Transport Lab Manual

Traffic Engineering Lab
Manuals & Reports

Transportation Systems Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

Traffic Engineering Lab Manuals
Transportation Systems Engineering
Authors:
Dr. Mallikarjuna C
Associate Professor
Dr. Anjan Kumar S

Assistant Professor
Suvin P V
Research Scholar
Pranab Kar
Research Scholar
Nishant Bhargava
Research Scholar
Anjanaya Bharat
Research Scholar
Bhaskar Pratim Das

Research Scholar
Contents
Driver Vision Test ……. 1
Analysis and Modelling of Free Flow Speed Distributions of Various Types of

Vehicles and Statistically Test the Normalcy of Collected Speed Data ……. 9
Analysis and Modelling of Time Headway ……. 25
Macroscopic Modelling of Highway Traffic ……. 35
Moving Observer Method ……. 45
Determination of Hourly Flow and Peak Hour Factor ……. 55
Gap Acceptance Analysis for Critical Gap Estimation ……. 63
Design of Traffic Signal ……. 73
Parking Studies ……. 89

Evaluation Form
Name : ………………………………………………………………………….
Roll Number : ………………………………………………………………………….
Academic Year : …………………………………………….............................................
Sl. No. Name of Experiment Marks Signature

1 Driver Vision Test
2 Spot Speed Study
3 Time Headway Study
4 Analysis of Macroscopic Relationships
5 Moving Observer Method
6 Peak Hour Factor Analysis
7 Critical Gap Study
8 Signal Design
9 Parking Study
1
Driver Vision Test

1.0 Aim:
To check the eye conditions of each students by performing vision test. Also solve a given
practical problem associated to vision acuity using acuity test result of each individual.
1.1 Introduction:
Driving is inarguably a highly visual task. Even though visual acuity is the ubiquitous screening
test during application for a driver’s license, many other aspects of visual function and visual
processing are undoubtedly involved in supporting the effective control of a vehicle. When
driving it is important to have clear comfortable vision. You need to be able to judge distances,
read road signs and traffic lights and respond to changes in your environment quickly and
efficiently. If you are not able to see well you will not be able to respond quickly when needed.
This can be dangerous to both you and other road users. There are a number of eye conditions
that can cause vision problems among drivers. Studies suggest up to 80% of all crashes can be
avoided with better vision skills. Our eyes are one of the most important safety features we have
when driving. They allow us to position the vehicle, gauge our speed, see potential hazards and
manoeuvre the vehicle. About 90% of the information we use when driving is gathered by our
vision. Other senses such as hearing, touch, feel, balance and smell provide the remaining
information. Hence it is important that driver vision should be checked before providing driver
licence in order to ensure safety of the licensee and also the co-drivers.
1.2 Equipment required:
 The DVS-GT Deluxe
 Elliptech Control Unit attached with the DVS-GT Deluxe
Figure 1: DVS-GT Deluxe equipment
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Figure 2: Elliptech Control Unit
1.3 Relevance and Importance:

A driver's license eye test or vision screening is necessary to determine whether an individual
who is applying for or renewing a driver's license meets the vision standards required for safe
driving. It is also the basis for determining the type of driver's license issued to a driver. Exact
vision requirements vary by state. In the state of Virginia, for example, a driver with 20/40 vision
and 100 degrees horizontal vision in one or both eyes is eligible for a driver's license without
restrictions. A driver with 20/70 vision and 70 degrees horizontal vision in one or both eyes can
get a restricted driver's license that permits driving during the daylight hours only. Stricter
standards apply for drivers applying for a commercial driver's license. A person who passes the
eye test with his eyeglasses on or contacts in must wear the same corrective lenses whenever
driving, as indicated in his driver's license restrictions.
Table 1. Visual Factors in the driving task
Visual Factor Definition Sample Related Driving Task (s)
Change in shape of the lens to Changing focus from dashboards
Accommodation
bring images to focus. displays to roadways
Static Visual
Ability to see small details clearly Reading distant traffic signs
Acuity
Change in sensitivity to different Adjust to changes in light upon
Adaptation
levels of light entering the tunnel
Angular Seeing objects moving across the Judging the speed of cars crossing
Movement field of view drivers’ paths.
Movement in Detecting changes in visual image Judging speed of an approaching
Depth size. vehicle.
Discrimination between different
Color Identifying the color of the signals.
colors
Contrast Seeing objects that are similar in Detecting dark clothed pedestrians
Sensitivity brightness to their background at night
Passing on two-lane roads with
Depth Perception Judgment of the distance of objects
oncoming traffic
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Dynamic Visual Ability to see objects that are in

Reading traffic signs while moving
Acuity motion relative to the eyes
Scanning the road environment for
Eye Movement Changing the direction of gaze.
hazards
Ability to resist and recover from Reduction in visual performance
Glare Sensitivity
the effects of glare. due to headlight glare
Detection of objects at the side of Seeing a bicycle approaching from
Peripheral Vision
the visual field the left
1.4 Test Description

Acuity test:
This screens the right and left eyes separately and together. Binocular acuity is also tested at an
intermediate distance of 3 meters as in dim-light (night) illumination. Nine separate blocks
containing three digits of 20/40 acuity letters each. The first column tests eyes; the second tests
right eye acuity, and third test left eye acuity. All three lines should be read, and only as many as
two digits in each column can be misread without failure. Both monocular and binocular vision
can be done in one test vision.
Colour Vision:
The subject is shown 15 coloured circles designed to identify problems distinguishing red, Green
and yellow traffic colours. Correctly naming the colours in all circles is the minimum acceptable
answer. Missing one or more may indicate some colour blindness and further examination. This
is the test for gross, red/green colour deficiency. If at least 3 of the 4 numbers presented are not
identified by the subject, further examination by a vision should recommend. The key on the
control shows the correct numbers to read back by the examinee.
Depth Perception:
The drivers are asked to identify six road signs and determine which of the two appear closest to
and farthest away from them. Both the closest and farthest sign should be identified to gauge if
the subject has normal depth perception.
Phoria (Binocular coordination) test:
This test determines the subject’s eye muscle are properly balanced and coordinated. The driver
is asked to say, “Is the red dot inside or outside the yellow box?” It is completely normal for the
dot to move around a bit, but its movement will slow down to limited range in a few moments. If
the dot is outside the box a referral should be made for a full professional eye examination.
Contrast Sensitivity:
This test tests the driver’s ability to discern objects under a variety of lighting conditions (e.g.
dawn, dusk and low light driving conditions). Drivers are presented with 9 blocks of numbers
varying in contrast from 10 to 90 %.
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Glare Recovery:
This test tests the driver’s ability to adopt to decreased illumination and to recover rapidly from
exposure to glare such as one would encounter while driving at night. Drivers are presented 3
rows of 7 numbers shown under decreased (night) illumination, then a bright glare will
illuminate for 3 seconds returning back to night illumination.
Horizontal Field Testing:
Miniature lamp targets between the lenses and recessed in the temple areas of the viewing head
show how far to the side a driver’s visual field extends when he/she looks straight ahead. Persons
with “tunnel vision”, a grossly-restricted peripheral field, are quickly identified.
Vertical Field Vision:
Miniature lamp (LED) targets above and below the lenses of the viewing head show how far up
and down a driver’s visual field extend when he/she looks straight ahead. The vertical targets are
selectively lit by individual buttons on the control panel or software screen to show an upper and
lower left and upper and lower right fields. Drivers should be able to respond to at least 55
degrees and 77 degrees temporal tests for each eye. If they cannot, a visual problem may exist
and referral should make.
Problem
Q. On a freeway (expressway) a sharp horizontal curve exists. The speed limit on the curve is 40
kmph. The speed limit on the expressway is 75 kmph. A sign is to be posted, warning drivers of
the impending curve and advising them to slow down to the speed limit. Determine the
longitudinal placement of the sign and the letter size for the sign. Assume that the perception-
reaction time is 1.5 s, the coefficient of friction is 0.3, the road has 0% grade, and a design driver
has 6/9 vision. Also assume that the perception-reaction time includes the time taken to read the
sign.
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CE 410 – Transportation Engineering II Laboratory
LAB #2: Analysis and Modeling of Free-Flow Speed Distributions of Various Types of
Vehicles and Statistically Test the Normalcy of Collected Speed Data
Required reading:
1. C.S. Papacostas and P.D. Prevedouros, Transportation Engineering and Planning,

Prentice Hall India, 2001.
2. P. Chakroborty and A. Das, Principles of Transportation Engineering, Prentice Hall
India, 2003
3. R.P. Roess, W.R. McShane, and E.S. Prassas, Traffic Engineering, Prentice Hall,
1990.
Conduct a spot speed study using a radar gun. You may form data acquisition teams
consisting of six persons each. Each group will be assigned to collect speed data
corresponding to a particular type of vehicle. Each team is to make an independent study,
collecting speed data of at least 100 vehicles randomly selected, or for a one-hour period,
whichever comes first. The data should be collected during daylight hours and preferably
during the afternoon off-peak period. Choose a mid-block location on NH-27. When
measuring approach speeds for a signalized intersection (or any kind of bottleneck), be sure
to collect them at a mid-link location upstream of the intersection where the effects of the red
light (that is, queued up vehicles) would be minimal.
Be certain to select an observation point which assures the most objectivity for your study.
Also be certain to do nothing that would constitute a hazard to yourselves or the public.
Collected data will randomly have grouped to a set of 60 data points and given to each
students. Calculations and conclusions over the data given to each students have to be
performed and submitted separately. Each report should contain the following information:
1. Mean
2. Histogram
3. Cumulative frequency distribution
4. 15th and 85th percentile speeds
5. Chi-square goodness-of-fit test to determine if the data is normally distributed.
6. A determination of the necessary sample size if the error between the sample
mean and the true mean is to be less than 2kmph with a level of confidence of
99.0%
The submitted report should have the following format (Following the format is important):
1. Title page
2. Table of contents
3. Introduction
4. Summary of results (attached sheet)
5. Graphs: histogram and cumulative frequency distribution
6. Discussion of results, conclusions, and recommendations
7. Appendix: raw data and Chi-square calculations
This report is to be completed and turned in by: within a week from the assigned date unless
otherwise instructed by the course coordinator.
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1.0 Aim
To determine the free-flow speed distribution of various types of vehicles, moving on a mid-
block section of the road.
1.1 Introduction
Speed is an important traffic stream characteristic because it relates to safety, time, comfort,
convenience, and economics. Speed and travel time are the most commonly used indicators
of performance for traffic facilities and networks. Speed is defined as the distance traversed
divided by the time of travel and is commonly expressed in Miles per Hour or in Kilometers
per Hour.
There are three basic classes or measures of speed of travel,
1. Spot Speed
2. Running/ Operating Speed
3. Overall/ Journey Speed
Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle as it passes a specified point along a
highway. Overall and Running speeds are the speeds over a relatively long section of street or
highway between an origin and a destination. Generally, journey and running speeds are used
in travel time studies to compare the quality of service between alternative routes.
Mathematically these speeds can be expressed as,

=
( )

=

Overall and Running speed are generally measured by means of a test vehicle that is driven
over the test section of roadway. As this particular study is regarding the free flow speed
distribution of traffic, spot speed survey has to be carried out. The following section will
explain briefly about spot speed study.
Spot Speed
Spot speed studies are used to determine the speed distribution in a traffic stream at a specific
location. It is the mostly used indicator that traffic engineers use to measure the speed that
drivers freely select, meaning that spot speed studies are conducted under free flow
conditions. The time of day for conducting a speed study depends on the purpose of the
study. In general, when the purpose of the study is to establish speed limits, to observe speed
trends, or to collect basic data, it is recommended that the study to be conducted when traffic
is free flowing, usually during off-peak hours. However, when a speed study is conducted in
response to citizen complaints, it is useful if the time period selected for the study reflects the
nature of the complaints. For a spot speed study at a selected location, a sample size of at
least 50 and preferably 100 vehicles are usually obtained. Traffic counts during a Monday
morning or a Friday peak period may show exceptionally high volumes and are not normally
used in the analysis; therefore, counts are usually conducted on a Tuesday, Wednesday, and
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Thursday. The duration of the study should be such that the minimum number of vehicle
speeds required for statistical analysis is recorded, typically, over at least an hour period.
Following methods are used for spot speed study-
(1) Radar guns (hand-held or mounted on a vehicle)
(2) Stop-watch method (manual)
(3) Loop detector
(4) Microwaved-detector
(5) Video-frequency detector
The stopwatch method is the least expensive and least accurate of the methods.
1.2 Radar gun Method

A radar gun is a commonly used device for directly measuring speeds in spot speed studies.
This device may be hand-held, mounted in a vehicle, or mounted on a tripod.
1.2.1 Apparatus Required

1) Radar Gun
2) Note pad
3) Data sheet
a) b)
Figure 1: a) Hand held Radar Gun b) Tripod mounted radar gun
1.2.2 Theory
Working Principle
Radar guns wok based on the principle of Doppler Effect. Radar guns basically consist of a
radio transmitter and a receiver. They send out a radio signal in a narrow beam, then receive
the same signal back after it bounces off the target object. Due to a phenomenon called
the Doppler effect, if the object is moving toward or away from the gun, the frequency of the
reflected radio waves will be different from the transmitted waves. From that difference, the
radar speed gun can calculate the speed of the object from which the waves have been
bounced. This speed is given by the following equation:
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∆
= ∗
2
where c is the speed of light, f is the emitted frequency of the radio waves and ∆f is the
difference in frequency between emitted and received signals.
The range of radar gun generally varies from 60m to 3km. A radar gun requires line-of-sight
to accurately measure the speed and is easily operated by one person. The instruments
directly measure the speed and an accuracy of at least (+/-) 1.5 to 3 kmph. The instrument is
battery operated and is portable. The speed meter is so kept that the angle between the
direction of travel of vehicle and the axis of transmission of the radio wave is as low as
possible, say within 200. Different sized vehicles and the detection of the observation vehicle
may affect radar readings. Large vehicles such as trucks and buses send the strongest return
signal to the radar meters and as a result smaller vehicles may not be detected. The
instrument is set up near the edge of the carriageway at a height of about 1m, above the
ground level. The speed of vehicles in both directions can be observed by this method.
1.2.3 Application
Spot speed data have several applications, including the following -
1. Determining the existing traffic operations and evaluation of traffic control devices
i. Evaluating and determining proper speed limits
ii. Determining the 15th, 50th and 85th speed percentiles
iii. Evaluating and determining proper advisory speeds
iv. Establishing the limits of no-passing zones
v. Determining the proper placement of traffic control signs and markings
vi. Setting appropriate traffic signal timing
2. Establishing roadway design elements
i. Evaluating and determining proper intersection sight distance
ii. Evaluating and determining proper passing sight distance
iii. Evaluating and determining proper stopping sight distance
3. Assessing roadway safety questions
i. Evaluating and verifying speeding problems
ii. Assessing speed as a contributor to vehicle crashes
iii. Investigating input from the public or other officials
4. Monitoring traffic speed trends by systematic ongoing speed studies
5. Measuring effectiveness of traffic control devices or traffic programs, including signs
and markings, traffic operational changes, and speed enforcement programs
1.2.4 Procedure
While conducting the spot speed survey the following aspects need to be taken into
consideration.
Step 1: Location for Spot Speed Studies
The following locations are used generally for different applications listed:
1. Locations that represent different traffic conditions on highway or highways are used
for basic data collection.
2. Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight, level sections of rural highways are sites
for speed trend analysis.
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3. Any location may be used for the solution of a specific traffic engineering problem.
When spot speed studies are being conducted, it is important that unbiased data be obtained.
This requires that drivers be unaware that such a study is being conducted. Equipment used,
therefore, should be concealed from the driver, and observers conducting study should be
inconspicuous. Since the speeds recorded eventually will be subjected to statistical analysis, it
is important that a statistically adequate number of vehicle speeds are recorded.
Step 2: Appropriate Selection Strategy should be determined in order to avoid biasness
It is important to select the target vehicles that represent the vehicle population under study. it
is as certain that what type of vehicles are concerned such as small cars (Hatchbacks and
Sedan), large cars (SUVs and MPVs), trucks, busses, motorized-two-wheelers, and LCV. It is
important that speed collected from a particular vehicle should be corresponding to free flow
condition.
Step 3: Record observations on radar gun speed data form

1.2.4 Sample calculation related to speed distribution
Frequency distribution of a sample speed survey is tabulated as follows;
Table 1: Frequency analysis of spot speeds
Speed Group Middle Observed % Frequency Cumulative % fi*ui

Lower Upper Speed, ui Frequency in Group, fi Frequency
Limit
10 Limit
15 12.5 in Group,
5 n 1.7668 1.7668 62.5
15 20 17.5 5 1.7668 3.5336 87.5
20 25 22.5 7 2.4735 6.0071 157.5
25 30 27.5 13 4.5936 10.6007 357.5
30 35 32.5 21 7.4205 18.0212 682.5
35 40 37.5 33 11.6608 29.682 1237.5
40 45 42.5 46 16.2544 45.9364 1955
45 50 47.5 62 21.9081 67.8445 2945
50 55 52.5 37 13.0742 80.9187 1942.5
55 60 57.5 24 8.4806 89.3993 1380
60 65 62.5 14 4.947 94.3463 875
65 70 67.5 9 3.1802 97.5265 607.5
70 75 72.5 5 1.7668 99.2933 362.5
75 80 77.5 2 0.7067 100 155
Total 283 12807.5
Histogram and Cumulative Frequency Distribution curve are plotted corresponding to the
observed speed data as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2, respectively.
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Figure 1: Histogram and Probability Density Function
Figure 2: Cumulative Frequency Distribution Curve
Mean Speed: Mean is a measure of central tendency. It is defined as the arithmetic average
of all the observed vehicle speeds. Computing the mean speed requires the assumption that
the average speed within a given speed group is the midpoint, ui, of the group. This is the
reason that speed group of more than 8 kmph (5 mi/hr) are never used.
The mean or average speed is then computed as the sum divided by number of observed
speeds:
∑ " "
ū =
where,
∑ " ū = arithmetic mean
" = number of observations in each speed group
" = mid value for the ith speed group
For the observations given in Table 1,
#$%&'.)
Mean speed, ū =
$%*
= 45.256 kmph
∑ ,-(.- /0̅ )
Standard Deviation, =+
2/#
= 12.342 kmph
15th and 85th percentile speeds: The 85th and 15th percentile speeds give a general
description of the high and low speeds observed by most reasonable drivers. It is generally
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thought that the upper and lower 15% of distribution represents speeds that are either too fast
or too slow for the existing conditions.
V85 = 57.5 kmph V15 = 34 kmph
Need of modeling the free flow speed data
The advantage of fitting a distribution (or a model) to the field data lies in making inferences
about its various statistical properties (like mean, variance, skewness, etc.) and to make
predictions. Speed models are the key input to vehicle generation models used in traffic
simulation.
Chi-square goodness of fit test: The assumption of normality is particularly common in

classical statistical tests. The chi-square goodness-of-fit test is applied to binned data (i.e.,
data put into classes). The chi-square test is defined for the following hypothesis:
H0 : The data follows Normal Distribution.
H1 : The data do not follow Normal Distribution.
The null hypothesis is rejected if the theoretical chi-square value corresponding to a

particular significance level (α) is less than the calculated chi- square value for a specified
degree of freedom (df).
i.e., 3 $ > 3#/4,6.

$
Table 2: Chi-square Test for Normalcy on Illustrative Spot Speed Data

Observed Upper Probability
Speed Group Prob. Theoretical
Middle Frequency Limit (Std. of Combined Combined 2
Frequency, χ Group
Lower Upper Speed, u i in Group, Normal) occurrence Groups, n group, f
z ≤ zd f
Limit Limit n zd in group
10 15 12.5 5 -2.45 0.0071 0.0071 2.0093
15 20 17.5 5 -2.05 0.0202 0.0131 3.7073 10 5.7166 3.2095
20 25 22.5 7 -1.64 0.0505 0.0303 8.5749 7 8.5749 0.2893
25 30 27.5 13 -1.24 0.1075 0.057 16.131 13 16.131 0.6077
30 35 32.5 21 -0.83 0.2033 0.0958 27.1114 21 27.1114 1.3776
35 40 37.5 33 -0.43 0.3339 0.1306 36.9598 33 36.9598 0.4242
40 45 42.5 46 -0.02 0.492 0.1581 44.7423 46 44.7423 0.0354
45 50 47.5 62 0.38 0.648 0.156 44.148 62 44.148 7.2188
50 55 52.5 37 0.79 0.7852 0.1372 38.8276 37 38.8276 0.086
55 60 57.5 24 1.19 0.883 0.0978 27.6774 24 27.6774 0.4886
60 65 62.5 14 1.6 0.9432 0.0602 17.0366 14 17.0366 0.5412
65 70 67.5 9 2 0.9772 0.034 9.622 9 9.622 0.0402
70 75 72.5 5 2.41 0.992 0.0148 4.1884 7 6.4524 0.0465
75 77.5 2 1 0.008 2.264
Total 1 283 283 283 14.365
for grouped data, the chi-square statistic is computed as:
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(" − " )$ Where, 3 $ = chi-square statistic

3$ = 7 " = frequency of observation in speed group i
"
29 " = theoretical frequency in speed group i,
assuming that the assumed distribution
exists
:; = number of speed groups in the distribution
Step 1: The upper limit of each speed group is converted into an equivalent value of z on the
standard normal distribution using the equation:
=" − > Where, =" = a value on any normal distribution, x: N [>, ? ].
<" =
? > = mean of the speed distribution.
? = standard deviation of the distribution.
<" = equivalent value on standard normal
distribution, z: N [0,1].
This computation is illustrated for the speed group an upper limit of 60 kmph.
@&/A).$)@
<@& = = 1.19
#$.*A$
Step 2: From the standard normal distribution table, the probability of z ≤ zd is found and
tabulated.
Step 3: Assuming a normal distribution of speed data, the probability of a speed being in any
speed group is found. For illustration, consider a speed group of 55-60. 0.883 is the
probability of speed ≤ 60 kmph occurring on a normal distribution; 0.7852 is the
probability of speed ≤ 55 kmph occurring. Thus, the probability of an occurrence
between 55 and 60 kmph is 0.883-0.7852 = 0.0978.
Step 4: Theoretical frequencies are found by multiplying the sample size by the probability of
an occurrence in that speed group. For 55-60 kmph, theoretical freq. = 0.0978×283 =
27.6774.
Step 5: The chi-square test valid only when all values of the theoretical frequency are 5 or
more. To achieve this, the first and last two speed group must be combined. The
observed frequencies are similarly combined.
Step 6: the value of chi-square for each speed group is computed as shown. The computation
for the 55-60 kmph group is illustrated here:
" − " $ 24 − 27.6774$

3$ = 7 = = 0.4886
" 27.6774
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These values are summed to yield the final value of 3 $ for the distribution, which is
14.365.
Step 7: For further analysis, chi-square distribution table is used. The vertical axis of chi-
square table shows the degree of freedom. For chi-square distribution, degree of
freedom is the number of data groups (after they are combined to yield a theoretical
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frequency 5 or more) minus 3. Three degree of freedom are lost because calculation
of chi-square requires three characteristics of measured distribution, such as, mean,
standard deviation and sample size. Thus, for the illustrative spot speed study, degree
of freedom = 12 – 3 = 9.
Step 8: From the chi-square distribution table, the critical chi-square value is obtained as
16.92. As the critical chi-square value is greater than the observed value, the null
hypothesis can be accepted. This is a weak conclusion and needs to be further tested
with more data.
Determination of necessary sample size: The minimum sample size required if the error
between the sample mean and the true mean is less than 2 km/h with a confidence level of
99.0% can be determined using the following formula:
JK
N = $ Where,
6 N = minimum sample size
Z = number of standard deviations
corresponding to the required confidence level
σ = standard deviation (km/h)
d = limit of acceptable error in the average speed estimate
(km/h)
From table, Z value corresponding to 99% confidence level is 2.58. then,
$.)%×#$.*A$ $
N =
$
≈ 254
The minimum number speed data should be collected for the requirement is 254. As the
collected data is more than minimum, i.e. 283, it satisfies the requirement of the study.
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Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle

Speed Speed Speed Speed Speed
Number Number Number Number Number
1 21 41 61 81
2 22 42 62 82
3 23 43 63 83
4 24 44 64 84
5 25 45 65 85
6 26 46 66 86
7 27 47 67 87
8 28 48 68 88
9 29 49 69 89
10 30 50 70 90
11 31 51 71 91
12 32 52 72 92
13 33 53 73 93
14 34 54 74 94
15 35 55 75 95
16 36 56 76 96
17 37 57 77 97
18 38 58 78 98
19 39 59 79 99
20 40 60 80 100
Date: Remarks
Start Time:
End Time
Location of Study: Signature
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LAB #3: Analysis and Modelling of Time Headway
References:
India, 2003
1990.
4. A.D.May, Traffic Flow Fundamentals, Prentice Hall, 1990.
Instructions
Video data collected on the traffic stream would be provided to you for extracting the time
headway data. The study has to be performed by each individual separately and submit the
report to the respective TA. Each student will be given with a traffic video of 10 minutes
duration. It is important that the entire video should be processed. You will be noting down
the time instant at which each vehicle is crossing a reference section. Data should be
collected with reference to the front bumper of the vehicle. The difference between the
timings corresponding to consecutive vehicle arrivals at the reference section is to be taken as
the time headway.
Collected data have to be analysed and modelled using an appropriate mathematical
distribution. The model should be statistically verified.
Each report should contain the following information:
1. Histogram and Relative Frequency Distribution Curves.
2. Average Headway
3. Average arrival rate
4. Chi-square test to check the goodness of fit of selected distribution.
1. Title page
3. Introduction
4. Objective
5. Summary of the calculations and results
6. Discussion on results, conclusions
7. Appendix: raw data
This report is to be submitted within a week from the assigned date unless otherwise
instructed by the course coordinator.
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Objective: To collect, analyse and model the time headway data under free flow conditions.
Introduction:
The microscopic characteristic corresponding to flow is the time headway or simply
headway. Time headway is the time interval between the successive vehicles crossing a
point/section on the roadway. It is an important microscopic flow characteristic that affects
the safety, level of service, driver behaviour and capacity of transportation systems. The
inter-arrival time or the time headway is not constant and stochastic in nature under free flow
conditions. A common way of modelling is to treat the inter-arrival time or the time headway
as a random variable and use appropriate probabilistic distributions to model them.
Modelling arrival of the vehicles at a section of road is an important step in traffic
flow modelling. It has important application in traffic flow simulation where vehicles are to
be generated, representing the field conditions. Vehicle arrivals can be modelled in two inter-
related ways; namely modelling what is the time interval between the successive arrival of
vehicles or modelling how many vehicles arrive in a given interval of time. In the former
approach, the random variable, the time interval between the arrivals of successive vehicles,
can be any positive real values and hence some suitable continuous distribution can be used
to model the vehicle arrival. In the latter approach, the random variables represent the number
of vehicles arrived in a given interval of time and hence it takes some integer values and
hence a discrete distribution can be used to model the process.
Requirements:
1. Recorded Video of traffic (provided by the TA)
2. Screen marker
3. Media player classic
4. Writing Pad/excel spread sheet
5. Survey Proforma
Procedure:
Step 1: Identify an appropriate section of the road in the given traffic video and make a line
across the road using Screen Marker application. The selected section of road should
be such that all the vehicles can be easily distinguishable at that location.
Step 2: Note down the time at which each vehicle touches the line, to an accuracy of
milliseconds.
Step 3: Get the time headways by subtracting successive arrival time data.
Step 4: Use appropriate mathematical distributions to model the headway and check for the
goodness of fit using Chi-Square test.
Theory:
Time-space diagram showing few trajectories and the corresponding time headways is shown
in Figure 1.
18
27
Figure 1: Vehicle Trajectory Corresponding to Stationary Traffic Condition

The individual values of time headway will vary greatly depending upon the period of
observation. The extent of these variations depends largely on the type of flow prevalent
during that observation period. One must decide the type of distribution based on the
collected data. Following figures corresponding to some distribution functions that headway
can follow.
Figure 2: i) Negative Exponential Distribution ii) Log-Normal Distribution

iii) Normal Distribution
Sample Calculation Related to Headway Distribution
Frequency distribution of a sample headway survey is tabulated as follows;
Table 1: Headway Distribution on a Two-Way Highway

Headway
Mid
interval Frequency, Relative
Value, fi*hi
Lower Upper f Frequency
hi
limit limit
0 2 1 89 21.446 89
2 4 3 66 15.904 198
4 6 5 54 13.012 270
6 8 7 39 9.398 273
8 10 9 33 7.952 297
10 12 11 28 6.747 308
12 14 13 23 5.542 299
14 16 15 16 3.855 240
16 18 17 17 4.096 289
18 20 19 14 3.373 266
20 22 21 11 2.651 231
22 24 23 10 2.410 230
24 26 25 5 1.205 125
26 28 27 4 0.964 108
28 30 29 3 0.723 87
30 32 31 3 0.723 93
32 34 33 0 0.000 0
415 3403
19
28
1. Histogram
100
80
Frequency
60
40
20
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33
Headway (sec)
Figure 4: Histogram
25
Relative Frequency
20
15
10
0
0 10 20 30
Headway(sec)
Figure 5: Relative Frequency Distribution Curve

∑
2. Average headway: It is calculated as, ̅
∑
= 8.2 sec
where xi is the mid-value for the ith class interval and fi is the corresponding frequency.
3. Average arrival rate:
= 0.12 veh/sec
4. The Goodness of Fit Test:

Calculations corresponding to the chi-square goodness of fit testing are shown in the
following table. For more details on this testing refer to Manual#2.
20
29
Observed Theoretical Chi-

Starting Ending λ*t1 λ*t2 Probability
Frequency Frequency squared
0 2 89 0 0.24 0.213 88.549 0.002
2 4 66 0.24 0.48 0.168 69.655 0.192
4 6 54 0.48 0.72 0.132 54.793 0.011
6 8 39 0.72 0.96 0.104 43.102 0.390
8 10 33 0.96 1.2 0.082 33.905 0.024
10 12 28 1.2 1.44 0.064 26.671 0.066
12 14 23 1.44 1.68 0.051 20.980 0.195
14 16 16 1.68 1.92 0.040 16.503 0.015
16 18 17 1.92 2.16 0.031 12.982 1.244
18 20 14 2.16 2.4 0.025 10.212 1.405
20 22 11 2.4 2.64 0.019 8.033 1.096
22 24 10 2.64 2.88 0.015 6.319 2.144
24 26 5 2.88 3.12 0.012 4.971
26 28 4 3.12 3.36 0.009 3.910
28 30 3 3.36 3.6 0.007 3.076 0.101*
30 32 3 3.6 3.84 0.006 2.420
32 34 0 3.84 4.08 0.005 1.903
6.885
*The bins with frequency five or less are clubbed together on estimating chi-square value.
100
90
80
Observed Theoretical
70
Frequency
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Headway
Figure 6: Comparison of observed and theoretical headways

At 5% level of significance and for 11(=13-1-1) degrees of freedom the theoretical value is
19.675. The calculated value is 6.885, hence there is no significant difference between the
observed and theoretical distribution at 5% level of significance.
21
30
22
31
32
33
34
35

LAB #5: Macroscopic Modelling of Highway Traffic
References:
1. C.S. Papacostas and P.D. Prevedouros, Transportation Engineering and Planning, Prentice
Hall India, 2001.
2. P. Chakroborty and A. Das, Principles of Transportation Engineering, Prentice Hall India,
2003
3. R.P. Roess, W.R. McShane, and E.S. Prassas, Traffic Engineering, Prentice Hall, 1990.
Instructions
Each student will be conducting an independent study on the fundamental relation of the traffic
stream characteristics. In this particular study, video graphic method is used to characterize the
traffic stream. Each student will be provided with a video corresponding to a particular state of
traffic stream. This study is a three stage process and the student has to finish the data collection
within one lab. In the first stage of the study, flow has to be determined for each 30 second
intervals. This is done by counting number of vehicle crossing an intermediate section during each
30 second interval. In the second stage, traffic density will be determined. This is done by counting
number of vehicles present over the length of road stretch at a time instant. Time lapse photographs
taken at each two second interval will be provided for the density calculations. Each two second
density data will be averaged over 30 seconds. You have to send this data to your TA. In the third
stage, a fundamental relationship has to be established. For this purpose, TAs would be sending
you the required data.
It is important that, all the traffic counts have to be done for different vehicle classes separately.
For this particular study, the vehicles are classified into six groups such as Two Wheelers, Three
Wheelers, Car, Bus, LCV and Heavy Vehicles.
1. Flow, Density and Speed Calculations.
2. Formulation of fundamental Relationships.
3. Fundamental Diagrams.
1. Title page
3. Introduction
4. Objective
This report is to be submitted within a week from the assigned date unless otherwise instructed by
the course coordinator.
23
36
Objective: Macroscopic modelling of traffic stream using empirical data collected through video
graphic analysis.
Introduction:
Macroscopic modelling of traffic stream is important for effective management and control of the
traffic systems. Characterization of traffic stream is the first and most important stage in traffic
flow modelling. The important traffic stream characteristics that are to be addressed in
macroscopic modelling are Flow, Density and Space Mean Speed. Flow is the measure of traffic
behaviour which gives an idea how the traffic conditions varies with time. Whereas density is the
spatial measure which gives an idea about how crowded the traffic across the study stretch of road
(For exact definitions of flow and density, Ref: Manual 4). Space mean speed is the average speed
with which the traffic stream is moving. All these variables together describe the average traffic
behaviour and the relationships among these variables are the main input in development of traffic
control and management system and Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) applications.
Macroscopic traffic flow modelling is basically establishing a relationship between the
traffic flow characteristics. Either the relation between flow and density or the speed and density
is called as a fundamental relationship. It is convenient to relate flow, density and speed,
determined over a same frame of time and space using a relation as shown below,
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝑞 = 𝑘×𝑣 ….(1)
There are several models established since 1930’s based on the studies conducted on various traffic
streams by various researchers, which are having different functional form for the flow-density
relationships. Flow-Density, Speed-Density and Speed-Flow relationships can be illustrated using
the fundamental diagrams (Figure 1).
Figure1: i) Flow-Density Diagram ii) Speed–Density Diagram iii) Speed-Flow Diagram

Requirements:
1. Recorded Video of traffic (provided by the TA)
2. Any Video Player
3. Any Image Viewer
24
37
Theory:
For establishing fundamental relationships between flow density and speed, one has to collect
enough data corresponding to each variable. Using video graphic analysis, flow and density can
be determined by counting number of vehicles crossing a particular section of road over a period
of time. Density can be taken as the average of the number of vehicles occupied the road stretch
at various time instances within a certain observation period. After determining flow and density,
one can apply equation 1 to get the space mean speed.
Figure 2: Space-Time diagram of a traffic stream
Traffic stream measurements taken over a road length of 50 m and for a period of 30 seconds are
represented in Figure 2. The horizontal line is corresponding to a stationary observer counting the
number of vehicles crossing the road section. And the vertical lines are corresponding to the time
lapse photography taken at every two second interval. Average number of vehicles occupying the
road section gives the average density. From these data one can determine the corresponding flow
and density as,
𝑛 ….(2)
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑞 =
𝑇
∑ 𝑚𝑖⁄ ….(3)
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑘 = 𝑁
𝐿
Where,
𝑛 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇.
𝑚 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
25
38
Procedure:
Flow calculation:
1. Load the video in any video player and identify the study stretch of road considered for
this particular study as instructed by the TA.
2. Identify the middle section of road stretch under observation and make a classified count
of the number of vehicles crossing the section for each 30 second period.
3. Use equation 2, find out the flow corresponding to 30 seconds.
Density and speed calculation:
1. Load the time lapse photographs of the traffic taken for each 2 second interval, provided
by the TA.
2. Record the classified count of vehicles in each photograph.
3. Using equation 3 compute the corresponding density.
4. Get the space mean speed using equation 1.
Establishing Fundamental relationships:
1. Model the average stream speed as a function of average density by performing least
square regression analysis. Please note that the TA would be providing you the required
data for modeling. Subsequently, using equation 1, get the flow-density function also.
2. Plot Flow-Density, Speed-Density, and Speed-Flow diagrams.
Sample Calculation:
Flow and Density calculations:
Observation period for flow measurement = 30 second
Length of road stretch under observation = 50 meter
Table 1: number of Vehicles crossing the observed section in each 30 Second period
Time
Heavy Flow
Interval 2W 3W Car Bus LCV's Total
Vehicles (veh/hr)
(seconds)
0-30 3 2 5 1 0 5 16 1920
30-60 3 1 4.5 1.5 0.25 2 12.25 1470
60-90 5 4 6 0.75 1 1 17.75 2130
90-120 0 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 4 480
120-150 5 1 1.25 0 2 0 9.25 1110
150-180 3.5 1 4 0 0.5 2.5 11.5 1380
180-210 1.5 3 4.75 0 1 6 16.25 1950
210-240 2 0 2 0.5 1 0 5.5 660
240-270 3 0 6 1 0.75 1 11.75 1410
270-300 2 1 2 1 1 1.5 8.5 1020
26
39
Table 2: Spatial Count of vehicles for Each 2 Seconds

Time Heavy
2W 3W Car Bus LCV's Total
Instant Vehicles
2 1 2 1 1 0 0 5
4 0 0 0 0.5 0.5 1 2
6 0.5 0 1 0.75 1 0 3.25
8 1 1 1.5 1 0 0 4.5
10 1 1 1.25 0 2 0 5.25
12 1 1 3 0 0.5 0 5.5
14 0 1 1.5 0 1 0 3.5
16 0 0 2 0.5 3 0 5.5
18 3 0 0 1 0.75 1 5.75
20 0 1 0 1 0 1 3
…… …. …. ...... ….. ….. ….. …..
298 0 1 1 1.5 .5 1.5 5.5
300 2 3 0 0 0 1 6
Table 3: Average Density for 30 Seconds
Time
Density
Interval
(veh/km)
(seconds)
0-30 100
30-60 45
60-90 65
90-120 10
120-150 25
150-180 30
180-210 70
210-240 15
240-270 115
270-300 25
Table 4: Flow, Density and Speed Values Corresponding to Each 30 Seconds

Flow Density Speed
(veh/hr) (veh/km) (kmph)
1920 100 19.2
1470 45 32.66667
2130 65 32.76923
480 10 48
1110 25 44.4
1380 30 46
1950 70 27.85714
660 15 44
1410 115 12.26087
1020 25 40.8
A least square regression analysis is done to the speed-density data and a linear speed-density
relationship is established as,
27
40
𝑣 = −0.326 × 𝑘 + 51.12 ….(4)
Using equation 1,
𝑞 = 𝑘 × 𝑣 = −0.326 × 𝑘 2 + 51.12 × 𝑘 ….(5)
Table 5: Results of Regression Analysis

Standard
Coefficients Error t Stat
Intercept 51.114781 1.506189 33.9365
X Variable 1 -0.3263878 0.024812 -13.1545
The above relations are the fundamental relationship for the particular traffic under study. These
functions can be plotted as shown in Figure 3, which are known as fundamental diagrams.
Figure 3: i) Speed-Density Diagram ii) Flow-Density Diagram iii) Speed-Flow Diagram
28
41
42
43
44
45

LAB #4: Moving Observer Method
References:
1. C.S. Papacostas and P.D. Prevedouros, Transportation Engineering and Planning, Prentice
Hall India, 2001.
2003
Instructions
Each group will be conducting an independent study on traffic characteristics using both moving
and stationary observer methods. One group will be splitting in to two subgroups and performing
both studies in two trials separately. In stationary observer method, one of the subgroups will be
counting the number of vehicles crossing the upstream section. The other subgroup will be moving
in a vehicle, and collecting the effective number of vehicles overtaken their vehicle, while moving
along with the traffic and also against the traffic. Two trials will be made by each group in which
the sub groups will be performing both stationary and moving observer methods alternately. It is
important that a classified count has to be taken, by both the stationary and moving observers. For
this particular study, the vehicles are classified in to four groups such as Two Wheelers, Three
Wheelers, Four Wheelers and Heavy Vehicles.
1. Flow, Density and Space mean speed corresponding to different classes of vehicles
2. Flow, Density and Space Mean Speed of traffic stream
3. Cross check the flows obtained by moving and stationary observers
1. Title page
3. Introduction
4. Objective
This report is to be submitted within a week from the assigned date unless otherwise instructed by
the course coordinator.
29
46
Objective: To study and characterize the traffic stream using Moving Observer Method.
Introduction:
In traffic flow studies it is important to characterize the behaviour of traffic stream since direct
experimentation on the traffic is difficult. At macroscopic level, traffic stream behaviour can be
effectively captured using traffic characteristics such as flow, density and the space mean speed.
Even though there are several definitions and derivations are available for these characteristics,
direct application of these definitions is difficult in practice. The main difficulty is the requirement
of huge data for the characterization. The data collection methodologies involve video recording,
stationary observer method, moving observer method, input-output study, aerial photography etc.
However, calculating the variables using most of these methods is laborious and costly. Moving
observer method is a low-cost and simple method to characterize the traffic. This method of traffic
characterization is first proposed by Wardrop in 1954. By this method, one would be able to get
two important traffic characteristics such as flow and the density. Using the fundamental
relationship between the macroscopic traffic characteristic, Flow = Density × Speed, the other
characteristic can be obtained.
Figure 1: observer moving along and against the traffic.

Figure 1 depicts the moving observer method graphically. In this method, an observer
moving along and against the traffic stream will be counting the effective number of vehicles
overtaking the observer. This effective number of vehicles will be equals to the difference between
the number of overtaking (the moving observer) and overtaken (by the moving observer) vehicles.
From the effective number of vehicles overtaking the moving observer, while moving along with
the traffic and against the traffic, flow can be calculated. This method can be utilized for
determining the other traffic characteristics such as density and space mean speed as well.
Requirements
1. Writing Pad
2. Data forms
3. Stop Watch
4. Test vehicle
30
47
Theory:
Relative flows seen by a moving observer can be used for deriving the macroscopic traffic flow
characteristics such as flow, density and speed.
In traffic flow theory, flow is defined as the number of vehicles (n) seen by a stationary observer
in a specified time interval (T).
𝑛
Flow, 𝑞 = 𝑇 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
Density is defined as the number of vehicles (m) seen in a photograph over a length of a road
stretch (L)
𝑚
Density, 𝑘 = 𝐿 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
Suppose, an observer is moving with a traffic stream, the traffic flow will be relative to the moving
observer and can be expressed as
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑙 = 𝑞 − 𝑘𝑣𝑜 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
Where, 𝑞 and 𝑘 are the traffic stream parameters to be estimated and 𝑣𝑜 is the speed of the observer.
The above equation contains two unknowns hence it requires two equations to solve. So the
observer will be making two trips in order to formulate two equations: one is along with the traffic
stream and another one is against the traffic stream.
Suppose the time taken by the observer moving along the direction of traffic stream is 𝑡𝑤 . Then
the relative flow seen by the observer is,
𝑛𝑤
= (𝑞 − 𝑘𝑣𝑜 ) … … … … … (4)
𝑡𝑤
𝑛𝑤 = (𝑞 − 𝑘𝑣𝑜 )𝑡𝑤 … … … … … (5)
𝑛𝑤 is the difference between the number of vehicles overtaking the observer (𝑛𝑜 ) and the number
of vehicles overtaken by the observer (𝑛𝑝 ) when moving along with the traffic
𝑛𝑤 = 𝑛𝑜 − 𝑛𝑝 … … … … … … … … … . (6)
If 𝑡𝑎 be the time taken by the observer to move against the traffic stream, then the number of
vehicles seen by the observer in the opposite stream is,
𝑛𝑎
= (𝑞 + 𝑘𝑣𝑜 ) … … … … … (7)
𝑡𝑎
𝑛𝑎 = (𝑞 + 𝑘𝑣𝑜 )𝑡𝑎 … … … … … (8)
𝑛𝑎 is the number of vehicles seen by the observer while moving against the traffic stream being
studied. Since, the observer is moving opposite to the traffic stream, the speed takes the opposite
sign.
Adding equation 5 & 8 gives
𝑛𝑤 + 𝑛𝑎 = 𝑞(𝑡𝑤 + 𝑡𝑎 )
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48
𝑛𝑤 + 𝑛𝑎
𝑞= … … … … … … … … … … … . (9)
𝑡𝑤 + 𝑡𝑎
After determining the flow (𝑞), either equation (5) or (8) can be solved for density.
Solving equation (5) we get,
𝑘𝑣𝑜 𝑡𝑤 = 𝑞𝑡𝑤 − 𝑛𝑤
So,
𝑞𝑡𝑤 − 𝑛𝑤
𝑘=
𝑣𝑜 𝑡𝑤
𝑘=
𝑙
𝑡𝑤 𝑡𝑤
𝑘= … … … … … … … … … … . . . (10)
𝑙
Using 𝑞 = 𝑘𝑣𝑠 we can derive 𝑣𝑠
𝑞 𝑞𝑡𝑤 − 𝑛𝑤
=
𝑣𝑠 𝑙
𝑛
𝑞 𝑡𝑤 − 𝑞𝑤
= 𝑞( )
𝑣𝑠 𝑙
𝑙
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑛 … … … … … … … … … … … (11)
𝑡𝑤 − 𝑞𝑤
When different types of vehicles are present in the traffic stream, we have to calculate the flow,
speed, and density for each of them separately. For example, let us consider 4 type of vehicles such
as Two wheelers, Three wheelers, Four wheelers and Heavy vehicles which are moving in the
traffic stream, then we have to calculate the individual flows such as 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 , 𝑞4 of different
types of vehicles and finally the sum of individual flows can be taken as the total flow (q) of the
traffic stream, i.e.
𝑞 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + 𝑞4 … … … … … … … … … … (12)
Similarly, in case of density, the total density of the traffic stream can be calculated using
individual densities as
𝑘 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 + 𝑘4 … … … … … … … … … … (13)
32
49
Procedure:
1. A road stretch is selected such that it has one entry and one exit along the observation stretch.
2. The following observations are made while the observer moving along and against the stream:
Moving along with the traffic stream (being studied)
a) The time taken to travel along with the traffic stream (tw).
b) Number of vehicles overtaking the observer (𝑛𝑜 ).
c) Number of vehicles passed/overtaken by the observer (𝑛𝑝 ).
Moving against the traffic stream (being studied)
a) The time taken to travel against stream (ta).
b) Number of vehicle seen by the observer (𝑛𝑎 ).
3. Using the above equations flow, density and speed can be determined.
Sample calculation related to moving observer method data
Table 3: Observation sheet for moving observer method
Trial-1 Trial-2
Against Against
With Traffic With Traffic
Vehicle Type Traffic Traffic
tw = 1.3 min ta = 2.26 min tw = 1.07 min ta = 3.31 min
Overtaking Overtaken Overtaking Overtaken
2 Wheelers 6 3 27 0 2 29
3 Wheelers 0 0 14 0 2 10
4 Wheelers 0 0 53 2 1 51
Heavy Vehicle 0 2 17 0 2 14
Total 6 5 111 2 7 104
For trial-1: corresponding to all the total number of vehicles including all modes in the traffic
stream
Number of vehicles overtaking the observer when moving along with the traffic, 𝒏𝒐 =6
Number of vehicles overtaken by the observer when moving along with the traffic, 𝒏𝒑 =5
Effective number of vehicles seen by the observer moving along with the traffic, nw = 6-5 = 1
Number of vehicles seen by the observer when moving against the traffic, 𝒏𝒂 = 111
Total time of observation= tw + ta = 3.56 min
Total number of vehicles seen in the traffic stream = nw +𝒏𝒂 = 111+1 = 112
Hence, flow of the traffic stream, q = 112/3.56 = 31.46 veh/min
Density of the traffic stream is
𝑞×𝑡𝑤 −𝑛𝑤 31.46×1.3−1
𝑘= = = 0.049 vehicles/m or 49 vehicles/km
𝑙 800
Space mean speed of the traffic stream;
33
50
𝑙 800
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑛𝑤 = = 630.8 𝑚/ min = 37.8𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
𝑡𝑤 − 𝑞 1
1.3 − 31.46
For trial-1: corresponding to the individual class of vehicles in the traffic stream
For two-wheelers
Number of vehicles overtaking the observer when moving along with the traffic, 𝒏𝒐𝟏 =6
Number of vehicles overtaken by the observer when moving along with the traffic, 𝒏𝒑𝟏 =3
Effective number of vehicles seen by the observer moving along with the traffic, nw1 = 6-3 = 3
Number of vehicles seen by the observer when moving against the traffic, 𝒏𝒂𝟏 = 27
Total time of observation= tw + ta = 3.56 min
Total number of vehicles seen in the traffic stream = nw1+𝒏𝒂𝟏 = 27+3 = 30
Hence, flow of the traffic stream, q1 = 30/3.56 = 8.426 veh/min
Density of the traffic stream is
𝑞1 𝑡𝑤 −𝑛𝑤1 8.426×1.3−3
𝑘1 = = = 0.0099 veh/m
𝑙 800
Space mean speed of the traffic stream
𝑙 800
𝑣𝑠1 = 𝑛 = = 847.49 𝑚/ min = 50.85𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
𝑡𝑤 − 𝑞𝑤1 3
1.3 − 8.426
1
Similarly, For Three-wheelers

q2 = 14/3.56 = 3.93 veh/min
𝑘2 = 0.0064 veh/m
𝑣𝑠2 = 615.38 𝑚/ min = 36.92𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
For four-wheelers
q3 = 53/3.56 = 14.88 veh/min
𝑘3 = 0.024 veh/m
𝑣𝑠3 = 615.38 𝑚/ min = 36.92𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
For heavy Vehicles
q4 = 15/3.56 = 4.21 veh/min
𝑘4 = 0.00934 veh/m
𝑣𝑠4 = 450.68 𝑚/ min = 27.04𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
Thus,
the total flow (q) of the traffic stream, i.e.
𝑞 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + 𝑞4 = 8.426 + 3.93 + 14.88 + 4.21 = 31.446 𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑚𝑖𝑛

6
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51
Similarly, in case of density, the total density of the traffic stream can be calculated using
individual densities as
𝑘 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 + 𝑘4 = 0.0099 + 0.0064 + 0.024 + 0.00934 = 0.04964 veh/m

Space mean speed in a traffic stream,
𝑞 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + 𝑞4 = 𝑘1 𝑣𝑠1 + 𝑘2 𝑣𝑠2 + 𝑘3 𝑣𝑠3 + 𝑘4 𝑣𝑠4
𝑘𝑣𝑠 = 𝑘1 𝑣𝑠1 + 𝑘2 𝑣𝑠2 + 𝑘3 𝑣𝑠3 + 𝑘4 𝑣𝑠4

𝑘1 𝑣𝑠1 + 𝑘2 𝑣𝑠2 + 𝑘3 𝑣𝑠3 + 𝑘4 𝑣𝑠4
𝑣𝑠 =
𝑘
0.0099 ∗ 847.49 + 0.0064 ∗ 615.38 + 0.024 ∗ 615.38 + 0.00934 ∗ 450.68
𝑣𝑠 =
0.04964
𝑣𝑠 = 630.68𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 37.84km/hr
The calculations show that flow and density calculated for each class of vehicles can be added to
get the total flow and density of the traffic stream.
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52
Traffic Data Sheet for Moving Observer Method

Day &Date :
Time :
Name of the road :
Location :
Direction of flow :
Trial-1 Trial-2
Against
With Traffic Against Traffic With Traffic
Vehicle Type Traffic
tw = ta = tw = ta =
Overtaking Overtaken Overtaking Overtaken
2W
3W
4W
Heavy Vehicle
Total
Remarks:
T.A. Signature
53
54
55

LAB #6: Determination of Hourly Flow and Peak Hour Factor
References:
2003
Instructions
Each student will be conducting an independent study on the flow characteristics of the traffic
stream. In this particular study, manual method of volume counts will be used to characterize the
traffic stream. Each group of students will carry out the volume counts on different class of
vehicle at a particular location. This study is a two stage process and the student has to finish the
data collection within one lab. In the first stage of the study, flow data has to be recorded in the
data sheet for each one minute interval for about one hour. This is done by counting different
class of vehicles crossing a section during each one minute interval. In the second stage, traffic
flow will be determined. To determine the hourly flow, each class of vehicle shall be converted
into passenger car equivalents using equivalency factors provided. The converted PCU values of
each class of vehicle are then summed together over a period of one hour to obtain hourly flow.
After obtaining the hourly flow, the peak hour factor shall be computed using the ratio of hourly
flow to maximum rate of flow during the specified interval (by TA). The data presentation part
includes analysis of hourly flow, peak hour factor at various time intervals and graphical
presentation of vehicular composition of traffic stream.
It is important that, all the traffic counts have to be done for different vehicle classes separately.
For this particular study, the vehicles are classified into seven groups such as Two Wheelers,
Three Wheelers, Car, Standard truck, Bus, LCV and Multi axle Heavy Vehicles.
1. Data record.
2. Hourly flow.
3. Find out the peak flow corresponding to a specified duration (given by the TA) as well as
the corresponding PHF.
4. Vehicular composition.
1. Title page
3. Introduction
4. Objective
This report is to be submitted within a week from the assigned date unless otherwise instructed
by the course coordinator.
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56
Objective: Determination of Peak Hour Factor of traffic stream using flow data collected
through manual counting.
Introduction:
Traffic volume studies are conducted to determine the number, movements, and classifications of
roadway vehicles at a given location. The data collected can help to identify the critical flow
time periods, determine the influence of large vehicles or pedestrians on vehicular traffic flow, or
to document traffic volume trends. The length of the sampling period is dependent on the
requirements and the intended use of the data recorded for various stages of transportation
planning.
The information on variation in traffic flow is important toward understanding the change in
traffic demand. The traffic flow data could be collected at various short intervals usually less
than an hour to understand the variation in flow. Such short intervals could be 2, 5, 7, 10, 12, and
15 minutes. The variability in the traffic flow within an hour is expressed using peak hour factor.
Peak hour factor is the ratio of the hourly flow during peak hour to the maximum rate of flow
during a given time period within the peak hour.
Requirements:
1. Selection of count stations
2. Stop watches
4. Equivalency Factors
Theory
Traffic flow is the important traffic stream parameter used for planning, design and operation of
traffic facilities. Essentially the traffic flow describes the behaviour of traffic stream with time.
One important aspect to understand the traffic demand is to estimate the variation in traffic flow,
especially during peak hour. To capture the variation in traffic flow within an hour, vehicles
crossing a reference section over different time intervals are recorded. The data recorded from
such observations within a peak hour can be used to compute the peak hour factor. Further,
traffic flow is expressed as vehicle per hour or vehicles per day. However, traffic flow consists of
different type of vehicles with varying vehicular characteristics. Thus appropriate equivalency
factors are required to convert the various types of vehicles to a common unit known as
passenger car unit (PCU). For the various types of vehicles which are common on Indian roads,
IRC suggests different equivalency factors. These equivalency factors are further distinguished
based on the location of roadway section as urban and rural. The equivalency factors for
conversion of different types of vehicles into equivalent passenger car units based on their
relative interference value which are given in Table 1 and
Table 2.
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Table 1 Recommended PCU Factors for Various Types of Vehicles on Urban Roads
S.No. Vehicle Type PCU
1. Passenger Car 1.0
2. Motor cycle or Scooter 0.5
3. LCV 2.2
4. Bus, Truck 3.5
5. Bicycle 0.2
6. Three wheeler 0.8
Table 2 Recommended PCU Factors for Various Types of Vehicles on Rural Roads
S.No. Vehicle Type PCU
1. Motor Cycle or Scooter 0.5
2. Passenger Car, Pick-up Van or Auto-rickshaw 1.0
3. Agricultural Tractor, Light Commercial Vehicle 1.5
4. Truck or Bus 3.0
5. Truck-trailer, Agricultural Tractor-trailer 4.5
6. Cycle 0.5
7. Cycle-rickshaw 2.0
8. Hand Cart 3.0
9. Horse-drawn vehicle 4.0
10. Bullock Cart 8.0
Procedure:
1. Selection of count locations based on instructions given by TA.

2. Total count duration will be one hour. Each group will collect the classified traffic flow
data for every one minute interval. The traffic flow data on each type of vehicle shall be
recorded separately as provided in the data sheet.
3. Convert the raw count to equivalent PCU using appropriate equivalency factors given in
Table 1 or Table 2.
4. Compute the total hourly flow using the relation below:
5. Calculate the peak hour factor as shown below:
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Traffic Volume Count Datasheet
Location : Date:
Direction : Time Period :
Time Std Heavy Total

Cars 2W 3W LCV Bus
(min) Truck Vehicles Vehicles
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
10-11
11-12
12-13
13-14
14-15
15-16
16-17
17-18
18-19
19-20
20-21
21-22
22-23
23-24
24-25
25-26
26-27
27-28
28-29
29-30
30-31
31-32
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Time Std Heavy Total

Cars 2W 3W LCV Bus
(min) Truck Vehicles Vehicles
32-33
33-34
34-35
35-36
36-37
37-38
38-39
39-40
40-41
41-42
42-43
43-44
44-45
45-46
46-47
47-48
48-49
49-50
50-51
51-52
52-53
53-54
54-55
55-56
56-57
57-58
58-59
59-60
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60
Solved Problem:
The following minute traffic flow values were observed for the peak hour on an expressway
section. Determine the 5 minute PHF. Also, convert the volume into within the hour peak flow
using 5 minute PHF.
Minute i 1-7 8-10 11-20 21 22-32 33-45 46-47 48-55 56-60

Ni (PCU) 20 30 25 26 4 10 15 30 10
Solution:
Hourly Flow = 7 x 20 + 3 x 30 + 10 x 25 + 1 x 26 + 11 x 4 + 13 x 10 + 2 x 15 +
8 x 30 + 5 x 10 = 1000 pcu/h
Total flow in every 5 min duration is calculated as
 From 1-5, total volume = 5 x 20 = 100 pcu’s

 From 4-8, total volume = 4 x 20 + 30 = 110 pcu’s
 and so on for all the other 5 minute durations ending with
 From 56-60, total volume = 5 x 10 = 50 pcu’s.
 Comparing all the above, the maximum number of vehicles in any 5 min period is
obtained as 150 pcu’s (it occurs between 48 and 55 min).
Hence the 5 minute peak hour factor is given as:
PHF5 = = 0.555
( )
Hourly peak flow rate ⁄
41
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62
63

LAB #7: Gap acceptance analysis for critical gap estimation
References:
India, 2003
1990.
4. Garber N J, Hoel, L A, Traffic and Highway Engineering, Fifth edition, CENGAGE
Learning, 2015
Note:
Gap acceptance analysis is relevant for uncontrolled junctions and especially for the right
turning movements of the minor road. Due to locational constraints, in this exercise the focus
would be on the right turning traffic of the major road. This is also relevant as the queue
length of the right turning traffic plays major role in the estimation of reserve/refugee lane
length.
1. Title page
3. Introduction
4. Objective
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64
Objective: To determine the critical gap for the right turn movement from major road to
minor road at an unsignalized T-junction.
Introduction:
At unsignalized intersections, drivers sometimes have to choose gaps in the opposing stream
of traffic in order to complete their turning manoeuvre. The drivers choose gaps which are
much larger than those actually required for the manoeuvre and the minimum gap size which
a driver chooses, is referred to as the critical gap. When the time headway between vehicles is
greater than the critical gap, vehicle movement takes place. Critical gap influences the delay
and queue lengths that form at unsignalized intersections. If the critical gap increases for a
particular movement, the number of acceptable gaps in the conflicting movements reduces
which again increases the service times and hence delay and the queue lengths for that
movement. Critical gap depends on driver behaviour, traffic composition and flow of the
stream. From the field we can determine the critical gap for a particular movement.
Fig 1: An un-signalised T-Junction

Test Description for the road geometry shown in Figure 1:
1. At an unsignalized intersection, based on the through vehicle headways on the major
road, the right turning vehicles from the major road to the minor road decides the
safest gap between the successive vehicles and proceed to manoeuvre such that the
number of gaps accepted and the number of those rejected are determined.
2. The time scale is divided into small intervals and for every time class t, the number of
gaps accepted and the number of those rejected are determined.
3. A cumulative curve is plotted with time in seconds on x-axis and number of vehicles
accepted and rejected gaps (ta & tr) are plotted. Data on many drivers (manoeuvring
vehicles) in respect of the largest gap rejected and the smallest gap accepted is
obtained.
4. The value of critical gap, tc where the plots ta & tr intersect represents the gap size for
which the number of rejected gaps greater than tc are equal to the number of accepted
gaps smaller than tc.
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Sample calculation for Critical Gap (Source: Garber and Hoel, Traffic and Highway
Engineering, fifth edition):
Table 1: Gaps accepted & rejected
Length No of No of rejected
of gap, acceptable gaps gaps (> t s)
t (s) (< t s)
0 0 116
1 2 103
2 12 66
3 32 38
4 57 19
5 84 6
6 116 0
Now, tc is the size of the gap whose no of accepted gaps smaller than tc, is equal to the
number of rejected gaps larger than it (tc).
∆𝑡
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66
From similar triangles ∆abtc, ∆tcdc

ℎ𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
=
𝑏𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
∆𝑡1 1 − ∆𝑡1
=
𝑎−𝑏 𝑐−𝑑
∆𝑡1 1 − ∆𝑡1
=
6 38
∆𝑡1 = .136 𝑠
Hence, critical gap tc = (∆𝑡 − ∆𝑡1 ) + 3 = 3 + .136 = 3.136 s
Conclusion: the critical gap adopted by the vehicles for that particular section is 3.136s
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Data sheet for Gap Acceptance Study

Day & Date:
Start Time: End time:
Name of road:
Location:
Names of the Enumerator:
Sl. No Vehicle Arrival time of the vehicle Position of vehicle in the road
type Median Centre Curb
68
Data sheet for Gap Acceptance Study

Day & Date:
Start Time: End time:
Name of road:
Location:
Names of the Enumerator:
Sl. no Vehicle type Arrival time at If applicable, Time at which
location 1 time at which vehicle enters
vehicle comes to the minor road
stop
69
70
71
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LAB #8 and 9: Design of Traffic signal
References:
India, 2003.
3. IRC: 93-1985: Guidelines on Design and Installation of Road Traffic Signals.
Instructions
Traffic signal design shall be carried out as per IRC guidelines. For conducting signal design
using IRC method, groups will be formed for collecting the filed data. The laboratory class
will be conducted in two phases. In the first phase students will collect the relevant field data
required. The collected data shall be summarized as instructed by the TA’s and shared with
TA’s. In the second phase, TA’s will share the combined data required for signal design and
the students will carry out the signal design analysis with the help from TA’s and Instructors.
In the first phase each group is required to collect the data related to traffic flow, intersection
geometry details and pedestrian volume on all the legs of the intersection. The collected data
shall include the volume counts of through traffic and turning movements on each leg. The
geometric details shall include number of approaches, lane width, shoulder type and width,
median width (if divided) and dimensions of any channelizing lanes present at the selected
intersection. The second phase will include signal designing for the intersection with the data
collected and provided by the respective TA’s by following the procedure specified in the
IRC manual.
Be certain to do nothing that would constitute a hazard to yourselves or the public.
In the second phase, collected data will be grouped and given to each student along with the
width of the road and the median. Calculations and conclusions over the data given to each
student have to be performed and submitted separately. Each report should contain the
following information:
1. Phasing Scheme
2. Amber time
3. Critical flow ratio
4. Pedestrian crossing time
5. Optimal cycle length
6. Optimal phase lengths including green and amber time for each phase.
7. Check for design adequacy
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The submitted report should have the following format:
1. Title page
3. Introduction
4. Objective
6. Discussion on results and conclusions
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Objective: To design traffic signal using the IRC method.
Introduction:
Traffic signals are used for controlling vehicular and pedestrian movement at intersections.
Signalization is used for controlling the flow pattern as well as reducing the potential conflict
points at intersection which can create safety issues. A traffic signal consists of three
successive periods such as, green, amber and the red. The duration of time that passes
between the occurrences of a green (or red) signal to the next green (or red) signal for a
particular approach is referred to as cycle length. The approaches that share their green,
amber and red time at the same time are said to belong to the same phase. Signal design using
the IRC method helps us to get the green, amber and red timings for each phase, for an
isolated section.
Traffic signals are mainly characterized into three categories as described below:
 Pre-timed signals: Signalized intersections where the phase length and cycle length
remain constant over a period of time. Signal timings are varied three to four times a
day, depending on the traffic conditions. For heavy traffic intersections with a steady
flow, fixed time signal are preferred.
 Semi-actuated signals: Signalized intersections where the phase length and cycle
length vary with the incoming traffic. Semi actuated signals are generally used on
intersections of major and minor streets. Detectors are placed on a minor street and a
green signal is always provided to the major street until a vehicle is detected on a
minor street. Minimum and maximum green time are specified in order to avoid delay
on major roads.
 Actuated signals: Signalized intersections where the phase length and cycle length
vary with the demand from one cycle to another. Actuated signals are generally used
on intersections of major and major streets where the flows are fluctuating. Detectors
are placed on both major streets and timings to the signals are provided according to
the vehicular volume present on the road.
Requirements:
1. Measuring tape/Odometer
2. Writing pad
Theory:
Signal design includes the design of phasing scheme, cycle length, phase lengths, amber time,
pedestrian crossing time and a check for the design adequacy which is discussed in brief
below.
Phasing scheme: The first step in designing is to finalize the number of phases for the given
traffic conditions. Optimum number of phases is required while designing a signal as more
number of phases results in an increased delay whereas lowering the number of phases will
cause a safety issue if the turning volume is on the higher side due to an increase in the
number of conflict points. Hence the phasing scheme shall be finalized based on the turning
(especially the right) traffic volume.
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(a) (b)
Figure 1 Typical example of (a) two-phase section, (b) four-phase intersection
Cycle length: Optimum cycle length should be designed in order to reduce the average delay
to vehicles coming from all the approaches. The equation used for determining the optimum
cycle length, Co as per IRC: 93-1985 is given as:
1.5𝐿 + 5
𝐶𝑜 =
1 − 𝑌1 − 𝑌2 − . . 𝑌𝑛
where,
Co = Optimum cycle length, sec
L = total lost time per cycle, sec = ∑𝑝𝑖=1(𝑙𝑠𝑖 + 𝑙𝑚
𝑖
+ 𝑙𝑟𝑖 )
ls = start-up lost time, sec
lm = movement lost time, sec
lr = all red time, sec
Y = Volume/Saturation flow for critical approach in each phase, also called critical
flow ratio.
The cycle lengths calculated should be rounded off to the immediate higher multiple of five.
The maximum cycle length recommended is 120 seconds.
For calculation of saturation flow (PCU/hr), IRC: 93-1985 has recommended to use 525w,
where w is the width of the road (m), for a width of road greater than 5.5m. Saturation flow
for road width less than 5.5m following table could be used.
Table 1 Saturation flow with respect to road width (IRC: 93-1985)

Road Width (m) 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
Saturation flow (PCU/hr) 1850 1890 1950 2250 2550 2990
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Phase length: Available total green time (Cycle length – amber time for all phases – all red
times) is allocated to various phases based on the critical flow ratios, with the assumption that
number of vehicles arriving on each approach will remain constant for all the cycles.
Amber time determination: Dilemma zone analysis is used for determining the amber time for
each phase. It includes the elimination of dilemma zone which is created as the driver gets a
choice of either clearing the intersection or coming to a stop when the light at signal turns
amber. Hence, to eliminate the dilemma zone, minimum distance required to come to a stop
is equated with the maximum distance which the vehicle can cover within the given amber
time and a minimum value of amber time, τmin is obtained using the following equation:
𝑣 𝑤+𝐿
𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑡𝑟 + +
2𝑑 𝑣
where,
tr = perception reaction time, sec
d = comfortable deceleration rate, m/s2
v = design speed, m/s
w = width of the carriageway vehicle has to cross, m
L = length of the vehicle, m
Pedestrian crossing time: Adequate pedestrian crossing time should be provided so that the
pedestrian can cross different legs of intersections safely. For determining the pedestrian
crossing time, tp with the assumed walking speed of 1.2 m/s and a perception reaction time
(including the safety aspects), following equation can be used:
𝑤
𝑡𝑝 = 7 +
1.2
where,
tp = pedestrian crossing time, sec
w = width of carriageway to be crossed, meter
Adequacy of Signal design: For the signal design to be adequate, the Green time + Amber
time + all-red time (if provided) for a particular phase should be greater than or equal to the
pedestrian crossing time required for that phase. If not, then the cycle length has to be
increased in steps of 5 seconds till the green time allocated to each phase becomes adequate.
Procedure:
Phase 1: Data collection
Step 1. All the necessary geometry details of the selected intersection need to be collected
and note the same on the schematic diagram provided to you.
Step 2. Each group will be assigned a particular approach by their respective TA’s.
Step 3. Identify a section on the road where the vehicle count and turning movements can be
recorded.
Step 4. Count the number of vehicles (category wise) passing the specified section for a given
duration of time (at least two 15 minute intervals).
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Step 5. If required, click pictures of the intersection for recollecting traffic behavior required
for assigning appropriate phasing scheme.
Phase 2: Signal design procedure
Step 1. Appropriate phasing scheme has to be provided in order to minimize the cycle length.
Step 2. Determine the amber time for the allotted phasing scheme using dilemma zone
analysis.
Step 3. Calculate the critical flow ratio using the procedure specified in IRC 93.
Step 4. Pedestrian crossing time, optimal cycle length and optimal phase length should be
calculated using the IRC method of signal design for the existing traffic conditions.
Step 5. Ascertain the adequacy of design, based on the pedestrian crossing time. If the design
is found to be inadequate, cycle length shall be increased by 5 sec or the phasing
scheme should be revised so as to achieve minimum and adequate cycle length for
the given intersection.
Sample Calculation Related to Signal Design

Given: Right angled intersection (turns prohibited)
Major street 12.0 metre wide (4 lane divided)
Minor street 6.0 metre wide (2 lane)
Width and traffic flow (in PCU/hr) is given below.
Perception reaction time (for dilemma zone analysis) = 1 sec

Start-up loss time = 4 sec
Movement loss time = 3 sec
Comfortable deceleration rate = 4 m/s2
Design speed = 13.89 m/s
Length of the vehicle, m = 5 m
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Step 1. Phasing scheme
Phase 1 Phase 2
Step 2. Amber time determination
Using dilemma zone analysis,
𝑣 𝑤+𝐿
𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑡𝑟 + +
2𝑑 𝑣
where,
tr = perception reaction time, sec = 1 sec
d = comfortable deceleration rate, m/s2 = 4 m/s2
v = design speed, m/s = 13.89 m/s
w = width of the carriageway vehicle has to cross, m
L = length of the vehicle, m = 5 m
13.89 6+5
For phase 1: 𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1 + + = 3.52 = 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2×4 13.89
13.89 12+5
For phase 2: 𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1 + + = 3.96 = 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2×4 13.89
Amber time for both phases came out to be 4 sec.

Step 3. Critical flow ratio calculation
Saturation flow = 525w PCU/hr
For phase 1: Saturation flow = 525×12 = 6300 PCU/hr = 1575 PCU/hr/lane
For phase 2: Saturation flow = 525×6 = 3150 PCU/hr = 1575 PCU/hr/lane
Table 2 Critical flow ratio calculation
Phase Flow ratio Critical flow ratio

I 330 250 Max{0.21,0.16} = 0.21
= 0.21 , 1575 = 0.16
1575
II 180 180 Max {0.11,0.11} = 0.11

= 0.11, 1575 = 0.11
1575
Step 4. Pedestrian crossing time

𝑤 6
For phase 1: 𝑡𝑝 = 7 + = 7+ = 12 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1.2 1.2
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𝑤 12
For phase 2: 𝑡𝑝 = 7 + = 7+ = 17 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1.2 1.2
Step 5. Optimal Cycle Length
1.5𝐿 + 5
𝐶𝑜 =
1 − 𝑌1 − 𝑌2 − . . 𝑌𝑛
L = total lost time per cycle, sec = ∑𝑝𝑖=1(𝑙𝑠𝑖 + 𝑙𝑚

𝑖
+ 𝑙𝑟𝑖 ) = 2 × (4 + 3 + 0) = 14 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1.5×14+5
Co= = 38.23 sec
1−(0.21+0.11)
Optimal cycle length = 40 sec
Step 6. Optimal Phase Length

Total green time available = 40 – 2 × 4 = 32 sec
Table 3 Phase lengths calculations
Phase Green period (sec) Amber period (sec)
0.21
1 ×32 = 21 4
0.32
0.11
2 ×32 = 11 4
0.32
Step 7. Adequacy check

Table 4 Checking adequacy of signal design
Pedestrian Crossing
Phase Phase length (sec) Adequacy
time (sec)
1 25 12 Yes
2 15 17 No
Hence, cycle length needs to be increased by 5 sec and steps 4-6 should be repeated
with the new cycle length.
Table 5 Signal design calculations with cycle length 45 sec
Green period Amber period Pedestrian Crossing
Phase Adequacy
(sec) (sec) time (sec)
1 24 4 12 Yes
2 13 4 17 Yes
The final signal timings for the intersection are as follows:

Cycle length = 45 sec
Phase 1: Green time = 24 sec; Amber time = 4 sec
Phase 2: Green time = 13 sec; Amber time = 4 sec
No all red time for any phase.
8
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Bar Chart for Signal timings
Phase 1
Phase 2
0 10 20 30 40 50
Green Amber Red
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83
84
85
86
87
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LAB #10: Parking Studies
References:

2. L.R. Kadiyali, Traffic Engineering and Transport Planning, 2000.
Instructions:
The students will be divided into four groups and each group will be counting the
number of vehicles (cars and two wheelers only) and note down their respective license
plate number of the vehicles parked in all the slots. This will be done for a total period of
1hour. Registration number details are to be collected at 15minute interval. The parking
lots selected are located in front of Core 1 and at the Admin building. Calculations
should be done for both Cars and Two wheelers, separately.
1. Data collected
2. Calculation of Turnover, Accumulation, Parking volume, Average duration,
Occupancy, Parking capacity, Parking load, and Efficiency.
The submitted report should have the following format (Following the format is
important):
1. Title page
3. Introduction
4. Objective
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Objective:
The objective of the study is to carry out parking study on a chosen area and to find out
the parking statistics by license plate method of survey.
Introduction:
Parking is one of the major problems that are created by the increasing road traffic. It is
an impact of transport development of a country or a city. The availability of less space
in urban areas has increased the demand for parking space especially in city center. This
affects the mode choice and has a great economic impact.
Before taking any measures for the betterment of conditions, data regarding availability
of parking space, extent of its usage and parking demand are essential. It is also required
to estimate the parking fares. Parking surveys are intended to provide all these
information. Since the duration of parking varies with different vehicles, several statistics
are used to assess the parking need.
Parking Studies
Studies must be conducted to collect the required information about the capacity and use
of existing parking facilities. In addition, information about the demand for parking is
needed. Parking studies may be restricted to a particular traffic producer or attractor,
such as a store, or they may encompass an entire region, such as a city center.
Before parking studies can be initiated, the study area must be defined. A cordon line is
drawn to delineate the study area. It should include traffic generators and a periphery,
including all points within an appropriate walking distance. The survey area should also
include any area that might be impacted by the parking modifications. The boundary
should be drawn to facilitate the cordon counts by minimizing the number of entry and
exit points.
Theory:
The most common parking surveys conducted are in-out survey, fixed period survey, and
license plate method of survey.
In-Out survey:
In this survey, the occupancy count in selected parking lot is taken at the
beginning. Then the number of vehicles that leave the parking lot is counted, for a
particular time interval. The number of vehicles that leave the parking lot is also taken.
The final occupancy in the parking lot is also taken. But, data regarding time duration for
which a particular vehicle is using that parking lot will not be acquired. Parking duration
and turnover is not obtained. Hence, to estimate the parking fare from this survey is not
possible.
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Fixed period survey:

This is almost similar to in-out survey. All vehicles are counted at the beginning of the
survey. Then after a fixed time interval that may vary between 15 minutes to 1 hour, the
count is taken again. Here there are chances of missing the number of vehicles that were
parked for a short duration.
License plate method of survey:

This method produces the most accurate and realistic data. In this case of survey, every
parking stall is monitored at an interval of 15 minutes or so and the license plate number
is noted down. This will give the data regarding the duration for which a particular
vehicle was using the parking bay/stall. This will help in calculating the fare because the
fare is estimated based on duration for which the vehicle was parked. If the time interval
is shorter, then there are less chances of missing short-term parkers. However this
method is very labor intensive.
Parking Statistics
Parking accumulation: It is defined as the number of vehicles parked at a given instant
of time. Normally this is expressed by accumulation curve. Accumulation curve is the
graph obtained by plotting the number of bays occupied with respect to time.
Parking volume: Parking volume is the total number of vehicles parked at a given
duration of time. This does not account for repetition of vehicles. The actual volume of
vehicles entered in the area is recorded.
Parking load: Parking load gives the area under the accumulation curve. It can also be
obtained by simply multiplying the number of vehicles occupying the parking area at
each time interval with the time interval. It is expressed as vehicle hours.
Average parking duration: It is the ratio of total vehicle hours to the number of
vehicles parked.
Parking duration=Parking Load/Parking Volume
Parking turnover: It is the ratio of number of vehicles parked in duration to the number
of parking bays available.
Parking Turnover= Parking Volume/Number of bays available. This can be

expressed as number of vehicles per stall per time duration.
Parking index: Parking index is also called occupancy or efficiency. It is defined as the
ratio of number of bays occupied in time duration to the total space available. It gives an
aggregate measure of how effectively the parking space is utilized. Parking index can be
found out as follows
Parking index= (Parking Load/Parking capacity)*10
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Procedure:
1. Identify the parking lot given, and note the number of bays/stall available.
2. All stalls are to be numbered.
3. The vehicles occupying the particular stall are observed by noting their license
plate for a period of 1 hour at 15minutes intervals.
4. For a slot which is occupied number ‘1’ is assigned and ‘0’ for that which is
empty.
5. From the definitions mentioned above, Turnover, Accumulation, Parking volume,
Average duration, Occupancy, Parking capacity, Parking load, and Efficiency are
calculated for Cars and Two wheelers separately.
Sample Calculation:
The parking survey data collected from a parking lot by license plate method is shown in
the following table. Find the average occupancy, average turnover, parking load, parking
capacity and efficiency of the parking lot.
Bay Time(mins)
0-15 15-30 30-45 45-60
1 1456 9813 - 5678
2 1945 1945 1945 1945
3 3473 5463 5463 5463
4 3741 3741 9758 4825
5 1884 1884 - 7594
6 - 7357 - 7893
7 - 4895 4895 4895
8 8932 8932 8932 -
9 7653 7653 8998 4821
10 7321 - 2789 2789
11 1213 1213 3212 4778
12 5678 6678 7778 8888
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Solution:
License plate parking survey solution
Bay Time(mins) Time(mins)
15 30 45 60 15 30 45 60 Turn over
1 1456 9813 - 5678 1 1 0 1 3
2 1945 1945 1945 1945 1 1 1 1 1
3 3473 5463 5463 5463 1 1 1 1 2
4 3741 3741 9758 4825 1 1 1 1 3
5 1884 1884 - 7594 1 1 0 1 2
6 - 7357 - 7893 0 1 0 1 2
7 - 4895 4895 4895 0 1 1 1 1
8 8932 8932 8932 - 1 1 1 0 1
9 7653 7653 8998 4821 1 1 1 1 3
10 7321 - 2789 2789 1 0 1 1 2
11 1213 1213 3212 4778 1 1 1 1 3
12 5678 6678 7778 8888 1 1 1 1 4
Accumulation 10 11 9 11
Occupancy 0.83 0.92 0.75 0.92 2.25
Columns 1 to 5 are the input data. The parking status in every bay is coded first. If a
vehicle occupies that bay for that time interval, then it has a code 1. This is shown in
columns 6, 7, 8 and 9 of the table corresponding to the time intervals 15, 30, 45 and 60
seconds.
 Turnover is computed as the number of vehicles present in that bay for that
particular hour. For the first bay, it is counted as 3. Similarly, for the second bay,
one vehicle is present throughout that hour and hence turnout is 1 itself. This is
being tabulated in column 10 of the table. Average turnover = Sum of
turnover/Total no. of bays=2.25
 Accumulation for a time interval is the total of number of vehicles in the bays 1
to 12 for that time interval. Accumulation for first time interval of 15 minutes =
1+1+1+1+1+0+0+1+1+1+1+1 = 10
 Parking volume = Sum of the turnover in all the bays = 27 vehicles
 Average duration is the average time for which the parking lot was used by the
vehicles. It can be calculated as sum of the accumulation for each time interval*
time interval divided by the parking volume = (10+11+9+11)*15/27=22.78
minutes/vehicle.
 Occupancy for that time interval is accumulation in that particular interval
divided by total number of bays. For first time interval of 15 minutes, occupancy
= (10*100)/12 = 83% Average occupancy is found out as the average of total
number of vehicles occupying the bay for each time interval. It is expressed in
percentage. Average occupancy =(0.83+0.92+0.75+0.92)/4*100= 85.42%
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 Parking capacity = number of bays *number of hours = 12* 1 = 12 vehicle hours

 Parking load = total number of vehicles accumulated at the end of each time
interval *time = (10+11+9+11)*15/60= 10.25 vehicle hours
 Efficiency = Parking Load/Number of bays available= (10.25/12)*100= 85.42%.
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Data Sheet for Parking Study

Site name:…………………………… Date:……………….................
Vehicle type:…………………………. Group No:…………………………
Start time:……………………………. End time:……………………………
Number of parking slots:……………………..
Partial vehicle registration no’s (last 4 digits):

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Transport Lab Manual

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Transport Lab Manual

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Traffic Engineering Lab

Manuals & Reports

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

Dr. Anjan Kumar S

Bhaskar Pratim Das

Analysis and Modelling of Free Flow Speed Distributions of Various Types of

Analysis and Modelling of Time Headway ……. 25

Macroscopic Modelling of Highway Traffic ……. 35

Moving Observer Method ……. 45

Determination of Hourly Flow and Peak Hour Factor ……. 55

Gap Acceptance Analysis for Critical Gap Estimation ……. 63

Design of Traffic Signal ……. 73

Parking Studies ……. 89

Roll Number : ………………………………………………………………………….

Academic Year : …………………………………………….............................................

Sl. No. Name of Experiment Marks Signature

Driver Vision Test

Figure 1: DVS-GT Deluxe equipment

Figure 2: Elliptech Control Unit

1.3 Relevance and Importance:

Dynamic Visual Ability to see objects that are in

1.4 Test Description

CE 410 – Transportation Engineering II Laboratory

1. C.S. Papacostas and P.D. Prevedouros, Transportation Engineering and Planning,

1.2 Radar gun Method

1.2.1 Apparatus Required

Figure 1: a) Hand held Radar Gun b) Tripod mounted radar gun

Step 1: Location for Spot Speed Studies

Step 2: Appropriate Selection Strategy should be determined in order to avoid biasness

Step 3: Record observations on radar gun speed data form

Frequency distribution of a sample speed survey is tabulated as follows;

Table 1: Frequency analysis of spot speeds

Speed Group Middle Observed % Frequency Cumulative % fi*ui

Figure 1: Histogram and Probability Density Function

Figure 2: Cumulative Frequency Distribution Curve

V85 = 57.5 kmph V15 = 34 kmph

Need of modeling the free flow speed data

Chi-square goodness of fit test: The assumption of normality is particularly common in

H0 : The data follows Normal Distribution.

H1 : The data do not follow Normal Distribution.

The null hypothesis is rejected if the theoretical chi-square value corresponding to a

i.e., 3 $ > 3#/4,6.

Table 2: Chi-square Test for Normalcy on Illustrative Spot Speed Data

for grouped data, the chi-square statistic is computed as:

(" − " )$ Where, 3 $ = chi-square statistic

" − " $ 24 − 27.6774$

Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle

CE 410 – Transportation Engineering II Laboratory

Figure 1: Vehicle Trajectory Corresponding to Stationary Traffic Condition

Figure 2: i) Negative Exponential Distribution ii) Log-Normal Distribution

Table 1: Headway Distribution on a Two-Way Highway

Figure 5: Relative Frequency Distribution Curve

3. Average arrival rate:

4. The Goodness of Fit Test:

Observed Theoretical Chi-

Figure 6: Comparison of observed and theoretical headways

CE 410 – Transportation Engineering II Laboratory

𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

Figure1: i) Flow-Density Diagram ii) Speed–Density Diagram iii) Speed-Flow Diagram

Figure 2: Space-Time diagram of a traffic stream

𝑛 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇.

𝑁 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

Table 2: Spatial Count of vehicles for Each 2 Seconds

Table 3: Average Density for 30 Seconds

Table 4: Flow, Density and Speed Values Corresponding to Each 30 Seconds

𝑣 = −0.326 × 𝑘 + 51.12 ….(4)

Table 5: Results of Regression Analysis

Intercept 51.114781 1.506189 33.9365

X Variable 1 -0.3263878 0.024812 -13.1545

Figure 3: i) Speed-Density Diagram ii) Flow-Density Diagram iii) Speed-Flow Diagram

CE 410 – Transportation Engineering II Laboratory

Figure 1: observer moving along and against the traffic.

Space mean speed of the traffic stream;

Similarly, For Three-wheelers

𝑞 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + 𝑞4 = 8.426 + 3.93 + 14.88 + 4.21 = 31.446 𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑘 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 + 𝑘4 = 0.0099 + 0.0064 + 0.024 + 0.00934 = 0.04964 veh/m

(" − " )$ Where, 3 $ = chi-square statistic

" − " $ 24 − 27.6774$

 Parking capacity = number of bays number of hours = 12 1 = 12 vehicle hours