Q1. Discuss in brief the different parts of a computer.

A computer is an electronic device that can perform a

variety of operations according to a set of instructions
called program.
Basic Components of the computer
Following are the basic components of a computer that
collectively form a system. These parts are necessary for
a computer to perform the basic functions.
1. The motherboard
The motherboard is the main circuit board of the
computer and is also known as the mainboard or logic
board. It is a printed circuit board and is responsible for
housing all the important components of the computer
system. The motherboard gets its name from the fact
that it is a printed circuit board and is able to have many
other devices added to it. These added devices are CPU,
ROM, memory, RAM expansion slots, PCI slots, and USB
ports. It also includes controllers for devices like the hard
drive, DVD drive, keyboard, and mouse. Basically, the
motherboard is what makes everything in the computer
work together.
2. Processor
A 'Processor', or 'Microprocessor' or 'Central Processing Unit'
(CPU) is a small chip that generally resides in motherboard. CPU
is the brain of the computer and provides ability to computer
for executing any given instruction and also tells the computer
how to control the flow of instructions. In computer system all
the major calculations and comparisons are made inside the
CPU and the CPU is also responsible for activating and
controlling the operations of other units of a computer system.
It handles all the basic system instructions, such as processing
mouse and keyboard input and running applications. Basic
parts of a processor: A CPU has the following main parts:

(i) ALU (Arithmetic This unit of the and Logical Unit) CPU is
capable of performing arithmetic and logical operations like
addition, multiplication, subtraction, division, comparison of
two numbers, etc.
(ii) Memory Unit
A processor has its own memory inside it in the shape of small
cells. Each memory cell is called a "Register". ALU gets data
from registers and stores it in registers to perform arithmetic
and logical operations. Data comes in registers from primary
memory (RAM) of the computer.
(iii) Control Unit
This unit of the processor controls all the activities of the
processor and also controls the input and output devices of the
computer like mouse, keyboard, VDU, printer, etc.

3. Primary Storage Memory

Primary memory is also known as volatile memory or RAM
(Random Access Memory). When a data is processed, a copy of
that data is opened in RAM changes or calculation to be carried
out and thereafter save the changes or may be left unsaved.
The main feature of RAM is a temporary or volatile memory in
which data persists only for the time when the power is
switched on and is lost once the power is switched off. Another
form of memory is ROM (Read-only Memory) which holds the
data permanently that cannot be changed. It is permanently
non-volatile, means it bolds its memory even when power is
removed. ROM contains the programme that is required when
computer is turned on. It starts the process of boot up' and
transfer the control to the CPU and thus, Operating System is
installed in it.

4. Keyboard
It is an input device that is used for input of text or numbers
into the computer in the CUI (Character User Interface). Keys
placed on the Keyboard are in a special sequence, according to
the make up and strength of the human hand. The standard
arrangement of alphabetic keys is known as Qwerty Keyboard,
its name derived from the arrangement of five keys at the
upper left of the three rows of the alphabetic keys.
5. Sound Card and Speakers
The present age is the age of multimedia. Therefore, at present,
computers are also equipped with a Sound Card and Speakers.
With the help of these, music stored as digital data in the
computer is converted into analog data of sound waves.
6. Monitor and Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Panel
It is also called 'Computer Screen' or 'Display'. The monitor
displays the computer's user interface and open programs,
allowing the user to interact with the computer, typically
using keyboard and mouse. In old days, monitors were built
using 'cathode ray tubes' and, therefore, called CRT
monitor. CRT monitor is big in size and takes more
electricity and desk space. Now-a-days monitors are built
using 'liquid crystal display' and, therefore, called LCD
monitor. It is thin in size and takes less space and electricity.

7. Printers
 Printers are devices used for producing information as a
hard copy, i.e., in a printed form. Printers are broadly of two
types:
(i) Impact Printers
Printers in which the head of the printer touches the paper
during printing are known as impact printers, for example,
Dot Matrix Printers, Line Printers, Wheel Printers, Chain
Printers and Drum Printers.
(ii) Non-Impact Printers
These are printers in which the head of the printer does not
touch the paper during printing: for example, Laser printers
and Inkjet printers.
Q2. What are the different generations of a computer .
Discuss.
Over time, computer is characterized by a major technological development that
fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller,
cheaper, and more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. These changes are
recognized as a progression of generations, each characterized by specific developments.
Generations of computers and their characteristics
are given below:
1. First Generation— Vacuum Tubes (1939–1959)
The first generation computers were powered by thousands of vacuum tubes for circuits
and magnetic drums for memory. These computers were large because of the
massive number of vacuum tubes that were required. The tubes themselves were very
large in size similar to the size of electric bulb . They required lot of energy, and in turn
generated much heat. The first generation computers were very slow, consumed huge
amount of power with poor reliability and low accuracy. First generation computers relied
more on machine language to perform operations and inputs were based on punch cards
and paper tapes. Z1, Z3, and UNIVAC I are some of the examples of first-generation
computers.
2. Second Generation— Transistors (1959–1965)
The transistors replaced the vacuum tubes in the second generation computers. The
transistors controlled the flow of electricity through the circuits. The use of transistors was
a breakthrough in technology that allowed computers to become physically smaller, more
powerful, more reliable, and even faster. The transistor was developed at Bell Labs in 1947
by William Shockley, J. Bardeen, and W.H. Brattain. The transistors were less expensive
and smaller, required less electricity, and emitted less heat than vacuum tubes. In
addition, fewer transistors were required to operate a computer; they were
not as fragile as vacuum tubes, and lasted longer. As the components were substantially
smaller, the size of the computer itself could be reduced considerably. These computers
used magnetic core as main memory and used card readers and printers for input and
output. The second generation computers moved from machine language to assembly
language, which allowed the programmers to write instructions in words rather than
binary digits as in machine language. Some examples of the second generation computers
are:
• IBM 70, 1400, 1600 series
• Honeywell 400 800 series
• Burroughs B 5000, 200 series
• GEC’s GE 645, 200 series
 • UNIVAC’s Univac III

3. Third Generation— Integrated Circuits (1965–1971)

Third generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs). These integrated circuits were
smaller, more efficient, and more reliable as compared to vacuum tubes and transistors.
Also, the memory technology was improved and by 1969 as many as 1,000 transistors
could be built on a chip of silicon. The concept of operating system was introduced which
meant that human operators were no longer required and processing could be done at
computer speeds rather than human speeds. Another phenomenon that was introduced
in this generation was that of families of computers.
As a result, the same program could be used with other computers of the same family.
The Third generation computers used secondary storage devices, such as magnetic tapes
and magnetic disks, which are located outside the computer. The use of faster
input/output devices like keyboards and monitors contributed to the enhanced utility of
these computers for multiprogramming, wherein a number of programs could be
executed simultaneously by a single computer. Some of the third generation computers
are:
• IBM 360, 370 series
• PDP—8 series
• UNIVAC 1108, 9000 series, etc.
4. Fourth Generation—PCs and VSLI (1971–1991)
The fourth generation is the generation of Large-Scale Integration (LSI) of chips with
several thousand transistors and microprocessors (based on Very-Large-Scale Integration
(VLSI). The development of VLSI made the development of the microcomputer possible;
this was followed by the Intel series of microprocessors. The application programs for
microcomputers were developed, which allowed home and business users to adapt
computers for word processing, spreadsheet, file handling, graphics, and much more. The
VLSI allowed lakhs of transistors to be placed on one chip. The Ultra Large-Scale
Integration (ULSI) allowed over 100 million transistors embedded on a single chip. The
input/output devices used in fourth generation computers are very advanced such as:
audio terminals, graphics terminals, optical readers, etc. The fourth generation computers
also introduced concept of Graphical User Interface (GUI), Mouse operation etc.
5. Fifth Generation— Artificial Intelligence and Internet (1991 Till Date)
The fifth generation computers are more intelligent and have ‘thinking’ power and
capacity to take decisions. The concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is being used in these
computers and the processors used are known as ‘Knowledge Processors’. The automatic
programming, computational logic, pattern, recognition, and control of robots are the
processes, which require skill and intelligence. These are some of the applications of
Artificial Intelligence. Although expert systems are already being used for specialized
applications, true artificial intelligence, or computers that can think, are still concepts of
the mind. The grand scale integration (GSI) happened, which allowed over thousand
million transistors to be embedded on a single chip. The GSI, allowed the computer to
perform teraflop (trillion floating point processing per second) of data. The fifth
generation also introduced the concept of parallel processing, which was necessary for AI
to happen. The goal of the fifth generation computing is to develop devices that respond
to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organisation.
Another important facet of the fifth generation computer is the evolution of Internet for
the business applications. The World Wide Web was developed and the first internet
browser called ‘Mosaic’ was introduced. The mobile technology revolutionized this era.
 Q3. What are the input and output devices. Name the different such devices and discuss in
brief their functionalities.
1. An input device is a peripheral device through which data are
entered and transformed into machine-readable form. The
most commonly used input devices are keyboards and mouse.
The keyboards
includes alpha, alpha-numeric, special character keys and
function keys. The mouse is an input device that allows input of
data or instruction to a computer program by just pointing and
clicking. Some of the commonly used input devices are:
Keyboards
A keyboard is an input device used to enter data and commands into a computer or other digital
devices. Its primary functions include:

1. Text Input: Keyboards are primarily used for typing text, whether it's for writing
documents, sending emails, or entering data into software applications.
2. Command Entry: Keyboards allow users to input various commands to control the
computer or execute specific functions within software programs.
3. Navigation: Keyboards often include arrow keys, function keys, and other navigational
keys that facilitate movement within documents and interfaces.
4. Shortcut Keys: Many keyboards have special keys or combinations of keys (e.g., Ctrl+C for
copy, Ctrl+V for paste) that provide quick access to common tasks, improving productivity.
5. Gaming: In gaming, keyboards are used for character movement, actions, and
communication in multiplayer games.
6. Accessibility: Keyboards are important for individuals with disabilities, providing an
alternative input method for those who may have difficulty using a mouse or touch-based
devices.

• Mouse
Functions:
(i) It can point objects on the monitor.
(ii) It can use to open files/folders/documents on the monitor.
(iii) It can select things on the computer monitor.
(iv) It can use for dragging or changing the position of a file on the monitor.
(v) It can help in drawing pictures, playing games, playing music, etc...
• Light Pen
A light pen is a peripheral input device, used for inputting analog information in a digital format.
The "analog" information may be a plan or drawing which needs to be digitized so that it can be
manipulated in a computer program.
An architect for example may use a pen to copy a set of drawing into he computer so that they
can be manipulated in a CAD program.

• Voice Recognitions
Voice recognition offers significant benefits to a wide variety of potential users. Most
obviously, it is extremely useful for anyone with a physical disability who finds typing
difficult, painful or impossible. Additionally, it can help to reduce the risk of getting
a repetitive strain injury (RSI) or to manage any such upper limb disorder more
effectively.

Voice recognition programmes can also greatly benefit people with dyslexia who
would otherwise struggle with spelling and/or structuring sentences correctly.

More generally, voice recognition can help to make mobile working easier, as well
as offering potential productivity benefits to anyone who might not be very proficient
at typing. In fact, most people can talk much faster than they can type accurately –
while ‘hands-free’ computing also offers additional scope for multi-tasking.

• Magnetic Ink Character Recognition–Optical Scanners

The magnetic ink allows a computer to read the characters even if they have been
covered with signatures, cancellation marks, bank stamps, or other marks.

MICR lines help facilitate automatic check-clearing when banks send their checks
to central processing systems at the end of the day.

They are designed to be easily read by people as well, so that check information
can be communicated easily.

• Web Camera
A webcam is used to perform video chat with another person over the internet. In
laptops, you get a single camera, generally just above the screen is a known as
webcam.

The selfie camera which is present on smartphones is basically a webcam as it is

initially incorporated in phones to perform video chats.

Technically, any camera that you can use to video chat with one or more persons
over the web is a webcam.
2. An output device is a peripheral device that accepts data from
a computer and transforms them into a usable form, thus
allowing the computer to communicate information to humans
or other machines. The most common output devices include
printers and display screens. A printer is a machine that helps
in generating output on a paper. The printer varies in size,
speed, and features. The most commonly used type of printers
is laser printers. The monitors or screens have changed from
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) technology to Liquid Crystal Display (
LCD) technology over the last
two decades.
The commonly used output devices are:

• Printers
Printing: The primary function of a printer is to produce a hard copy of digital documents
or images onto paper or other types of media. It takes electronic data from a computer or
other devices and transfers it onto the physical medium.
1. Text and Image Output: Printers can reproduce both text and images. They can print
documents such as letters, reports, essays, spreadsheets, and presentations. Additionally,
they can produce high-quality images such as photographs and graphics.
2. Paper Handling: Printers have mechanisms for paper handling, including paper feeding,
alignment, and stacking. They can accommodate various sizes and types of paper, such as
letter, legal, A4, envelopes, labels, and photo paper.
3. Connectivity: Modern printers often have multiple connectivity options to facilitate
printing from different sources. These include USB connections, Ethernet ports, Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, and wireless printing technologies like AirPrint and Google Cloud Print.
4. Multifunction Capability: Many printers are multifunction devices, combining printing with
other functions such as scanning, copying, and faxing. These all-in-one printers offer
convenience and space savings by integrating multiple office tasks into a single device.
5. Print Quality Control: Printers allow users to adjust print settings to control the quality of
output. Options like color calibration, resolution settings, and paper type selection enable
users to customize the print output to their preferences and requirements.
• Speakers
Speakers are used to connect to a computer to generate sound, which are
one of the most common output devices. Some speakers are designed to
connect with any kind of sound system, while some can be hooked up only
with computers.
 Q4. What are primary and secondary storage devices. Explain their importance.

Primary storage devices

Primary storage devices are the media that hold memory for a shorter
period of time when the computer is running. Such devices have lower
access time but faster time. RAM and cache are two examples of primary
storage devices. It is also known as main memory, primary memory,
internal memory and main storage.

Importance:
(i) Fast Access to Data: Primary storage provides rapid access to data
and programs, enabling efficient and swift processing.
(ii) Volatile Storage: It holds data temporarily, making it essential for
processing tasks and operations that require immediate access to
data.
(iii) Operating System Loading: It is used to load and run the
operating system, allowing the computer to function and execute
tasks.
(iv) Application Execution: Primary storage holds applications
and software in use, enabling smooth and efficient execution.
(v) Data Caching: It caches frequently accessed data, enhancing the
speed of data retrieval and improving system performance.
(vi) Buffering: It provides a buffer for data, smoothing out the
differences in data processing and transfer rates, and ensuring
uninterrupted data processing.
(vii) Temporary Data Storage: It stores temporary data created
during program execution, providing space for data manipulation and
computation.
(viii) Supporting CPU: Primary storage supports the CPU by
holding instructions and data for processing, ensuring efficient and
seamless operations.
(ix) Enhancing Performance: It enhances overall system
performance by providing fast, immediate access to data and
programs, reducing processing time.
(x) Immediate Data Availability: Ensures that data is immediately
available for processing, reducing latency and improving task
execution time.
 Secondary Storage Devices

Secondary Storage Devices or external memory differs from primary memory in

that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. Computer uses input/output channel
to access secondary storage device. However, it is non-volatile and used to store
data permanently even though the computer is turned off and the device does
not get power. The data is stored permanently and will stay on the device until
the user erases it or the device is damaged by any means. It includes hard disk
drive, portable flash drives, CDs, and DVDs, etc.

Functions:

Due to the sheer volume of data generated daily, it is ideal to have a highly
resilient and flexible storage option.

When considering storage options, the recovery speed is a critical factor to

consider. Depending on the medium, secondary storage may take a much longer
time for data retrieval than hot storage.

Cost is another important factor to consider when choosing the storage type. In
many cases, secondary storage is about cost savings. There’s no point in paying
premium prices for data that doesn’t require instant access.

Slower hard drives and tapes are the ideal mediums for secondary storage for data
that requires long retention times and infrequent access. However, while opting for
secondary storage, all the disks and tapes must be tested regularly to ensure they
function properly. Companies need to monitor device lifespan to retire the aging
devices before they fail.

Data should not be kept in secondary storage devices indefinitely. They must be
evaluated regularly, preferably yearly, to see if the resources are effectively used.
What is an operating system? Why operating system is considered a crucial
component of the computer system? Mention the different types of OS and their
functions.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
An operating system is a system management program that is a collection
of integrated computer programs that provide recurring services to other
programs or to the user of a computer. These services consist of disk and
file management, memory management, and device management.
In other words, it manages CPU operations, input/output activities, storage
resources, diverse support services, and controls various devices. The
operating system is the most important program for computer system.
Without an operating system, every computer program would have to
contain instructions telling the hardware each step the hardware should
take to do its job, such as storing a fi le on a
disk. Because the operating system contains these instructions, any
program can call on the operating system when a service is needed.
The operating systems are generally considered crucial :
• Convenience: It makes the computer more convenient to use
• Efficiency: It allows computer system resources to be used in an
efficient manner
• Ability to evolve: It permits effective development, testing, and
introduction of new system functions without interfering with
service.
• Hide details of hardware by creating abstraction: An abstraction
is software that hides lower level details and provides a set of
higher-level functions. An operating system transforms the
physical world of devices, instructions, memory, and time into
virtual world that is the result of abstractions, built by the
operating system. There are several reasons for abstraction.
• First, the code needed to control peripheral devices is not
standardized. The operating systems provide subroutines called
device drivers that perform operations on behalf of programs for
example, input/output operations.
• Second, the operating system introduces new functions as it
abstracts the hardware. For instance, operating system
introduces the file abstraction so that programs do not have to
deal with disks.
• Third, the operating system transforms the computer hardware
into multiple virtual computers, each belonging to a different
program. Each program that is running is called a process. Each
process views the hardware through the lens of abstraction.
• Fourth, the operating system can enforce security through
abstraction.
136 Information Technology for Management

system programs are loaded into primary storage as needed and are removed when they have
completed their tasks.

Types of Operating Systems

There are several basic types of operating systems, including single user, multi-programming
(concurrent), time sharing, multiprocessing, virtual storage, real time, and virtual machine
operating systems. A particular operating system may exhibit characteristics from one or more
of the various types.
• Single User Operating System. A single user operating system allows one program
to be executed at a time, and that program must finish executing completely before the
next can begin. This type of operating system is often found with old generation personal
computers, for example, Microsoft’s DOS (Disk Operating System) and also the older
version of Windows. The goal of this type of operating system is to ensure maximum ease
of use and minimum professional support.
• Multi-programming Operating System. This type of operating system permits
multiple programs to share a computer system’s resources at any given time through
concurrent use of a CPU. It allows a computer to do several things at the same time. The
multiprogramming creates logical parallelism. The concept of multi-programming is that
the operating system keeps several jobs in memory simultaneously. The operating system
selects a job from the job pool and starts executing a job, when that job needs to wait
for any i/o operations the CPU is switched to another
job. So the main idea here is that the CPU is never idle. The multiprogramming is the tech-
nique of running several programs
The Unix operating system is an example of a multi-
at a time using timesharing.
programming operating system.
• Time-Sharing Operating System. A time sharing
operating system allows multiple users to access a single computer system. The attention
of the CPU is shifted among users on a timed basis, which is controlled by the operating
system. As long as the computer system does not have
more users than the operating system can handle, it A time-sharing operating system
appears as if each user has uninterrupted access to uses CPU scheduling using time-
slice.
the CPU. However, if the number of users exceeds
the operating system’s capability, noticeable delays in
processing result.
The time sharing operating systems allocate specific periods of time, or time slices, for
the execution of instructions of a particular program. These time slices are usually only
a fraction of a second long and are controlled by the operating system through the use of
time slice interrupts generated by a hardware clock. The time sharing concept enables
each user’s program to receive processor time at regular intervals, thus preventing anyone
program from monopolising the CPU. When an event interrupt occurs (i.e., an input/output
request), the operating system may switch to another program before a full time slice is
used. This capability allows the CPU to be used more efficiently. Keeping track of the job
next in line for processing is one of the responsibilities of the operating system.
 Computer Software 137

• Multi-tasking Operating System. The multitasking is the logical extension of multi-

programming. The concept of multi-tasking is quite similar to multi-programming but
difference is that the switching between jobs occurs so frequently that the users can
interact with each program while it is running. This The multi-tasking is simultane-
concept is also known as time-sharing systems. A ous execution of multiple tasks or
time-shared operating system uses CPU scheduling programs under the control of an
and multi-programming to provide each user with a interrupt-driven operating system.
small portion of time-shared system.
• Multi-threading. The multi-threading is similar to multitasking, but enables the
processing of multiple threads at one time, rather than multiple processes. Since threads
are smaller, more basic instructions than processes, multi-threading may occur within
processes. By incorporating multi-threading, programs can perform multiple operations
at once. For example, a multi-threaded operating system may run several background
tasks, such as logging file changes, indexing data, and managing windows at the same
time. The web browsers that support multi-threading can have multiple windows open
with JavaScript and Flash animations running simultaneously. If a program is fully multi-
threaded, the different processes should not affect each other at all, as long as the CPU has
enough power to handle them. Similar to multitasking,
The multithreading is a program-
multithreading also improves the stability of programs.
ming and execution model that
However, instead of keeping the computer from allows multiple threads to exist
crashing, multithreading may prevent a program from within the context of a single pro-
crashing. Since each thread is handled separately, if cess.
one thread has an error, it should not affect the rest of
the program.
• Multi-processing Operating System. A multi-processing operating system allows
the simultaneous execution of programs by a computer that has two or more CPUs.
Each CPU can be dedicated to one program, or each CPU can be dedicated to specific
functions and then used by all programs. Many computer systems such as mainframes
and supercomputers have more than one CPU. A more common form of multi-processing
involves the use of a single large main CPU that is The multi-processing is running of
connected to multiple channels. Each channel is a two or more programs simultane-
processing unit that handles input and output from the ously by a computer with more
main CPU and coordinates the work of slower input/ than one central processor.
output devices.
• Virtual-storage Operating System. A virtual-storage operating system allows the
use of a secondary storage device as an extension of primary storage. The virtual storage
was developed after some limitation was faced in multiprogramming operating systems of
insufficient primary storage to store an entire program. A virtual-storage operating system
can resolve this problem by rapidly accessing the part of the program residing in secondary
storage. The portions of a program can be swapped between a secondary storage device
and primary storage as needed, giving the illusion of having the maximum amount of
primary storage in the CPU available to each user. With a virtual storage operating system,
138 Information Technology for Management

the user need not worry about how much primary storage is available since the program
is segmented into pages. A page is a storage area of predetermined size that contains a
certain number of instructions. The pages are kept on secondary storage devices and are
swapped in and out of primary storage as needed.
• Virtual Machine (VM) Operating System. A virtual machine (VM) operating system
is a very powerful programme that can run several different operating systems at one time.
It allows several users of a computer system to operate as if each had the only terminal
attached to the computer. Thus, users feel as if each is on a dedicated system and has sole
use of the CPU and input and output devices.
After a VM operating system is loaded, the user chooses the operating system that is
compatible with the intended application. Other operating systems, such as the virtual-
storage operating system, appear as just another application program to the VM operating
system. Thus, the VM system gives users flexibility and allows them to choose an operating
system that best suits the needs of a particular application.
• Mobile Operating Systems. An operating system for mobile devices, it is the software
platform that helps in running a mobile application. It is meant for all kinds of mobile
devices like handheld computers, set top boxes, mobile telephones, smart phones, PDAs,
and factory floor equipment. The examples of mobile operating systems include embedded
Linux, Microsoft’s Windows CE, and Pocket PC, Windows Embedded NT 4.0, and Palm
OS.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
So for we have talked about operating systems softwares that seek to optimise the utilisation of the
hardware and to meet the demands of users. The application softwares, by contrast, is primarily
concerned with accomplishing the tasks of end users. Of the hundreds of different programming
languages available, all fit into one of the four general categories: machine, assembly, high level,
and fourth generation languages.

Machine Language
The machine language is made up of 1s and 0s and is the only programming language that
the computer can understand. However, there is no single universal machine language. The
arrangement of 1s and 0s to represent similar instructions, data, and memory locations differs
among computers because of different hardware designs.
The machine language programs have the advantage of fast execution speeds and efficient use
of primary memory. However, writing machine language is a very tedious, difficult, and time-
consuming method of programming. As a low level language, it requires that the programmer
has detailed knowledge of how the computer works since every detail of an operation must be
specified. As you might imagine, it is easy to make an error but very difficult to remove it from
(debug) a machine language program.