Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 1

I. OVERVIEW OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The trigonometric functions can be defined in two different but equivalent ways – as functions of angles
or as functions of real numbers. These definitions enable us to view and analyze problems with these
functions differently.

As a function of angles, trigonometry is used with geometric problems involving finding angles and
distances. The key idea here is to find a relationship between angles and distance. That is, if we had a
way to determine distances from angles, we would be able to find the distance to the sun without going
there. The trigonometric functions provide us with just the tool we need.

As a function of real numbers, trigonometry lends itself to modeling periodic functions; i.e., motion that
repeats over and over. This type of motion is common in nature. Examples are the daily rising and
setting of the sun, the daily variation of tide levels, the vibrations of a leaf in the wind, or the pressure in
the cylinders of a car engine. To describe such motion mathematically, we need a function whose values
increase, then decrease, then increase …repeating this pattern indefinitely. The six trigonometric
functions provide us with the tool to analyze problems involving periodic functions as well as modeling
of harmonic motions.

II. ANGLES AND THEIR MEASURES

Generation of Angles:
If two rays are drawn with a common vertex, they form an angle. To fix our ideas, we call one of the
rays of an angle the initial and the other the terminal. The angle that is formed is identical by showing
the direction of rotation from the initial side to the terminal side. If the rotation is in the
counterclockwise direction, the angle is positive; if the rotation is clockwise, the angle is negative.

Terminal
Side

Verte -
x Initial
Side
Positive angle: Counterclockwise Negative angle: Clockwise
Rotation Rotation
An angle  is said to be in standard position if its vertex is at the origin of a rectangular coordinate
system and its initial side coincides with the positive X-axis.

When an angle  is in standard position, the terminal side either will lie in quadrant, in which case we
say  lies in a quadrant, or it will lie in the X-axis or the Y-axis, in which case we say  is a quadrantal
angle.
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 2

Illustrations
Y Y


X
X 

 in standard position;  is positive  in standard position;  is negative

Y Y


 X
X

 lies in quadrant IV  is a quadrantal angle

We measure angles by determining the amount of rotation needed for the initial side to become
coincident with the terminal side. There are two commonly used measures for angles: degrees and
radian.

Degrees
The angle formed by rotating the initial side exactly once in the counterclockwise direction until it
coincides with itself (one revolution) is said to measure 360 degrees, abbreviated 360 0. Thus, one
degree, 10, is 1/360 revolution. A right angle is one angle of 90 0, or ¼ revolution; a straight angle is an
angle of 1800, or ½ revolution.

Addition and subtraction of angles in these measures is accomplished by using the conversions of
10 = 60’
1’ = 60”

Examples:
1. 400 20’
+ 350 50’
750 70’ = 760 10’

2. Convert 500 6’ 21” to a decimal in degrees.

50 + 6/60 + 10/(60)(60) = 50.102780

Radian
One radian is the measure of a central angle of a circle that is subtended by an arc whose length is equal
to the radius of the circle.
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 3

In the figure below, angle AOB has been doubled so that angle AOC has measure 2 radians, and arc
length AC = 2r. This demonstrates that

B
C s=r

A
O r

Arc Length = (Angle measure in radian) x (Radius)

Using s for the arc length,  for the angle measure, and r for the radius, the preceding can be stated for
an angle  in radians:
s=r or  = s/r

We then say that the measure of the angle  is given by the quotient s/r; that is, angle  has a measure of
s/r radians.

From geometry, we know that the circumference of a circle is given by the formula C = 2r. Thus, C/r =
2; so there are 2 radians in a complete rotation of 3600. Thus,
2 radians = 3600 or
 radians = 1800

Examples
1. Convert 300 and 1350 degrees into radians.
2. Express /4 and 5/6 in degree measure.
3. A central angle in a circle of radius 4 cm is 75 0. Find the length of the intercepted arc to the
nearest tenth of a centimeter.
4. A circle has a radius of 15”. Find, in rad, a central angle subtended by an arc of a) 25”, b) 1”, and
c) 2’6”.
5. An angle between a tangent and a chord is ¼ rad. If the length of the arc subtended by the chord
is 5”, what is the radius of the circle?
6. Find, in radians, the angle between the tangents to a circle at two points whose distance apart,
measured on the circumference of the circle is 350 ft, the radius of the circle being 800 ft.
7. A circular arc of length 3 ft subtends a central angle of 250. Find the radius of the circle.
8. Each of two tangents from an external point to a circle is 3” long. The smaller arc which they
intercept is 2 rad. Find the radius of the circle.

Area of a Circular Sector

We use radian measure to find the area of a sector of a circle. In the figure below

 As  
r As = k
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 4

If  = 2, then As = Acircle = 2r2

Therefore;
2r2 = k(2)
k = ½ r2
Hence,
Asector = ½ r2

Examples
1. The area of a sector of a circle with radius 6 cm is 15 sq. cm. Find the measure of the central
angle of the sector in degrees.
2. Find the area of a circular sector with central angle 45 0 if the length of the intercepted arc is /2
cm.
3. A curve along a highway is an arc of a circle with a 250-m radius. If the curve is 50 m long, by
how many degrees does the highway change its direction?
4. A cup is in the shape of a right circular cone made from a circular sector with an 8-inch radius
and a central angle of 2700. Find the surface area of the cup to the nearest tenth of a square inch.
5. Find the area of a sector having an angle of 0.75 rad in a circle whose radius is 6”. Find the area
of the corresponding segment.
6. A segment of height 3 inches (distance from center of chord to center of arc) has an arc of 1/3
rad. Find the area of the segment.
7. A horizontal cylindrical tank has a diameter of 4 ft and a length of 10 ft. It is filled with liquid to
a depth of 8”. How many gallons of liquid does it contain? (1 gal = 231 cu. In.)
8. Three circles with radii 1, 2, and 3 ft are externally tangent to one another. Find the area of the
sector of the circle of radius 1 that is cut off by the line segments joining the center of that circle
to the centers of the other two circles.

Circular Motion
There are two ways to describe circular motion – linear speed and angular speed. Linear speed is the rate
at which the distance traveled is changing, so linear speed is the distance traveled divided by time
elapsed. Angular speed is the rate at which the central angle, say , is changing, so angular speed is the
number of radians this angle changes divided by the time elapsed.

Suppose a point moves along a circle of radius r and the ray from the center to the point traverses 
radians in time. Let s = r be the distance the point travels in time t. Then the speed of the object is given
by

s θ
ω=
 Angular speed t
r s
v=
Linear speed t
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 5

Relationship between Linear and Angular Speed

If a point moves along a circle of radius r with angular speed , then its linear speed v is given by
v = r

Examples
1. A boy rotates a stone in a 3-ft-long sling at the rate of 15 revolutions every 10 seconds. Find the
angular and linear velocities of the stone.
2. A woman riding a bicycle of whose wheels are 26 inches in diameter. If the wheels rotate at 125
revolutions per minute (rpm), find the speed at which she is traveling in mi/h.
Exercises 1
1. A car’s wheels are 28 in. in diameter. How far (in miles) will the car travel if its wheels revolve
10,000 times without slipping?
2. How many revolutions will a car wheel of diameter 30 in. makes as the car travels a distance of
one mile?
3. Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, and Miami, Florida, lie approximately on the same meridian. Pittsburgh
has a latitude of 40.50 N and Miami, 25.5 0 N. Find the distance between these two cities. The
radius of the earth is 3960 mi.
4. The Greek mathematician Eratosthenes measured the circumference of the earth following
observations. He noticed that on a certain day the sun shone directly down a deep well in Syene
(modern Aswan). At the same time in Alexandria, 500 miles north (on the same meridian), the
rays of the sun shone at an angle of 7.20 to the zenith. Use this information to find the radius and
circumference of the earth.
5. Find the distance along an arc on the surface of the earth that subtends a central angle of 1
minute (1 minute = 1/60 degree). This distance is called a nautical mile.
6. The top and bottom ends of a windshield wiper blade are 34 in. and 14 in. from the pivot point,
respectively. While in operation the wiper sweeps through 135 0. Find the area swept by the
blade.
7. A cow is tethered by a 100-ft rope to the inside corner of an L-shaped building. Find he area that
the cow can graze.
8. A winch of radius 2 ft is used to lift heavy loads. If the winch makes 8 revolutions every 15 s,
find the speed at which the load is rising.
9. The pedal sprocket of a bicycle has a radius of 4 in., the wheel sprocket a radius of 2 in., and the
wheel a radius of 13 in. The cyclist pedals at 40 rpm.
a. Find the angular speed of the wheel sprocket.
b. Find the sped of the bicycle. Assume that the wheel turns at the same rate as the wheel
sprocket.
10. A conical cup is made from a circular piece of paper with radius 6 cm by cutting out a sector and
joining the edges. Suppose  = 5/3.
a. Find the circumference C of the opening of the cup.
b. Find the radius r of the opening of the cup.
c. Find the height h of the cup.
d. Find the volume of the cup.

III. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF REAL NUMBERS

There are two widely accepted approaches to the development of the trigonometric functions: One uses
the unit circle; the other employs right triangles.
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 6

Unit Circle Approach

The unit circle is a circle whose radius is 1 and whose center is at the origin of the rectangular
coordinate system. Because the radius r of the unit circle is 1, we see from the formula s = r  that a
central angle of  radians subtends an arc whose length s is s = .
Thus, on the unit circle, the length measure of the arc, s, equals the radian measure of the central angle
. In other words, on the unit circle, the real number used to measure an angle  in radians corresponds
exactly with the real number used to measure the length of the arc subtended by that angle.

Consider the unit Circle: x2 + y2 = 1

Let t = be any real numbers equal to  radians

P = be the point on the unit circle that is also on the terminal side of 

For instance: Y
Since t =  = s,
t=0 P = (1, 0) 1 P(x, y)
t = /2 P = (0, 1)
t= P = (-1, 0) s=
t = 3/2 P = (0, -1) X
-1 1
t = -/2 P = (0, -1)

-1

Thus, to each real number t, there corresponds a point P = (x, y) on the unit circle. This is the important
idea here. No matter what real number t is chosen, a corresponding point P on the unit circle is
identified. We use the coordinates of this point P= (x, y) on the unit circle corresponding to the real
number t to define the six trigonometric functions of the real number t.

Definitions of trigonometric functions

Let t be a real number and let P = (x, y) be the point on the unit circle that corresponds to t.
1. sin t = y 4. sec t = 1/x ; x  0
2. cos t = x 5. csc t = 1/y ; y  0
3. tan t = y/x ; x  0 6. cot t = x/y ; y  0

Because we used the unit circle in these definitions of the trigonometric functions, they are also
sometimes referred to as circular functions.

IV. PROPERTIES OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The domain and the range of the trigonometric functions

The domain of a function is the largest set of real numbers for which the rule defining the function can
be applied.

Domain
1. y = sin t and x = cos t
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 7

Since every real number t results in a point P = (x, y) for which y = sin t and x = cos t, the
domain of both the sine and cosine functions is the set of real numbers.

Domain = all real numbers

2. tan t = y/x and sec t = 1/x
The domain of the tangent and secant functions must exclude values of t for which x = 0.
That is, when t = /2, -/2, 3/2, -3/2, 5/2, -5/2, and so on. In other words, all odd
multiples of /2 are excluded. Therefore,

Domain = all real numbers except odd multiples of /2.

3. cot t = x/y and csc t = 1/y

The domain of the cotangent and cosecant functions must exclude values of t for which y = 0.
That is, when t = 0, , -, 2 and so on. In other words, all multiples of  are excluded.
Therefore,

Domain = all real numbers except multiples of .

Range
Since the point P = (x, y) that corresponds to the real number t lies on the unit circle, it follows
that –1  x  1 and –1  y  1. Consequently, since sin t = y and cos t = x, we have

–1  cos t  1 and –1  sin t  1

Thus, the range is all real numbers between –1 and 1, inclusive.

Range = sin t  1, cos t 1.

Since sec t = 1/x and x = cos t:

–1  cos t  1
-1  sec t  1
Thus, the range is:

Range = sec t  -1 or sec t  1

Similarly, if t is not a multiple of , then csc t = 1/y and

y = sin t
–1  sin t  1
-1  csc t  1

Thus, the range is:

Range = csc t  -1 or csc t  1

For tangent and cotangent,

Range = all real numbers

Summary:
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 8

Function Symbol Domain Range

Sine F(t) = sin t All real numbers All real numbers from –1 to 1,
inclusive.
Cosine F(t) = cos t All real numbers All real numbers from –1 to 1,
inclusive.
Tangent F(t) = tan t All real numbers except odd All real numbers
multiples of /2.
Secant F(t) = sec t All real numbers except odd All real numbers  1 or  -1.
multiples of /2.
Cosecant F(t) = csc t All real numbers except All real numbers  1 or  -1.
multiples of .
Cotangent F(t) = cot t All real numbers except All real numbers.
multiples of .

Evaluating the trigonometric functions

1. Find the values of each of the trigonometric functions at
a. t = 0
b. t = /4
c. t = /2

Solution:
a. If t = 0, then P = (1,0)
Thus, x = 1 and y = 0
sin 0 = 0 sec 0 = 1
cos 0 = 1 csc 0 = undefined
tan 0 = 0 cot 0 = undefined

b. If t = /4,  = /4 = ½(/2)

Hence, x = y
From x2 + y2 = 1:
2x2 = 1
1
√
x = 2 or
x = √ 2 /2 = y

cos /4 = √ 2 /2 sin /4 = √ 2 /2

tan /4 = 1 csc /4 = √ 2
cot /4 = 1 sec /4 = √ 2

c. If t = /2, then P = (0,1)

Thus:
sin /2 = 1 cos /2 = 0
csc /2 = 1 sec /2 = undefined
tan /2 = undefined cot /2 = 0
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 9

2. Find the values of each of the trigonometric functions at

a. t = c. t = 2
b. t = 3/2

Period of the trigonometric functions

Suppose, for a given real number t, we know the corresponding point P = (x, y) on the unit circle. Now
add 2 to t. Since the circumference of the unit circle is 2, the point P on the unit circle corresponding
to t + 2 is identical to the point on the unit circle corresponding to t. Thus, the values of the
trigonometric functions of t + 2 are equal to the values of the corresponding trigonometric functions of
t.
Definition of Periodic Function
A function f is called periodic if there is a positive number p such that, whenever t is in the domain of f,
so is t + p and
f(t + p) = f(t)

Definition of Period
If there is a smallest such number p, this smallest value is called the (fundamental) period of f.

Thus, sine, cosine, secant and cosecant functions have period of 2; while tangent and cotangent have
period of . In symbol:
sin (t + 2) = sin t tan (t +  ) = tan t
cos (t + 2) = cos t cot (t + ) = cot t
sec (t + 2) = sec t csc (t + 2) = csc t

Examples:
Find the value of
1. sin 33/4
2. cos 9
3. tan 5/4

Even-Odd properties
Definition:

Even function: f(-t) = f(t)

Odd function: f(-t) = -f(t)

Thus:
sin (-t) = -y = -sin t
cos (-t) = x = cos t
sec (-t) = 1/x = sec t
csc (-t) = 1/-y = -csc t
tan (-t) = -y/x = -tan t
cot (-t) = x/-y = -cot t

Therefore,
Even functions: cosine and secant functions
Odd functions: sine, cosecant, tangent and cotangent functions
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 10

P = (x, y)
t
X
-t
P = (x,-y)

Example:
Find the value of
1. sin(-/4) = -sin(/4) = -√ 2 /2
2. cos (-) = cos  = -1
3. tan (-37/4) = -tan(37/4)
= -tan(/4 + 9)
= -tan /4
= -1

The signs of the trigonometric functions

Quadrant sin, csc cos, sec tan, cot Y

I Positive Positive Positive II: (-x, y) I: (x, y)
II Positive Negative Negative
III Negative Negative Positive X
IV Negative Positive Negative III: (-x, -y) IV: (x, -y)

Examples:
Name the quadrant in which the point P corresponding to t lies:
1. sin t < 0 and cos t< 0
2. sin t> 0 and cos t < 0
3. cos t > 0 and tan t < 0
4. csc t > 0 and cos t < 0

Fundamental identities
csc t = 1/sin t tan t = sin t/cos t
sec t = 1/cos t cot t = cos t/sin t
cot t = 1/tan t

Since x2 + y2 = 1:
cos2 t + sin2t = 1 tan2t + 1 = sec2t 1 + cot2t = csc2t

Examples:
Find the other trigonometric functions for the given conditions:
1. sin t =1/3 and cos t > 0
2. sin t = -2/3 and sec t > 0
3. cos t = -1/3 and csc t > 0
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 11

4. tan t = -1/3 and sin t > 0

Trigonometric functions of angles

Since on the unit circle,  = t radians, it follows that:
sin t = sin  tan t = tan  csc t = ccs 
cos t = cos  cot t = cot  sec t = sec 

Examples:
Find the value of:
a. sin 450 b. cos 1800 c. tan (-1800)

Exercises 2
I. Find the value of each of the six trigonometric functions (if it is defined) at the given real number t.
Use your answers to complete the table.
1. t = 0 2. t = /2 3. t =  4. t = 3/2

t sin t cos t tan t csc t sec t cot t

0 0 1 Undefined
/2
 0 Undefined
3/2

II. The terminal point P(x, y) determined by a real number t is given. Find sin t, cos t, and tan t.
1. (3/5, 4/5) 3. (−1/3, −2 √2/3)
2. ( √ 5/4 , −√ 11/4) 4. (−5 /13 , −12 /13 )

III. Write the first expression in terms of the second if the terminal point determined by t is in the given
quadrant.
1. sin t, cos t; quadrant II
2. tan t, sin t; quadrant IV
3. csc t, cot t; quadrant III
4. tan2t, sin t; any quadrant
2 2
5. sec t sin t, cos t; any quadrant

IV. Find the values of the trigonometric functions t from the given information.
1. sin t = 3/5, terminal point of t is in quadrant II
2. sec t = 3, terminal point of t is in quadrant IV
3. tan t = -4, csc t > 0
4. sec t = 2, sin t < 0
5. tan t = -3/4, cos t > 0

V. Determine whether the function is even, odd or neither.

1. f(x) = x2 sin x 5. f(x) = x2 cos 2x
2. f(x) = sin x cos x 6. f(x) = sin x + cos x
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 12

f(x) = |x| cos x

3. 7. f(x) = x sin3x
4. f(x) = x3 + cos x 8. f(x) = cos(sin x)

V. GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

A. Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions

The Sine Function: y = sin x

Domain  All Real Numbers

Range  -1  y  1
Period  2
Symmetry  Origin: [sin (-x) = - sin x ]
Y

X
-2 - 0  2

-1

The Cosine Function: y = cos x

Domain  All Real Numbers

Range  -1  y  1
Period  2
Symmetry  About the y-axis: [cos (-x) = cos x]
Y

X
-2 - 0  2

-1

Graphs of Transformation of Sine and Cosine

Certain transformation of a function affects its graph. The transformation of functions can be that of
shifting, reflecting and stretching the graph of the original functions. The following rules apply in the
graphs of transformation of function.

1. Vertical Shifts of Graphs

Suppose c > 0.
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 13

i. To graph y = f(x) + c, shift the graph of y = f(x) upward c units.

ii. To graph y = f(x) – c, shift the graph of y = f(x) downward c units.

2. Horizontal Shifts of Graphs

Suppose c > 0.
i. To graph y = f(x – c), shift the graph of y = f(x) to the right c units.
ii. To graph y = f(x + c), shift the graph of y = f(x) to the left c units.

3. Reflecting Graphs
i. To graph y = -f(x), reflect the graph of y = f(x) in the x-axis.
ii. To graph y = f(-x), reflect the graph of y = f(x) in the y-axis.

4. Vertical Stretching and Shrinking of Graphs

To graph y = cf(x):
i. If c > 1, stretch the graph of y = f(x) vertically by a factor of c.
ii. If 0 < c < 1, shrink the graph of y = f(x) vertically by a factor of c.

The sine and cosine curves

y = a sin kx and y = a cos kx (k > 0)

have amplitude a and period 2/k.

An appropriate interval on which to graph one complete period is [0, 2/k].

The sine and cosine curves
y = a sin k(x – b) and y = a cos k(x – b) (k > 0)

have amplitude a and period 2/k, and phase shift b

An appropriate interval on which to graph one complete period is [b, b + (2/k)].

Examples:
Sketch the graph of each function.
1. f(x) = 2 + cos x
2. g(x) = - cos x
3. y = 4 cos 3x
4. y = - 2 sin ½ x
5. y = ¾ cos(2x)
6. y = 3 sin2(x - /4)
7. 3/3 cos(2x + 2/3)

Exercises 3
I. Indicate the phase shift for each equation and graph it over the stated interval.

1.
( π2 ) , −π2 ≤ x ≤ 3π2
y = cos x +

y = sin ( x − ) , −π ≤ x ≤ 2π
π
2. 4
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 14

3.
( π2 ) , −π2 ≤ x ≤ 52π
y = 3 sin x −

y = cos ( x + ) , −π ≤ x ≤ 2π
1 π
4. 4 2
II. State the amplitude, period, and phase shift for each equation and graph it over the indicated interval.

1.
( 12 ) , −1 ≤ x ≤ 2
y = sin 2π x −

y = 4 cos (πx + ) , −1 ≤ x ≤ 3
π
2. 4

y = 2 sin (3 x − ) ,
π −2 π 5π
≤x≤
3. 2 3 3

y = −4 cos ( 4 x + ) ,
π −π
≤x≤3
4. 2 2

III. Find the amplitude, period, and phase shift of the function and graph one complete period.

( ) ( )
1 π 3 π
. y = cos x − 2 . y = −2 sin x − 6

y = − cos (2 x − )
2 1 1 π 4 y = 3 + 2 sin 3 ( x + 1 )
. 2 2 3 .

IV. Applications
1. As a wave passes by an offshore piling, the height of the water is modeled by the function
h ( t ) = 3 cos ( )
π
10
t
where h(t) is the height in feet above mean sea level at time t seconds.
a) Find the period of the wave.
b) Find the wave height, that is, the vertical distance between the trough and the crest of the
wave.
2. A tuning fork is struck, producing a pure tone as its tines vibrate. The vibrations are modeled by
the function
v ( t ) = 0.7 sin ( 880 πt )
where v(t) is the displacement of the tines in millimeters at time t seconds.
a) Find the period of the vibration.
b) Find the frequency of the vibration, that is, the number of times the fork vibrates per
second.
c) Graph the function v.
3. Each time your heart beats your blood pressure first increases and then decreases as the heart
rests between beats. The maximum and minimum blood pressures are called systolic and
diastolic pressure, respectively. Your blood pressure reading is written as systolic/diastolic. A
reading of 120/80 is considered normal.
A certain person’s blood pressure is modeled by the function
p ( t ) = 115 + 25 sin (160 π t )
where p(t) is the pressure in mmHg at time t measured in minutes.
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 15

a) Find the period of p.

b) Find the number of heart beats per minute.
c) Graph the function p.
d) Find the blood pressure reading. How does this compare to normal blood pressure?
4. Variable stars are ones whose brightness varies periodically. One of the most visible is R Leonis;
its brightness is modeled by the function
b ( t ) = 7.9 − 2.1 cos ( 156π t )
where t is measured in days.
a) Find the period of R Leonis.
b) Find the maximum and minimum brightness.
c) Graph the function b.

B. Graphs of the Tangent, Secant, Cosecant and Cotangent Functions

The Tangent Function: y = tan x

Tangent will not exist at

5π 3π π π 3π 5π
x = …, − ,− ,− , , , , …
2 2 2 2 2 2
and the graph will have asymptotes at these points.
Y

X
- -/2 0 /2 

Finally, a couple of quick properties about R tan (ωx).

-  < R tan(x) < 

π
Period = ω
For the period remember that tan (x) has a period of π unlike sine and cosine and that accounts for the
absence of the 2 in the numerator that was there for sine and cosine.
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 16

Domain  All real numbers except those of the form (/2 + k), where k is any
integer
Range  All real numbers y
Period 
Symmetry  Origin
Asymtote  x = /2 + k, where k is any integer

The Secant Function: y = sec x

As with tangent we will have to avoid x’s for which cosine is zero (remember that sec x = 1/cos x ).
Secant will not exist at

5π 3π π π 3π 5π
x = …, − ,− ,− , , , , …
2 2 2 2 2 2
and the graph will have asymptotes at these points.
Notice that the graph is always greater than 1 and less than -1. This should not be terribly surprising.
Recall that −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1. So, 1 divided by something less than 1 will be greater than 1. Also, 1/±1 = ±1
and so we get the following ranges out of secant.

R sec(x) ≥ R and R sec(x) ≤ -R

Domain  All x  /2 + k, k any integer

Range  All y  1 and y  -1
Period  2
Asymtote  x = /2 + k, k any integer
Symmetry  Y-axis
Y

X
- 0 

-5

The Cosecant Function: y = csc x

For this graph we will have to avoid x’s where sine is zero (csc x = 1/sin x). So, the graph of cosecant
will not exist for

x = …,−2π, −π, 0, π, 2π,…

 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 17

Cosecant will have the same range as secant.

R csc(x) ≥ -R and R csc(x) ≤ -R

Domain  All x  k, k any integer

Range  All y  1 and y  -1
Period  2
Asymtote  x = k, k any integer
Symmetry  Origin

Here is the graph of cosecant.

Y

X
- 0 

-5

The Cotangent Function: y = cot x

Cotangent must avoid

x = …, −2π, −π, 0, π, 2π,…

since we will have division by zero at these points. Here is the graph.
Y

10

X
-  2

-10
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 18

Cotangent has the following range.

- < R cot (x) < 

Domain  All x  k, k any integer

Range  All real numbers y
Period 
Asymtote  x = k, k any integer
Symmetry  Origin

Graph of y = A tan(Bx + C) or y = A cos(Bx + C), B > 0

π
Period = B

{ C C
Phase Shift = ¿ | | to the right if < 0 ¿ ¿¿
B B
Note that the amplitude is not defined for these two functions. Changing A only changes the steepness of
the curves, and if A is negative, it reflects the basic curve relative to the x-axis.

Examples:
Sketch the graph of the function.
1. y = 2 tan x 5. y = - tan x
2. y = tan 2x 6. y = tan 2(x - /4)
3. y = 2 cot(3x - /2) 7. y = ½ sec(x - /6)
4. y = csc 2(x + /2)

Exercises 4
I. Find the period and graph the function.
1. y = 3 csc(x + /2) 3. y = cot(2x - /2)
2. y = -2 tan(2x - /3) 4. y = sec(x + /4)

II. Applications
1. The beam from a lighthouse completes one rotation every two minutes. At time t, the distance d
the beam has struck along the shore is
d(t) = 3 tan t
where t is measured in minutes and d in miles.
a) Find d(0.15), d(0.25) and d(0.5)
b) Sketch the graph of the function d for 0  t  ½.
c) What happens to the distance d as t approaches ½?

2. On a day when the sun passes directly at noon, a six-foot-tall man casts a shadow of length
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 19

π
S ( t ) = 6|cot t|
12
where S is measured in feet and t is the number of hours since 6 A.M.
a) Find the length of the shadow at 8:00 A.M., noon, 2:00 P.M., and 5:45 P.M.
b) Sketch the graph of the function S for 0  t  12.
c) From the graph determine the values of t at which the length of the shadow equals the
man’s height. To what time of the day does each of these values correspond?
d) Explain what happens to the shadow as the time approaches 6 P.M. (that is, as t  12-).

VI. RIGHT TRIANGLE TRIGONOMETRY

Q(a, b)
Y Q(a, b)
c
b P(x, y) t c
a
r=1
y 
x 
X 0 X
a b

Consider the unit circle of radius 1:

c= a +b√ 2 2

By similar triangle:
y/1 = b/c
y = b/c

Since y = sin t = sin , therefore;

sin  = b/c

Similarly;
cos  = a/c tan  = b/a cot  = a/b
sec  = c/a csc  = c/b

Thus:
sin  = opposite side/hypotenuse csc  = hypotenuse/opposite side
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 20

cos  = adjacent side/hypotenuse sec  = hypotenuse/adjacent side

tan  = opposite side/adjacent side cot  = adjacent side/opposite side

Coterminal angles
Two angles in standard position are said to be coterminal if they have the same terminal side.

The following relations hold for the six trigonometric functions:

sin ( + 3600K) = sin  csc ( + 3600K) = cs 

cos ( + 3600K) = cos  sec ( + 3600K) = cos 
tan ( + 3600K) = tan  cot ( + 3600K) = cot 

Complementary angles; Cofunctions

sin  = cos (900- ) cos  = sin (900- )
tan  = cot (900- ) cot  = tan (900- )
csc  = sec (900- ) sec  = csc (900- )

Reference angle
The acute angle formed by the terminal side of  and either the positive X-axis or the negative X-axis is
called the reference angle for .

The advantage of using reference angles is that, except the correct sign, the values of the trigonometric
functions of a general angle equal the values of the trigonometric functions of its reference angle.

Theorem
If  is an angle that lies in a quadrant and if  is its reference angle, then
sin  =  sin  csc  = csc 
cos  = cos  sec  =  sec 
tan  = tan cot  = cot 

Y Y


  X
X 

Examples
1. Find the value of each of the following trigonometric functions using reference angles:
a. sin 1350 c. cos 5/6
0
b. cos 240 d. tan (-/3)

2. Given that cos  = -2/3, /2 <  < , find the values of the remaining trigonometric functions.

3. Given:
B
Verify: 4
x

A C
 Lecture Notes 5 – The Circular and Trigonometric Functions 21

4sin 2 A x2
=
cos A √16 − x 2
4. Show that the equation is true for an appropriate angle  in a right triangle, having one side equal
to x.
x2
a. (sin )(tan ) = 2 √ 4 − x
2

x2
2
b. (tan2 )(cos2 ) = x + 16
3
( x − 5)
2 2

c. (sin3)(cot3) = x3