fun2();
return 0;
}

or example, we can create a Circle class that inherits from Shape and implements
the area and perimeter functions:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Shape
{
public:
virtual double area() = 0;
virtual double perimeter() = 0;
};

class Circle : public Shape

{
private:
double radius;
 public:
Circle(double r)
{
radius=r;
}

double area()
{
return 3.142 * radius * radius;
}

double perimeter()
{
return 2 * 3.142 * radius;
}
};

int main()
{
double a,p;
Circle circle(5);

a = circle.area();
p = circle.perimeter();
cout<<"Area of the circle = "<<a<<endl;
cout<<"Perimeter of the circle = "<<p<<endl;
return 0;
}

Inheritance in C++

The capability of a class to derive properties and characteristics from another class is
called Inheritance. Inheritance is one of the most important feature of Object Oriented
Programming.
Sub Class: The class that inherits properties from another class is called Sub class or
Derived Class.
Super Class:The class whose properties are inherited by sub class is called Base Class or
Super class.

The article is divided into following subtopics:

1. Why and when to use inheritance?
2. Modes of Inheritance
3. Types of Inheritance

Why and when to use inheritance?

Consider a group of vehicles. You need to create classes for Bus, Car and Truck. The
methods fuelAmount(), capacity(), applyBrakes() will be same for all of the three classes. If
we create these classes avoiding inheritance then we have to write all of these functions in
each of the three classes as shown in below figure:
You can clearly see that above process results in duplication of same code 3 times. This
increases the chances of error and data redundancy. To avoid this type of situation,
inheritance is used. If we create a class Vehicle and write these three functions in it and
inherit the rest of the classes from the vehicle class, then we can simply avoid the
duplication of data and increase re-usability. Look at the below diagram in which the three
classes are inherited from vehicle class:
Using inheritance, we have to write the functions only one time instead of three times as we
have inherited rest of the three classes from base class(Vehicle).
Implementing inheritance in C++: For creating a sub-class which is inherited from the
base class we have to follow the below syntax.
Syntax:
class subclass_name : access_mode base_class_name
{
//body of subclass
};
Here, subclass_name is the name of the sub class, access_mode is the mode in which you
want to inherit this sub class for example: public, private etc. and base_class_name is the
name of the base class from which you want to inherit the sub class.

Note: A derived class doesn’t inherit access to private data members. However, it does
inherit a full parent object, which contains any private members which that class declares.
// C++ program to demonstrate implementation
// of Inheritance

#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;

//Base class
class Parent
{
public:
int id_p;
};

// Sub class inheriting from Base Class(Parent)

class Child : public Parent
{
public:
int id_c;
};

//main function
int main()
{

Child obj1;

// An object of class child has all data members

// and member functions of class parent
obj1.id_c = 7;
obj1.id_p = 91;
cout << "Child id is " << obj1.id_c << endl;
cout << "Parent id is " << obj1.id_p << endl;

return 0;
}
Output:
Child id is 7
Parent id is 91

In the above program the ‘Child’ class is publicly inherited from the ‘Parent’ class so the
public data members of the class ‘Parent’ will also be inherited by the class ‘Child’.
Modes of Inheritance
1. Public mode: If we derive a sub class from a public base class. Then the public
member of the base class will become public in the derived class and protected members of
the base class will become protected in derived class.
2. Protected mode: If we derive a sub class from a Protected base class. Then both
public member and protected members of the base class will become protected in derived
class.
3. Private mode: If we derive a sub class from a Private base class. Then both public
member and protected members of the base class will become Private in derived class.
Note : The private members in the base class cannot be directly accessed in the derived
class, while protected members can be directly accessed. For example, Classes B, C and D
all contain the variables x, y and z in below example. It is just question of access.

// C++ Implementation to show that a derived class

// doesn’t inherit access to private data members.
// However, it does inherit a full parent object
class A
{
public:
int x;
protected:
int y;
private:
int z;
};
class B : public A
{
// x is public
// y is protected
// z is not accessible from B
};

class C : protected A
{
// x is protected
// y is protected
// z is not accessible from C
};

class D : private A // 'private' is default for classes

{
// x is private
// y is private
// z is not accessible from D
};
The below table summarizes the above three modes and shows the access specifier of the
members of base class in the sub class when derived in public, protected and private modes:

Types of Inheritance in C++

1. Single Inheritance: In single inheritance, a class is allowed to inherit from only one
class. i.e. one sub class is inherited by one base class only.
 Syntax:
class subclass_name : access_mode base_class
{
//body of subclass
};
// C++ program to explain
// Single inheritance
#include <iostream>
using namespace
std;

// base class
class Vehicle {
public:
Vehicle()
{
cout << "This is a Vehicle" << endl;
}
};

// sub class derived from two base classes

class Car: public Vehicle{

};

// main function
int main()
{
// creating object of sub class will
// invoke the constructor of base classes
Car obj;
return 0;
}
Output:
This is a vehicle

2. Multiple Inheritance: Multiple Inheritance is a feature of C++ where a class can

inherit from more than one classes. i.e one sub class is inherited from more than one base
class
Syntax:
class subclass_name : access_mode base_class1, access_mode base_class2, ....
{
//body of subclass
};

Here, the number of base classes will be separated by a comma (‘, ‘) and access mode for
every base class must be specified.

// C++ program to explain

// multiple inheritance
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// first base class

class Vehicle {
public:
Vehicle()
{
cout << "This is a Vehicle" << endl;
}
};

// second base class

class FourWheeler {
public:
FourWheeler()
{
cout << "This is a 4 wheeler Vehicle" << endl;
}
};

// sub class derived from two base classes

class Car: public Vehicle, public FourWheeler {

};

// main function
int main()
{
// creating object of sub class will
// invoke the constructor of base classes
Car obj;
return 0;
}
Output:
This is a Vehicle
This is a 4 wheeler Vehicle

3. Multilevel Inheritance: In this type of inheritance, a derived class is created from

another derived class.

// C++ program to implement
// Multilevel Inheritance
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// base class
class Vehicle
{
public:
Vehicle()
{
cout << "This is a Vehicle" << endl;
}
};
class fourWheeler: public Vehicle
{ public:
fourWheeler()
{
cout<<"Objects with 4 wheels are vehicles"<<endl;
}
};
// sub class derived from two base classes
class Car: public fourWheeler{
public:
car()
{
cout<<"Car has 4 Wheels"<<endl;
}
 };

// main function
int main()
{
//creating object of sub class will
//invoke the constructor of base classes
Car obj;
return 0;
}
output:

This is a Vehicle
Objects with 4 wheels are vehicles Car
has 4 Wheels
4. Hierarchical Inheritance: In this type of inheritance, more than one sub class is
inherited from a single base class. i.e. more than one derived class is created from a single
base class.

// C++ program to implement

// Hierarchical Inheritance
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// base class
class Vehicle
{
public:
Vehicle()
{
cout << "This is a Vehicle" << endl;
}
};

// first sub class

 class Car: public Vehicle
{

};

// second sub class

class Bus: public Vehicle
{

};

// main function
int main()
{
// creating object of sub class will
// invoke the constructor of base class
Car obj1;
Bus obj2;
return 0;
}
Output:

This is a Vehicle
This is a Vehicle
5. Hybrid (Virtual) Inheritance: Hybrid Inheritance is implemented by combining
more than one type of inheritance. For example: Combining Hierarchical inheritance and
Multiple Inheritance.
Below image shows the combination of hierarchical and multiple inheritance:

// C++ program for Hybrid Inheritance

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// base class
class Vehicle
{
 public:
Vehicle()
{
cout << "This is a Vehicle" << endl;
}
};

//base class
class Fare
{
public:
Fare()
{
cout<<"Fare of Vehicle\n";
}
};

// first sub class

class Car: public Vehicle
{

};

// second sub class

class Bus: public Vehicle, public Fare
{

};

// main function
int main()
{
// creating object of sub class will
// invoke the constructor of base class
Bus obj2;
return 0;
}
Output:

This is a Vehicle
Fare of Vehicle
A special case of hybrid inheritance : Multipath inheritance:
A derived class with two base classes and these two base classes have one common base
class is called multipath inheritance. An ambiguity can arrise in this type of inheritance.
Consider the following program:
// C++ program demonstrating ambiguity in Multipath Inheritance

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
class ClassA
{
public:
int a;
};

class ClassB : public ClassA

{
public:
int b;
};
class ClassC : public ClassA
{
public:
int c;
};

class ClassD : public ClassB, public ClassC

{
public:
int d;
};

void main()
{

ClassD obj;

//obj.a = 10; //Statement 1, Error

//obj.a = 100; //Statement 2, Error
 obj.ClassB::a = 10; //Statement 3
obj.ClassC::a = 100; //Statement 4

obj.b = 20;
obj.c = 30;
obj.d = 40;

cout<< "\n A from ClassB : "<< obj.ClassB::a;

cout<< "\n A from ClassC : "<< obj.ClassC::a;

cout<< "\n B : "<< obj.b;

cout<< "\n C : "<< obj.c;
cout<< "\n D : "<<
obj.d;

}
Output:
A from ClassB : 10 A
from ClassC : 100 B :
20
C : 30
D : 40

In the above example, both ClassB & ClassC inherit ClassA, they both have single copy of
ClassA. However ClassD inherit both ClassB & ClassC, therefore ClassD have two copies
of ClassA, one from ClassB and another from ClassC.
If we need to access the data member a of ClassA through the object of ClassD, we must
specify the path from which a will be accessed, whether it is from ClassB or ClassC, bco’z
compiler can’t differentiate between two copies of ClassA in ClassD.

There are 2 ways to avoid this ambiguity:

1. Use scope resolution operator
2. Use virtual base class

Avoiding ambiguity using scope resolution operator:

Using scope resolution operator we can manually specify the path from which data member
a will be accessed, as shown in statement 3 and 4, in the above example.
filter_none
edit
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obj.ClassB::a = 10; //Statement 3
obj.ClassC::a = 100; //Statement 4
Note : Still, there are two copies of ClassA in ClassD.
Avoiding ambiguity using virtual base class:
include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>

class ClassA
{
public:
int a;
};

class ClassB : virtual public ClassA

{
public:
int b;
};
class ClassC : virtual public ClassA
{
public:
int c;
};

class ClassD : public ClassB, public ClassC

{
public:
int d;
};

void main()
{

ClassD obj;

obj.a = 10; //Statement 3

obj.a = 100; //Statement 4

obj.b = 20;
obj.c = 30;
obj.d = 40;

cout<< "\n A : "<< obj.a;

cout<< "\n B : "<< obj.b;
cout<< "\n C : "<< obj.c;
cout<< "\n D : "<< obj.d;

}
Output:
A : 100
B : 20
C : 30
D : 40
According to the above example, ClassD has only one copy of ClassA, therefore, statement
4 will overwrite the value of a, given at statement 3.

Virtual base class in C++

Virtual base classes are used in virtual inheritance in a way of preventing multiple
“instances” of a given class appearing in an inheritance hierarchy when using multiple
inheritances.
Need for Virtual Base Classes:
Consider the situation where we have one class A .This class is A is inherited by two other
classes B and C. Both these class are inherited into another in a new class D as shown in
figure below.

As we can see from the figure that data members/function of class A are inherited twice to
class D. One through class B and second through class C. When any data / function member
of class A is accessed by an object of class D, ambiguity arises as to which data/function
member would be called? One inherited through B or the other inherited through C. This
confuses compiler and it displays error.
Example: To show the need of Virtual Base Class in C++
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class A {
public:
void show()
{
cout << "Hello form A \n";
}
};

class B : public A {
};

class C : public A {
};

class D : public B, public C {

};

int main()
{
D object;
object.show();
}
Compile Errors:
prog.cpp: In function 'int main()':
prog.cpp:29:9: error: request for member 'show' is ambiguous
object.show();
^
prog.cpp:8:8: note: candidates are: void A::show()
void show()
^
prog.cpp:8:8: note: void A::show()

How to resolve this issue?

To resolve this ambiguity when class A is inherited in both class B and class C, it is
declared as virtual base class by placing a keyword virtual as :

Syntax for Virtual Base Classes:

Syntax 1:
class B : virtual public A
{
};

Syntax 2:
class C : public virtual A
{
};
Note: virtual can be written before or after the public. Now only one copy of data/function
member will be copied to class C and class B and class A becomes the virtual base class.
Virtual base classes offer a way to save space and avoid ambiguities in class hierarchies that
use multiple inheritances. When a base class is specified as a virtual base, it can act as an
indirect base more than once without duplication of its data members. A single copy of its
data members is shared by all the base classes that use virtual base.
Example 1
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class A {
public:
int a;
A() // constructor
{
a = 10;
}
};

class B : public virtual A {

};

class C : public virtual A {

};

class D : public B, public C {

};

int main()
{
D object; // object creation of class d
cout << "a = " << object.a << endl;

return 0;
}
Output:
a = 10
Explanation :The class A has just one data member a which is public. This class is
virtually inherited in class B and class C. Now class B and class C becomes virtual base
class and no duplication of data member a is done.
Example 2:
#include <iostream>
using namespace
std;
 class A { public:
void show()
{
cout << "Hello from A \n";
}
};

class B : public virtual A {

};

class C : public virtual A {

};

class D : public B, public C {

};

int main()
{
D object; object.show();
}
Output:
Hello from A

What is Polymorphism in C++?

Polymorphism word is the combination of "poly," which means many + "morphs," which means forms,
which together means many forms. Polymorphism in C++ is when the behavior of the same object or
function is different in different contexts. Let's take a real-world example of the word right can mean
different things in a different context.

 I was right. In the above sentence, the word right means "correct".
 Please take a right turn. The word right refers to the "right direction" in the above sentence.

Example Of Polymorphism in C++

The + operator in C++ is one of the best examples of polymorphism. The + operator is used to add two
integers as follows :

#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;

int main() {
int a = 10;
int b = 32;

cout << "Value of a + b is: " << a + b;

return 0;
}

Output:
Ans:42

However, + is also used to concatenate two string operands. The + operator is used to concatenate two
strings as follows :

#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;

int main() {
string a = "poly";
string b = "morphism";

cout << "Value of a + b is: " << a + b;

return 0;
}

Output:

The value of a+b is:Polymorphism

Types of Polymorphism in C++

Following are the two types of polymorphism in C++ :

1. Compile Time Polymorphism

2. Runtime Polymorphism

Compile Time Polymorphism

Compile-time polymorphism is done by overloading an operator or function. It is also known as "static" or

"early binding".

Why is it called compile-time polymorphism?

Overloaded functions are called by comparing the data types and number of parameters. This type of
information is available to the compiler at the compile time. Thus, the suitable function to be called will be
chosen by the C++ compiler at compilation time.

There are the following types of compile-time polymorphism in C++ :

Function Overloading

When we have two functions with the same name but different parameters, different functions are called
depending on the number and data types of parameters. This is known as function overloading

Function Overloading can be achieved through the following two cases:

 The names of the functions and return types are the same but differ in the type of arguments.
 The name of the functions and return types are the same, but they differ in the number of
arguments.
Let's understand with an example :

#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;
class Temp
{
private:
int x = 10;
double x1 = 10.1;
public:
void add(int y)
{
cout << "Value of x + y is: " << x + y << endl;
}
// Differ in the type of argument.
void add(double d)
{
cout << "Value of x1 + d is: " << x1 + d << endl;
}
// Differ in the number of arguments.
void add(int y, int z)
{
cout << "Value of x + y + z is: " << x + y + z << endl;
}
};
int main() {
Temp t1;
t1.add(10);
t1.add(11.1);
t1.add(12,13);

return 0;
}

Output :

Value of x + y is: 20
Value of x1 + d is: 21.2
Value of x + y + z is: 35

Explanation:

 In the above example, the add function is overloaded.

 t1 is the object of class Temp, t1.add(10). It will call void add(int y).
 t1.add(11.1), it will call void add(double d).
  t1.add(12,13), it will call void add(int y, int z).
 The overloaded functions are called by matching the type and number of arguments. Because this
information is available at compile-time, the compiler selects the proper function based on its
parameters.

Operator Overloading

When an operator is updated to be used for user-defined data types (objects etc.), this is known as operator
overloading. To use operator overloading, at least one operand must be a user-defined data type.

Note:

 A user-defined type must be present in at least one operand.

 ".", "::", typeid, size, ".*", and C++'s single ternary operator, "?:", are among the operators that
cannot be overloaded.

These are some of the operators that can be overloaded in C++ :

Arithmetic operators : - , + , / , * , % and -=, +=, /= , *= , %=

Boolean algebra : !=, ==, > ,< ,>=, <= , && ,||

Bit manipulation : &, |, ^ ,<< ,>> and |=, &= ,>>=, <<=, ^=

Memory management : new[], new, delete[], delete

Note:

 New and Delete operators can be overloaded globally, or they can be overloaded for specific
classes. If these operators are overloaded using the member function for a class, they are
overloaded only for that specific class.

Syntax :

#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

class Count {
int x;
public:
// Constructor
Count(int X = 0) {
this -> x = X;
}
// Overloading the ++ operator.
Count operator++() {
Count c;

c.x = ++x;

return c;
}
 // Print value of x.
void print() {
cout << x << endl;
}

};

int main() {
Count c1(42);

cout << "Before using ++ operator: ";

c1.print();

Count c2 = ++c1;
cout << "After using ++ operator: ";
c2.print();

Output :
Before using ++ operator: 42
After using ++ operator: 43

Explanation:

 In the above example, the ++ operator is overloaded for a user-defined data type, an object of
the Count class.
 Count c1(42); creates the object of Count type, in which data member x will have a value equal
to 42.
 Count c2 = ++c1; this calls the ++ operator function on t1, which makes the value of x as 43.

Runtime Polymorphism

Runtime polymorphism occurs when functions are resolved at runtime rather than compile time when a
call to an overridden method is resolved dynamically at runtime rather than compile time. It's also known
as late binding or dynamic binding.

Runtime polymorphism is achieved using a combination of function overriding and virtual functions.

The following sections will show an example of overriding with and without the virtual keyword.

Function Overriding without Virtual Keyword

Function Overriding is when more than one method of the derived class has the same name, the
same number of parameters, and the same parameter type as of base class.
Syntax :

// Without virtual function.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Polygon {
protected: int height,
width;
public: void set_values(int x, int y) {
width = x;
height = y;
}
int area() {
return 0;
}
};

class Rectangle: public Polygon {

public: int area() {
return width * height;
}
};

class Triangle: public Polygon {

public: int area() {
return (width * height / 2);
}
};

int main() {
Rectangle rect;
Triangle trgl;
Polygon poly;

Polygon * ppoly1 = & rect;

Polygon * ppoly2 = & trgl;
Polygon * ppoly3 = & poly;

ppoly1 -> set_values(10, 20);

ppoly2 -> set_values(10, 20);
ppoly3 -> set_values(10, 20);

cout << "Area of Rectangle is: " << ppoly1 -> area() << '\n';
cout << "Area of Triangle is: " << ppoly2 -> area() << '\n';
cout << "Area of Polygon is: " << ppoly3 -> area() << '\n';
return 0;
}

Output:
Area of Rectangle is: 0
Area of Triangle is: 0
Area of Polygon is: 0

Explanation:

 In this example, the width, height, and functions set values and area are shared by all three classes
(Polygon, Rectangle, and Triangle).
 Three references to Polygon are declared in the main function (ppoly1, ppoly2, and ppoly3 ). These
are given the addresses rect and trgl poly, which are objects of type Rectangle, Triangle,
and Polygon, respectively. Rectangle and Triangle are Polygon-derived classes; therefore, such
assignments are permitted.
 ppoly1 -> set_values (10, 20); is similar to rect.set_values (10, 20); and ppoly2 -> set_values (10,
20); is similar to trgl.set_values (10, 20);
 ppoly1 -> area() and ppoly1 -> area() is called this will call area function of the base class Polygon.
 This happens due to static linkage, which implies that the compiler only sets the call to the area()
once in the base class.
 To overcome this problem, the concept of virtual pointers is introduced.

Function Overriding with Virtual Keyword

A virtual function in C++ is a base class member function. In a derived class, we can redefine it. The
virtual function must be declared using the keyword virtual in the base class. A class that declares or
inherits a virtual function is called a polymorphic class.

Syntax :

// With virtual function

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Polygon {
protected: int height,
width;
public: void set_values(int x, int y) {
width = x;
height = y;
}
virtual int area() {
return 0;
}
};

class Rectangle: public Polygon {

public: int area() {
return width * height;
}
};

class Triangle: public Polygon {

 public: int area() {
return (width * height / 2);

}
};

int main() {
Rectangle rect;
Triangle trgl;
Polygon poly;

Polygon * ppoly1 = & rect;

Polygon * ppoly2 = & trgl;
Polygon * ppoly3 = & poly;

ppoly1 -> set_values(10, 20);

ppoly2 -> set_values(10, 20);
ppoly3 -> set_values(10, 20);

cout << "Area of Rectangle is: " << ppoly1 -> area() << '\n';
cout << "Area of Triangle is: " << ppoly2 -> area() << '\n';
cout << "Area of Polygon is: " << ppoly3 -> area() << '\n';
return 0;
}

Output:
Area of Rectangle is: 200
Area of Triangle is: 100
Area of Polygon is: 0

Explanation:

 ppoly1 -> area() is called it will call area function of Rectangle class.
 ppoly2 -> area() is called it will call area function of Triangle class.
 This is because we used the virtual keyword to make the base class Polygon method area virtual in
this code. The confusion over which function to call will be resolved at runtime, resulting in the
desired outcome.

Pure Virtual Function

A Pure Virtual Function is a virtual function declared in the base class without definition. In simple words,
it does nothing in the base class. But the derived class must provide an implementation for this function.
Otherwise, we'll get a compilation error.

Syntax :

#include <bits/stdc++.h>

using namespace std;

class Base {
public: virtual void func() = 0; // Pure Virtual Function
};
class Derived: public Base {
public: void func() {
cout << "Inside derived class" << endl;
}
};
int main() {
Base * b1;
b1 = new Derived();
b1 -> func();

return 0;
}
Output:
Inside derived class

Explanation:

 Base *b1; a pointer to an object of the base class is created.

 b1 = new Derived(), b1 is now an object of Derived class.
 b1 -> func() will call the func() of the Derived class because it was declared as a virtual function in
the Base class.

To check what error we get if we don't provide the definition of func() in Derived, comment out the
definition and re-compile the above code. We get the following error:

g++ /tmp/main.cpp
/tmp/main.cpp: In function 'int main()':
/tmp/main.cpp:19:22: error: invalid new-expression of abstract class type 'Derived'
19 | b1 = new Derived();
| ^
/tmp/main.cpp:9:7: note: because the following virtual functions are pure within 'Derived':
9 | class Derived : public Base
| ^~~~~~~
/tmp/main.cpp:6:17: note: 'virtual void Base::func()'
6 | virtual void func() = 0; // Pure Virtual Function
| ^~~~

Compile-Time Polymorphism Vs. Run-Time Polymorphism

Compile Time Polymorphism Run-Time Polymorphism

At Compile time, which functions to be called is At Runtime, which function to be called is
decided. decided.
Also known as early or static binding Also known as late or dynamic binding
It executes faster because the function is resolved at It executes slower because the function is
compilation time only. resolved at Run-time.
It is achieved through function and operator It is achieved through function overriding and
overloading virtual functions

Conclusion

 Polymorphism in C++ is when the behavior of the same object or function is different in different
contexts.
 It is of two types: Compile-time Polymorphism and Runtime Polymorphism.
 In Compile Time Polymorphism, the function to be invoked is decided at the compile time only. It
is achieved using a function or operator overloading.
 In Runtime Polymorphism, the function invoked is decided at the Run-time. It is achieved using
function overriding and virtual functions.
 The virtual function must be declared using the keyword "virtual" in the base class.
 A Pure Virtual Function is a virtual function declared in the base class without definition.