Day16: SQL

SQL stands for Structured Query Language

SQL lets you access and manipulate databases

SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and of the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987

What Can SQL do?

SQL can execute queries against a database

SQL can retrieve data from a database

SQL can insert records in a database

SQL can update records in a database

SQL can delete records from a database

SQL can create new databases

SQL can create new tables in a database

SQL can create stored procedures in a database

SQL can create views in a database

SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

SQL is a Standard - BUT....

Although SQL is an ANSI/ISO standard, there are different versions of the SQL language.
However, to be compliant with the ANSI standard, they all support at least the major commands (such
as SELECT , UPDATE , DELETE , INSERT , WHERE ) in a similar manner.
Note: Most of the SQL database programs also have their own proprietary extensions in addition to the SQL standard!

Using SQL in Your Web Site

To build a web site that shows data from a database, you will need:

An RDBMS database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL)

To use a server-side scripting language, like PHP or ASP

To use SQL to get the data you want

To use HTML / CSS to style the page

RDBMS
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System.

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 RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems such as MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL,
and Microsoft Access.
The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables. A table is a collection of related data entries and it consists
of columns and rows.

Look at the "Customers" table:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers;

Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. The fields in the Customers table consist of CustomerID,
CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode and Country. A field is a column in a table that is designed to
maintain specific information about every record in the table.
A record, also called a row, is each individual entry that exists in a table. For example, there are 91 records in the above
Customers table. A record is a horizontal entity in a table.
A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated with a specific field in a table.

Some of The Most Important SQL Commands

SELECT - extracts data from a database

UPDATE - updates data in a database

DELETE - deletes data from a database

INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database

CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database

ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database

CREATE TABLE - creates a new table

ALTER TABLE - modifies a table

DROP TABLE - deletes a table

CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)

DROP INDEX - deletes an index

Syntax
CREATE DATABASE databasename;

Example
CREATE DATABASE testDB;

The SQL CREATE TABLE Statement

The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table in a database.

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 Syntax
CREATE TABLE table_name ( column1 datatype, column2 datatype, column3 datatype, ....);

CREATE TABLE Persons (

PersonID int, //int PersonID

LastName varchar(255),

FirstName varchar(255),

Address varchar(255),

City varchar(255)

);

The SQL INSERT INTO Statement

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.

INSERT INTO Syntax

It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two ways:
1. Specify both the column names and the values to be inserted:
INSERT INTO table_name ( column1 , column2 , column3 , ...)VALUES ( value1 , value2 , value3 , ...);

2. If you are adding values for all the columns of the table, you do not need to specify the column names in the SQL query.
However, make sure the order of the values is in the same order as the columns in the table. Here, the INSERT INTO syntax
would be as follows:
INSERT INTO table_name VALUES ( value1 , value2 , value3 , ...);

The SQL SELECT Statement

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.

The data returned is stored in a result table, called the result-set.

SELECT Syntax
SELECT column1 , column2, ... FROM table_name ;

Here, column1, column2, ... are the field names of the table you want to select data from. If you want to select all the fields
available in the table, use the following syntax:
SELECT * FROM table_name;

Single Line Comments

Single line comments start with -- .

Any text between -- and the end of the line will be ignored (will not be executed).
The following example uses a single-line comment as an explanation:

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 Example
-Select all:

SELECT * FROM Customers;

The following example uses a single-line comment to ignore the end of a line:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers -- WHERE City='Berlin';

Multi-line Comments
Multi-line comments start with /* and end with */ .

Any text between /* and */ will be ignored.

The following example uses a multi-line comment as an explanation:

Example
/*Select all the columnsof all the recordsin the Customers table:*/ SELECT * FROM Customers;

The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

The SELECT DISTINCT statement is used to return only distinct (different) values.
Inside a table, a column often contains many duplicate values; and sometimes you only want to list the different (distinct)
values.

SELECT DISTINCT Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2, ...FROM table_name;

SELECT DISTINCT Examples

The following SQL statement selects only the DISTINCT values from the "Country" column in the "Customers" table:

Example
SELECT DISTINCT Country FROM Customers;

The following SQL statement lists the number of different (distinct) customer countries:

Example
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT Country) FROM Customers;

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 The SQL WHERE Clause
The WHERE clause is used to filter records.
It is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified condition.

WHERE Syntax
SELECT column1 , column2, ... FROM table_name WHERE condition ;

SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country='Mexico';

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country='Mexico';

The SQL AND, OR and NOT Operators

The WHERE clause can be combined with AND , OR , and NOT operators.

The AND and OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition:

The AND operator displays a record if all the conditions separated by AND are TRUE.

The OR operator displays a record if any of the conditions separated by OR is TRUE.

The NOT operator displays a record if the condition(s) is NOT TRUE.

AND Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...FROM table_name WHERE condition1 AND condition2 AND condition3 ...;

OR Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...FROM table_name WHERE condition1 OR condition2 OR condition3 ...;

NOT Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...FROM table_name WHERE NOT condition;

AND Example
The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is "Germany" AND city is "Berlin":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country='Germany' AND City='Berlin';

OR Example
The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where city is "Berlin" OR "München":

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 Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City='Berlin' OR City='München';

The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is "Germany" OR "Spain":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country='Germany' OR Country='Spain';

NOT Example
The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is NOT "Germany":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE NOT Country='Germany';

Combining AND, OR and NOT

You can also combine the AND , OR and NOT operators.
The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is "Germany" AND city must be "Berlin" OR
"München" (use parenthesis to form complex expressions):

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country='Germany' AND (City='Berlin' OR City='München');

The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is NOT "Germany" and NOT "USA":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE NOT Country='Germany' AND NOT Country='USA';

The SQL ORDER BY Keyword

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set in ascending or descending order.

The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by default. To sort the records in descending order, use
the DESC keyword.

ORDER BY Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...FROM table_nameORDER BY column1, column2, ... ASC|DESC;

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 ORDER BY Example
The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted by the "Country" column:

Example
SELECT * FROM CustomersORDER BY Country;

ORDER BY DESC Example

The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted DESCENDING by the "Country"
column:

Example
SELECT * FROM CustomersORDER BY Country DESC;

ORDER BY Several Columns Example

The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted by the "Country" and the
"CustomerName" column. This means that it orders by Country, but if some rows have the same Country, it orders them by
CustomerName:

Example
SELECT * FROM CustomersORDER BY Country, CustomerName;

ORDER BY Several Columns Example 2

The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted ascending by the "Country" and
descending by the "CustomerName" column:

Example
SELECT * FROM CustomersORDER BY Country ASC, CustomerName DESC;

The SQL GROUP BY Statement

The GROUP BY statement groups rows that have the same values into summary rows, like "find the number of customers in
each country".
The GROUP BY statement is often used with aggregate functions ( COUNT() , MAX() , MIN() , SUM() , AVG() ) to group the result-
set by one or more columns.

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 GROUP BY Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)FROM table_nameWHERE conditionGROUP BY column_name(s)ORDER BY column_name(s);

SQL GROUP BY Examples

The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country:

Example
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), CountryFROM CustomersGROUP BY Country;
Try it Yourself »

The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country, sorted high to low:

Example
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), CountryFROM CustomersGROUP BY CountryORDER BY COUNT(CustomerID) DESC;

What is a NULL Value?

A field with a NULL value is a field with no value.
If a field in a table is optional, it is possible to insert a new record or update a record without adding a value to this field.
Then, the field will be saved with a NULL value.
Note: A NULL value is different from a zero value or a field that contains spaces. A field with a NULL value is one that has
been left blank during record creation!

How to Test for NULL Values?

It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as =, <, or <>.

We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.

IS NULL Syntax
SELECT column_names FROM table_name WHERE column_name IS NULL;

IS NOT NULL Syntax

SELECT column_names FROM table_name WHERE column_name IS NOT NULL;

The IS NULL Operator

The IS NULL operator is used to test for empty values (NULL values).

The following SQL lists all customers with a NULL value in the "Address" field:

Example
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName, Address FROM Customers WHERE Address IS NULL;

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 Tip: Always use IS NULL to look for NULL values.

The IS NOT NULL Operator

The IS NOT NULL operator is used to test for non-empty values (NOT NULL values).

The following SQL lists all customers with a value in the "Address" field:

Example
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName, Address FROM Customers WHERE Address IS NOT NULL;

The SQL UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing records in a table.

UPDATE Syntax
UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...WHERE condition;

Note: Be careful when updating records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE statement. The WHERE clause
specifies which record(s) that should be updated. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records in the table will be updated!

The following SQL statement updates the first customer (CustomerID = 1) with a new contact person and a new city.

Example
UPDATE CustomersSET ContactName = 'Alfred Schmidt', City= 'Frankfurt'WHERE CustomerID = 1;

UPDATE Multiple Records

It is the WHERE clause that determines how many records will be updated.

The following SQL statement will update the ContactName to "Juan" for all records where country is "Mexico":

Example
UPDATE CustomersSET ContactName='Juan'WHERE Country='Mexico';

Update Warning!
Be careful when updating records. If you omit the WHERE clause, ALL records will be updated!

The SQL DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete existing records in a table.

DELETE Syntax

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 DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

MySQL Syntax:
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition LIMIT number ;

SELECT * FROM Customers LIMIT 3;

The SQL MIN() and MAX() Functions

The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.

The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.

MIN() Syntax
SELECT MIN(column_name)FROM table_nameWHERE condition;

MAX() Syntax
SELECT MAX(column_name)FROM table_nameWHERE condition;

The following SQL statement finds the price of the cheapest product:

Example
SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestPrice FROM Products;

MAX() Example
The following SQL statement finds the price of the most expensive product:

Example
SELECT MAX(Price) AS LargestPrice FROM Products;

The SQL COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Functions

The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criterion.

COUNT() Syntax
SELECT COUNT(column_name)FROM table_nameWHERE condition;
The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.

AVG() Syntax
SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE condition;

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 The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.

SUM() Syntax
SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE condition;

COUNT() Example
The following SQL statement finds the number of products:

Example
SELECT COUNT(ProductID) FROM Products;

Note: NULL values are not counted.

AVG() Example
The following SQL statement finds the average price of all products:

Example
SELECT AVG(Price)FROM Products;

Note: NULL values are ignored.

SUM() Example
The following SQL statement finds the sum of the "Quantity" fields in the "OrderDetails" table:

Example
SELECT SUM(Quantity)FROM OrderDetails;

Note: NULL values are ignored.

The SQL LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.

There are two wildcards often used in conjunction with the LIKE operator:

The percent sign (%) represents zero, one, or multiple characters

The underscore sign (_) represents one, single character

The percent sign and the underscore can also be used in combinations!

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 LIKE Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...FROM table_nameWHERE columnN LIKE pattern;

Tip: You can also combine any number of conditions using AND or OR operators.

Here are some examples showing different LIKE operators with '%' and '_' wildcards

LIKE Operator Description

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%' Finds any values that start with "a"
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%a' Finds any values that end with "a"
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%or%' Finds any values that have "or" in any position
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '_r%' Finds any values that have "r" in the second position
WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a_%' Finds any values that start with "a" and are at least 2 characters in length
WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a__%' Finds any values that start with "a" and are at least 3 characters in length
WHERE ContactName LIKE 'a%o' Finds any values that start with "a" and ends with "o"

IN Operator Examples
The following SQL statement selects all customers that are located in "Germany", "France" or "UK":

Example
SELECT * FROM CustomersWHERE Country IN ('Germany', 'France', 'UK');

BETWEEN Example
The following SQL statement selects all products with a price between 10 and 20:

Example
SELECT * FROM ProductsWHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20;

DROP COLUMN Example

Next, we want to delete the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.

We use the following SQL statement:

ALTER TABLE PersonsDROP COLUMN DateOfBirth;

SQL DROP TABLE Example

The following SQL statement drops the existing table "Shippers":

Example
DROP TABLE Shippers;

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 SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint
The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a table.
Primary keys must contain UNIQUE values, and cannot contain NULL values.

A table can have only ONE primary key; and in the table, this primary key can consist of single or multiple columns (fields).

SQL PRIMARY KEY on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "ID" column when the "Persons" table is created:

MySQL:
CREATE TABLE Persons ( ID int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Age
int, PRIMARY KEY (ID));

SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint

The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy links between tables.

A FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in one table, that refers to the PRIMARY KEY in another table.
The table with the foreign key is called the child table, and the table with the primary key is called the referenced or parent
table.
Look at the following two tables:

MySQL supports foreign keys, which permit cross-referencing related data across tables, and foreign key constraints,
which help keep the related data consistent.

A foreign key relationship involves a parent table that holds the initial column values, and a child table with column values
that reference the parent column values. A foreign key constraint is defined on the child table.
This following example relates parent and child tables through a single-column foreign key and shows how a foreign key
constraint enforces referential integrity.
Create the parent and child tables:
CREATE TABLE parent (
id INT NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (id)
) ;
CREATE TABLE child (
id INT,
parent_id INT,
INDEX par_ind (parent_id),
FOREIGN KEY (parent_id)
REFERENCES parent(id)
) ;

Insert a row into the parent table:

mysql> INSERT INTO parent (id) VALUES (1);

Verify that the data was inserted:

mysql> SELECT * FROM parent;
+----+| id |+----+| 1 |+----+

Insert a row into the child table:

mysql> INSERT INTO child (id,parent_id) VALUES (1,1);

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 The insert operation is successful because parent_id 1 is present in the parent table.
Insert a row into the child table with a parent_id value that is not present in the parent table:
mysql> INSERT INTO child (id,parent_id) VALUES(2,2);
ERROR 1452 (23000): Cannot add or update a child row: a foreign key constraint fails
(`test`.`child`, CONSTRAINT `child_ibfk_1` FOREIGN KEY (`parent_id`)
REFERENCES `parent` (`id`))

The operation fails because the specified parent_id value does not exist in the parent table.
Try to delete the previously inserted row from the parent table:
mysql> DELETE FROM parent WHERE id = 1;
ERROR 1451 (23000): Cannot delete or update a parent row: a foreign key constraint fails
(`test`.`child`, CONSTRAINT `child_ibfk_1` FOREIGN KEY (`parent_id`)
REFERENCES `parent` (`id`))

This operation fails because the record in the child table contains the referenced id ( parent_id ) value.
When an operation affects a key value in the parent table that has matching rows in the child table, the result depends on
the referential action specified by ON UPDATE and ON DELETE subclauses of the FOREIGN KEY clause. Omitting ON

DELETE and ON UPDATE clauses (as in the current child table definition) is the same as specifying the RESTRICT option, which
rejects operations that affect a key value in the parent table that has matching rows in the parent table.

DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint

To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the following SQL:
MySQL:

ALTER TABLE Orders DROP FOREIGN KEY FK_PersonOrder;

MySQL Data Types (Version 8.0)

In MySQL there are three main data types: string, numeric, and date and time.

String Data Types

Data type Description

A FIXED length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters). The size parameter specifies the
CHAR(size)
column length in characters - can be from 0 to 255. Default is 1
A VARIABLE length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters). The size parameter specifies the
VARCHAR(size)
maximum column length in characters - can be from 0 to 65535
BINARY(size) Equal to CHAR(), but stores binary byte strings. The size parameter specifies the column length in bytes. Default is 1
Equal to VARCHAR(), but stores binary byte strings. The size parameter specifies the maximum column length in
VARBINARY(size)
bytes.
TINYBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large Objects). Max length: 255 bytes
TINYTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters

TEXT(size) Holds a string with a maximum length of 65,535 bytes

BLOB(size) For BLOBs (Binary Large Objects). Holds up to 65,535 bytes of data
MEDIUMTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215 characters
MEDIUMBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large Objects). Holds up to 16,777,215 bytes of data
LONGTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295 characters
LONGBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large Objects). Holds up to 4,294,967,295 bytes of data

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 Data type Description
A string object that can have only one value, chosen from a list of possible values. You can list up to 65535 values in
ENUM(val1, val2,
an ENUM list. If a value is inserted that is not in the list, a blank value will be inserted. The values are sorted in the
val3, ...)
order you enter them
SET(val1, val2, A string object that can have 0 or more values, chosen from a list of possible values. You can list up to 64 values in a
val3, ...) SET list

Numeric Data Types

Title Data type Description

A bit-value type. The number of bits per value is specified in size. The size parameter can hold a value
Untitled BIT(size)
from 1 to 64. The default value for size is 1.
A very small integer. Signed range is from -128 to 127. Unsigned range is from 0 to 255.
Untitled TINYINT(size)
The size parameter specifies the maximum display width (which is 255)
Untitled BOOL Zero is considered as false, nonzero values are considered as true.
Untitled BOOLEAN Equal to BOOL
A small integer. Signed range is from -32768 to 32767. Unsigned range is from 0 to 65535.
Untitled SMALLINT(size)
The size parameter specifies the maximum display width (which is 255)

A medium integer. Signed range is from -8388608 to 8388607. Unsigned range is from 0 to 16777215.
Untitled MEDIUMINT(size)
The size parameter specifies the maximum display width (which is 255)
A medium integer. Signed range is from -2147483648 to 2147483647. Unsigned range is from 0 to
Untitled INT(size)
4294967295. The size parameter specifies the maximum display width (which is 255)
Untitled INTEGER(size) Equal to INT(size)
A large integer. Signed range is from -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807. Unsigned
Untitled BIGINT(size) range is from 0 to 18446744073709551615. The size parameter specifies the maximum display width
(which is 255)
A floating point number. The total number of digits is specified in size. The number of digits after the
Untitled FLOAT(size, d) decimal point is specified in the d parameter. This syntax is deprecated in MySQL 8.0.17, and it will be
removed in future MySQL versions
A floating point number. MySQL uses the p value to determine whether to use FLOAT or DOUBLE for
Untitled FLOAT(p) the resulting data type. If p is from 0 to 24, the data type becomes FLOAT(). If p is from 25 to 53, the
data type becomes DOUBLE()
A normal-size floating point number. The total number of digits is specified in size. The number of digits
Untitled DOUBLE(size, d)
after the decimal point is specified in the d parameter
DOUBLE
Untitled
PRECISION(size, d)
An exact fixed-point number. The total number of digits is specified in size. The number of digits after the
Untitled DECIMAL(size, d) decimal point is specified in the d parameter. The maximum number for size is 65. The maximum
number for d is 30. The default value for size is 10. The default value for d is 0.
Untitled DEC(size, d) Equal to DECIMAL(size,d)

Date and Time Data Types

Data type Description

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 Data type Description

DATE A date. Format: YYYY-MM-DD. The supported range is from '1000-01-01' to '9999-12-31'
A date and time combination. Format: YYYY-MM-DD hh:mm:ss. The supported range is from '1000-01-01 00:00:00'
DATETIME(fsp) to '9999-12-31 23:59:59'. Adding DEFAULT and ON UPDATE in the column definition to get automatic initialization
and updating to the current date and time
A timestamp. TIMESTAMP values are stored as the number of seconds since the Unix epoch ('1970-01-01 00:00:00'
UTC). Format: YYYY-MM-DD hh:mm:ss. The supported range is from '1970-01-01 00:00:01' UTC to '2038-01-09
TIMESTAMP(fsp)
03:14:07' UTC. Automatic initialization and updating to the current date and time can be specified using DEFAULT
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP and ON UPDATE CURRENT_TIMESTAMP in the column definition
TIME(fsp) A time. Format: hh:mm:ss. The supported range is from '-838:59:59' to '838:59:59'
A year in four-digit format. Values allowed in four-digit format: 1901 to 2155, and 0000.MySQL 8.0 does not support
YEAR
year in two-digit format.

This SQL keywords reference contains the reserved words in SQL.

SQL Keywords

Keyword Description
ADD Adds a column in an existing table
ADD CONSTRAINT Adds a constraint after a table is already created
ALL Returns true if all of the subquery values meet the condition
ALTER Adds, deletes, or modifies columns in a table, or changes the data type of a column in a table
ALTER COLUMN Changes the data type of a column in a table
ALTER TABLE Adds, deletes, or modifies columns in a table
AND Only includes rows where both conditions is true

ANY Returns true if any of the subquery values meet the condition
AS Renames a column or table with an alias
ASC Sorts the result set in ascending order
BACKUP DATABASE Creates a back up of an existing database
BETWEEN Selects values within a given range
CASE Creates different outputs based on conditions
CHECK A constraint that limits the value that can be placed in a column
COLUMN Changes the data type of a column or deletes a column in a table
CONSTRAINT Adds or deletes a constraint
CREATE Creates a database, index, view, table, or procedure
CREATE DATABASE Creates a new SQL database
CREATE INDEX Creates an index on a table (allows duplicate values)
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Updates a view
CREATE TABLE Creates a new table in the database
CREATE PROCEDURE Creates a stored procedure
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX Creates a unique index on a table (no duplicate values)
CREATE VIEW Creates a view based on the result set of a SELECT statement
DATABASE Creates or deletes an SQL database
DEFAULT A constraint that provides a default value for a column

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 Keyword Description

DELETE Deletes rows from a table

DESC Sorts the result set in descending order
DISTINCT Selects only distinct (different) values
DROP Deletes a column, constraint, database, index, table, or view
DROP COLUMN Deletes a column in a table
DROP CONSTRAINT Deletes a UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, or CHECK constraint
DROP DATABASE Deletes an existing SQL database
DROP DEFAULT Deletes a DEFAULT constraint
DROP INDEX Deletes an index in a table
DROP TABLE Deletes an existing table in the database
DROP VIEW Deletes a view
EXEC Executes a stored procedure
EXISTS Tests for the existence of any record in a subquery
FOREIGN KEY A constraint that is a key used to link two tables together
FROM Specifies which table to select or delete data from
FULL OUTER JOIN Returns all rows when there is a match in either left table or right table
GROUP BY Groups the result set (used with aggregate functions: COUNT, MAX, MIN, SUM, AVG)
HAVING Used instead of WHERE with aggregate functions

IN Allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause

INDEX Creates or deletes an index in a table
INNER JOIN Returns rows that have matching values in both tables
INSERT INTO Inserts new rows in a table
INSERT INTO SELECT Copies data from one table into another table
IS NULL Tests for empty values
IS NOT NULL Tests for non-empty values
JOIN Joins tables
LEFT JOIN Returns all rows from the left table, and the matching rows from the right table
LIKE Searches for a specified pattern in a column
LIMIT Specifies the number of records to return in the result set
NOT Only includes rows where a condition is not true
NOT NULL A constraint that enforces a column to not accept NULL values
OR Includes rows where either condition is true
ORDER BY Sorts the result set in ascending or descending order
OUTER JOIN Returns all rows when there is a match in either left table or right table
PRIMARY KEY A constraint that uniquely identifies each record in a database table
PROCEDURE A stored procedure
RIGHT JOIN Returns all rows from the right table, and the matching rows from the left table
ROWNUM Specifies the number of records to return in the result set
SELECT Selects data from a database
SELECT DISTINCT Selects only distinct (different) values
SELECT INTO Copies data from one table into a new table

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 Keyword Description

SELECT TOP Specifies the number of records to return in the result set
SET Specifies which columns and values that should be updated in a table
TABLE Creates a table, or adds, deletes, or modifies columns in a table, or deletes a table or data inside a table
TOP Specifies the number of records to return in the result set
TRUNCATE TABLE Deletes the data inside a table, but not the table itself
UNION Combines the result set of two or more SELECT statements (only distinct values)
UNION ALL Combines the result set of two or more SELECT statements (allows duplicate values)
UNIQUE A constraint that ensures that all values in a column are unique
UPDATE Updates existing rows in a table
VALUES Specifies the values of an INSERT INTO statement

VIEW Creates, updates, or deletes a view

WHERE Filters a result set to include only records that fulfill a specified condition

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