GCSE Computer Science

2019

Geraint D. Jones Mark D. Thomas

Jen M. Gillies Martin C. Gillies
Rhys Richardson
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Disclaimer
This resource is provided to support the teaching and learning of GCSE Computer Science. The
materials provide an introduction to the main concepts of the theory of the subject and should be
used in conjunction with other resources and sound classroom teaching.

It is intended that the resource will be updated periodically due to the evolving nature of the
subject. Tips on how to further develop the materials are welcome. You can send us your tips via our
feedback system or by emailing: resources@wjec.co.uk

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Contents
Unit 1
1. Hardware 4
2. Logical operations 21
3. Communication 35
4. Organisation and structure of data 49
5. Operating systems 73
6. Principles of programming 80
7. Software engineering 82
8. Program construction 84
9. Security and data management 87
10. Ethical, legal and environmental impacts of digital technology 100

Unit 2
1. Problem solving 112
2. Algorithms and programming constructs 118
3. Programming languages 134
4. Data structures and data types 143
5. Security and authentication 144

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Unit 1
1. Hardware
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
To a computer, the world consists of zeros and ones. Inside a processor, we can store zeros
and ones using transistors. These are microscopic switches that control the flow of
electricity depending on whether the switch is on or off. The transistor, therefore, contains
binary information: a one if a current passes through and a zero if a current does not pass
through.
Transistors are located on a very thin slice of silicon. A single silicon chip can contain
thousands of transistors. A single CPU contains a large number of chips. Combined, these
only cover a couple of square centimetres, but can hold several million transistors and
process hundreds of millions of instructions per second.

CPU architecture
CPU architecture is a term that refers to the design of a Microprocessor, an integrated
circuit, where the components of the CPU are combined as a single unit.

Von Neumann
Early computers were generally designed to carry out a specific task or calculation.
Re-programming these custom built computers was very difficult and could even involve
some re-wiring. In 1945 John von Neumann proposed the idea of storing the program
instructions in the same memory as the data. This idea of a stored program resulted in
computers that could be more easily re-programmed and is the basis for the
fetch-decode-execute cycle (FDE), fundamental to modern computer processing. The idea of
a stored program is often referred to as ‘Von Neumann’ architecture.

Components of the CPU

The CPU is the main component in a computer for processing data and instructions. It could
be considered as the computing equivalent of the human brain. It is a hardware device that
is made up of many subcomponents:

• controller ALU
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
registers
• registers
controller
• internal memory. internal
memory

All these components have their own specific function.

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Controller or control unit

The controller sends and receives signals from all parts of the computer. It ensures that all
processes take place at the right time and in the correct order.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The ALU is the part of the CPU that processes and manipulates data. It performs simple
calculations on the data that is temporarily stored in the registers.

The ALU is also able to perform comparisons on data. It is these comparisons that allow
programs to make use of choice – e.g. an IF statement in a high-level language.

Registers
A register is a storage location found on the CPU
SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS
where data or control information is temporarily
stored. Registers are usually much faster to access
than internal memory, since they have to be Controller: manages the execution of instructions
accessed so often. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): processes and
manipulates data
An accumulator is a common example of a register. Register: fast access temporary data store
This is the register used by the ALU to store the
Internal memory: fast access memory on the CPU
results of its calculations.

Other examples of registers include:

• Program Counter (PC) – a counter that keeps track of the memory address of which
instruction is to be executed next.
• Memory Address Register (MAR) – the address in the main memory that is currently
being read or written.
• Current Instruction Register (CIR) – a temporary holding area for the instruction that has
just been fetched from memory.

Internal memory

Internal memory (sometimes called level 1 cache memory) is fast access temporary storage
on the CPU. Data is moved from the registers to the internal memory when it is not being
actively used. Data from internal memory can then either be written to RAM or called back
into the registers for further processing.

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Buses

Buses allow data to be transferred to different parts of the computer. There are three main
buses used by the CPU.

1. Address bus. When data is saved or loaded from memory, the address at which it is
to be stored or loaded from must be sent. The storage address of data always
travels along an address bus.
2. Data bus. Data will then need to be moved between several parts of a computer.
The path along which data travels is called a data bus.
3. Control bus. The controller uses the control bus to send control signals to different
parts of the computer.

The fetch-decode-execute cycle

There are three steps to processing instructions given by a currently running program:

1. The fetch cycle takes the address required from memory, stores it in the current
instruction register, and moves the program counter on one so that it points at the
next instruction.
2. The control unit authenticates the instruction in the current instruction register. The
instruction is decoded to determine the action that needs to be carried out.
3. The actual actions that happen during the execution cycle depend on the instruction
itself.

CPU performance and specification

When we use a computer, we want the instructions to be carried out very fast. As the
instructions become more complicated (for example, creating a 3D animation or editing a
video file), we demand more from the CPU. The technological advances we have seen in
processor technology have largely been driven by the need for speed.

CPU cache memory

Cache memory is a fast access type of memory; it's also very expensive. Because of the cost,
most computer systems have very little cache memory, e.g. very few kB or MB compared to
a Random Access Memory (RAM) where there is likely to be many GB. Cache memory
improves the performance of the CPU as it is able to provide instructions and data to the
CPU at a much faster rate than another system memory such as RAM. The more cache
memory your system has, the better its performance is likely to be.

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Clock speed

The speed at which a processor operates is called the clock speed. The faster the clock
speed, the faster the computer is able to run the fetch-decode-execute cycle (FDE) and
therefore process more instructions. The speed of the processor is measured in Hertz (Hz).
One clock tick per second would be measured as 1 Hz. Therefore, a processor that operates
at 1,000 clock ticks per second would be a 1,000 Hz processor, also known as a 1 kHz
processor.

At this stage, it is a good time to introduce prefix multipliers for clock speeds:

Prefix Symbol Multiplier Power of 10

Kilo k 1,000 103
Mega M 1,000,000 106
Giga G 1,000,000,000 109

The first Terahertz chip was created by DARPA (an agency of the United States Department
of Defense) in 2014.

A typical modern day home computer would have a 2.5 GHz processor. This means the clock
speed of the processor runs at 2,500,000,000 Hz or clock ticks per second.

The clock speed inside the CPU can sometimes be changed. A processor can be set to run
faster than its original design. By doing this however, it uses more energy and produces
more heat. If this heat is not
removed through cooling, the CPU INTERESTING FACT
can overheat, which will damage the Most CPU chips are cooled using a fan mounted on a metal
heat sink. Liquid cooling systems have been found to be more
CPU and shorten its lifespan. This is
effective at cooling CPUs, although the water used in these
called overclocking.
systems conducts electricity and can therefore be dangerous. A
computer designer, Seymour Cray, designed a computer
Some computer systems, especially cooling system that used artificial human blood to cool the
mobile devices, set the clock speed of CPU, as it does not conduct electricity.
the CPU lower than its original
design. This results in less power
consumption, less heat being produced and will therefore increase the battery life of the
device. This is called underclocking.

Some devices are able to change their own clock speed dynamically. For example, when
your computer is idle, the clock speed may be set at a lower rate than if you were running a
CPU intensive program, such as a computer game.

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Number of cores

We have assumed that each CPU has only one core. However, this isn’t always the case, as
some CPU chips have multiple cores. You may be familiar with the terms dual-core and
quad-core. What exactly do they mean?

A core is the term used to describe the processing components within the CPU. Multi-core
processors therefore have many processing components within the same CPU. Below is a
diagram that illustrates a number of instructions waiting to be processed in single-core and
dual-core CPUs.

In a single-core CPU, each instruction is processed one after the other, whereas in a
dual-core CPU, two instructions may be processed at the same time. In theory, a dual-core
CPU should be able to process instructions twice as fast as a single-core CPU. However, this
isn’t always the case, as sometimes Instruction 2 may need the result of Instruction 1 before
it can be processed.
INTERESTING FACT
In general, a computer running many programs Many high-end gaming consoles include
at the same time will run faster on a multi-core CPU chips with multiple cores. The Sony
processor than on a single‐core processor. Playstation 4 and the Xbox One X both
have an 8 core CPU.

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RISC and CISC processors
There are two main types of processor, namely Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
and Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC).

RISC processors can process a limited number of relatively simple instructions. To carry out
more complex commands, the problem is broken down into a longer list of simpler
instructions. The advantage of this is that a RISC processor is able to process these simpler
instructions quickly. Processing simpler instructions also requires less circuitry to decode
and execute these instructions, which in turn means less power consumption and therefore
less heat being generated.

CISC processors can process a large number of complex instructions. This allows the
processor to understand and carry out complex tasks with only a few instructions. The
advantage of this is that a CISC processor is able to process complex instructions, without
having to break them down into many simpler instructions. Processing complex instructions
however requires more circuitry to decode and execute these instructions, which in turn
means more power consumption and therefore more heat being generated.

Input and Output

Input devices Output devices
An input device allows data, such as text, There are many outputs created by a
images, video or sound, to be entered into a computer system. These include printed
computer system. documents, on-screen data and sound.

Graphics Board Mouse

Speakers Projector

Keyboard Microphone
Printer
Monitor

Common hardware input devices Common hardware output devices

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Input devices
Mouse
A mouse is an input device that allows the user to control the co-ordinates and movements
of a cursor on the computer screen. The left button is used to select items and the right
button is used to access menus (these can be changed around in settings). Most mice now
use a laser to track location on a smooth surface and mice can be wired or wireless.
Trackball
A trackball is an input device similar to a mouse, that allows the user to locate the cursor.
Unlike the mouse, however, the trackball remains stationary and the user moves the cursor
by moving the ball around in the socket. Some users believe that the use of a trackball gives
better control over the cursor, and therefore use a trackball for computer aided design
(CAD).
Computer keyboard
Computer keyboards are used to input data and commands into the computer by pressing
the keys. Computer keyboards are common in the workplace and are usually used together
with a mouse.
Concept keyboard
Concept keyboards look like computer keyboards, but have an image on each key. The
images on the keys are chosen to represent the command. For example, in a restaurant, a
key may be used for a burger, a cheeseburger or a cheeseburger with bacon.
Microphone
A microphone is an input device that receives analogue sound waves and converts them
into electrical signals understood by the computer. Microphones play an important role in
speech recognition.
Digital camera
A digital camera is an input device that captures images (and sometimes videos) digitally. A
digital camera uses an image sensor and a chip to capture an image, as opposed to the film
used in traditional cameras.
2D scanner
2D scanners convert documents or 2D images into digital files. 2D scanners can be run with
additional software such as an optical mark reader (OMR) or optical character recognition
(OCR). One example would be using OCR software in the computer to read handwriting and
convert it into digital text.
3D scanner
A 3D scanner is an input device that generates a 3D model of a scanned object. It may use
x-ray, laser, light or sound waves to generate the object in 3D.

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Interactive whiteboard
An interactive whiteboard is usually used in classrooms. This device was developed long
before touch screens. It's cheaper than touch screens and differs from normal screens as it
can be used in many different ways when used alongside a projector. It can be used for
navigation systems or to write/design with your fingers or a stylus.
Touch screens
A touch screen is a digital visual display that also works as an input device that responds to
the user's touch. It allows users to make selections by touching the screen.
Barcode scanner
A barcode is a code that can be read by a machine. The code is represented by a series of
black and white lines. These lines represent numbers from 0 to 9. The use of barcode
scanners speeds up the process of data input into a system, e.g. scanning items at a check
out desk in a supermarket.
QR code scanner
QR code scanners as seen on smartphones can scan QR codes by taking a picture of them.
The QR codes normally hold more data than barcodes, e.g. web addresses, contact details,
calendar registrations and details of goods in factories and warehouses.

INTERESTING FACT
Doug Engelbart made the first computer mouse in 1964.
It was made out of wood!

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Output devices
Monitor
A monitor is an electronic visual computer display. It includes a screen and the case in which
all circuitry is enclosed. Most monitors used with devices such as laptops, PDAs and desktop
PCs are made using LCD screens as they are lighter and more energy efficient.
Speaker
Speakers are used to produce audio output that can be heard by the listener. When they
receive audio input from a device, the electromagnetic waves are converted into sound
waves. This input may be in either analog or digital form. Analog speakers simply amplify
the analog electromagnetic waves into sound waves. Digital speakers must first convert the
digital input into an analog signal, then generate the sound waves.
Printer
A printer is an output device that prints paper documents. This includes text documents,
images, or a combination of both. The two most common types of printers are inkjet and
laser printers. Inkjet printers are commonly used by consumers, while laser printers are a
typical choice for businesses.
Projector
A projector is an output device that projects an image onto a large surface, such as a white
screen or a wall. It may be used as an alternative to a monitor or a television when showing
video or images to a large group of people.

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Primary storage
Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is used for the temporary storage of currently running programs and data, e.g. the
operating system, a text editor program. It consists of a large number
of store locations, each of which is identified by a unique address. The
data in each store location can be changed. RAM is volatile – data is
lost when the power is switched off.

Example: When you are working on a word-processed document, the

program you are using and the data within the document are both
stored in RAM. The process is different when using a web-based word processing program
as all letters and numbers pressed on the keyboard are sent immediately to the program
over the internet.

Read Only Memory (ROM) KEY INFORMATION

Basic Input/Output System (BIOS): A low-level
ROM is used for the permanent storage of data.
The data in each store location cannot be program that handles input and output operations
changed. ROM is permanent – data is not lost relating to the system's keyboard and screen. It
when the power is switched off. provides an interface between the hardware and
the operating system. One of its primary functions
Example: ROM can be used for storing programs is loading and executing the bootstrap loader – the
such as the BIOS. The disadvantage of using ROM program that loads the operating system.
to store the BIOS is that it cannot be upgraded.
The program on your calculator is held on a ROM
chip.

Flash memory

Flash memory is used for the permanent storage of data. However, the data stored in flash
memory can be changed. Flash memory is permanent – data is not lost when the power is
switched off.

Example: Flash memory can be used for storing the programs such as the BIOS, which is
advantageous as the BIOS can then be upgraded.

RAM Cache memory

RAM Cache memory is used for the temporary storage of frequently accessed data and
instructions. It consists of a small number of store locations that can be accessed very
quickly by the CPU; it is quicker than RAM. Cache memory is volatile – this means that data
is lost when the power is switched off.

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Summary of different types of memory

Data can be
Permanent Volatile Speed
changed
Cache memory   
ROM  
RAM   
Flash memory   

Secondary storage
INTERESTING FACT
Secondary storage is also known as backing The first commercial hard disk drives had the
storage. capacity to store approximately 5 MB and were
the size of a dining room table.
Data from the memory is written in the secondary
storage when the data is no longer being actively used, for retrieval at a later time.

The time a computer takes to access data stored on secondary storage is longer than the
time it takes to access data from memory.

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 Data capacity
Data capacity is the amount of data a storage device can hold, measured in kilobytes (kB),
Megabytes (MB), Gigabytes (GB) and Terabytes (TB). The most frequently used backing
storage media are:
Media Suitability Typical capacity Durability Portability Speed

Moving relatively
small files from work 2 GB – 512 GB   
to home
Flash drive

Backing up a home
320 MB – 8 TB   
computer system
External hard drive

650 MB (CD)
Storing multimedia
9 GB (DVD)   
files
CD/DVD/Blu-ray disc 50 GB (Blu-ray)

Backing large
commercial servers on 200 GB – 400 GB   
multiple tapes
Magnetic tape

Different types of data can create files that vary in size. In general, text based files are
relatively small but audio and video files are much larger. Here are some typical file sizes.

File size Typical contents

1B A single key stroke or a number from 0 to 255

70 B One line of text
1 kB A third of a page of text or a short email
8 kB A school logo
30 kB A basic web page
100 kB Maximum size for all elements of a web page
500 kB A five page word processed document or a PDF for downloading
1 MB One minute of audio when stored as an MP3
700 MB Maximum amount of data on one CD-ROM
5 GB DVD movie
10 GB HD movie
25 GB Blu-ray movie
40 GB 4K movie

It's important to consider the type of data that is going to be stored when you are choosing
a storage device.

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 Storage technologies

Optical

Optical storage media uses technology such as lasers. Laser beams are
projected onto a CD/DVD or Blu-ray disc and if light is reflected back, then
data is read as a 1. If light is not reflected back, data is read as a 0. Lasers are
used to read and write information on a disk.

KEY INFORMATION
Binary digIT (BIT): in computer systems, data is represented by either a 1 or a 0.

Magnetic
This technology is used in hard disks and tapes. Data is stored on a magnetic medium, which
can be a disc or a tape, by writing data using a write-head. Data can then be read by the
read-head.

Solid state

Solid state technology is used in storage media such as flash memory sticks.
The technology is called solid state as it doesn't have any moving parts, such
as a read-head in magnetic storage. Solid state storage technology is
increasingly used to replace both magnetic and optical storage, especially in
mobile devices, where its low power consumption and high speed access is
advantageous.

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Storage requirements
Computer systems can only store and process binary digits, also known as BITs. A BIT is
either a 1 or a 0. When 8 bits are stored as a binary number, they are collectively called a
byte.

Symbol Value
Bit 1 bit
Nybble 4 bits
Byte B 8 bits
kilobyte kB 1024 bytes
INTERESTING FACT
Megabyte MB 1024 kB
Half a byte (4 bits) is called a nybble.
Gigabyte GB 1024 MB
Terabyte TB 1024 GB
Petabyte PB 1024 TB
Exabyte EB 1024 PB
Zettabyte ZB 1024 EB
Yottabyte YB 1024 ZB

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Additional hardware components
Motherboard

The motherboard is the main circuit board of a computer. The CPU and ROM will be
mounted on the motherboard, which also provides RAM expansion slots, USB ports,
PCI slots for expansion cards and controllers for devices such as the hard drive, DVD drive,
keyboard and mouse.

Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)

A GPU is a microprocessor that performs the calculations needed to produce graphic images
on screen. The CPU performed these calculations initially, but as more complex applications
were developed, such as 3D graphics and video quality animations, the GPU was introduced
to offload those tasks from the CPU.

GPUs can be integrated within the circuitry of the motherboard, or provided on a dedicated
graphics card.

Integrated GPU
An integrated GPU uses the computer’s RAM. An integrated unit is cheaper than installing a
dedicated GPU. It generates less heat and uses less power. They are perfect for general
graphics processing such as watching or editing videos and word processing.

Dedicated GPU
A dedicated GPU has its own video memory. Dedicated cards provide the best visual
experience. They are used by people such as graphic designers and people who play a lot of
games, but they use more power and need a good cooling system. GPUs are also used to
mine digital currency due to their processing ability.

Sound cards

Sound cards may be on the motherboard or designed to fit a PCI slot. They enable the
computer to output sound through speakers, record sound from a microphone and
manipulate sound stored on a disk. Sound cards convert analogue input signals into
digital data and reverse this process for audio output.

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Embedded systems
An embedded system is a combination of software and hardware that performs a specific
task rather than a general-purpose computer that is designed to carry out multiple tasks.

Embedded systems are included as a part of a complete device often with hardware and
mechanical parts. As the systems carry out specific tasks they can be designed to be small
and have a low cost. Mass-production of embedded systems can save large amounts of
money.

The software written for an embedded system is called firmware. The instructions are
stored in read-only memory or in Flash memory. The software runs with limited computer
hardware resources, little memory and no peripherals.

Most embedded systems are reactive – they react to conditions such as temperature,
weight, vibration and air quality. These systems detect external conditions and react to
them by recording data, turning motors on or off, sounding an alarm or sending a message
to another processor.

Reactive embedded systems often control real time events so must be completely reliable.
For example, drivers rely of the anti-lock braking system of their car working correctly to
avoid accidents on the road.

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When an embedded system performs operations at high speed, and if it is very reliable, it
can be used for real-time applications. If the size of the embedded system is very small and
power consumption is very low, the system can be easily adapted for different situations.

INTERESTING FACT
98% of the microprocessors manufactured are installed in
embedded systems.

Some examples of devices that incorporate embedded systems are:

Electronics Mobile phones, games consoles, printers, televisions, digital

cameras.
In the home Washing machines, microwave ovens, refrigerators,
dishwashers, air conditioners.
Medical equipment CT scanners, electrocardiograms (ECG), MRI scanners, blood
pressure monitors, heartbeat monitors.
Cars Electronic fuel injection systems, anti-lock braking systems,
air-conditioner controls.

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2. Logical Operations
Using logical operators: NOT, AND, OR, and XOR
Computers are binary devices that use 1 and 0 to represent data. Boolean algebra involves
looking at statements that will, when evaluated, result in a true or false value. Propositional
logic means that a statement or proposition defined in terms of true or false follows
mathematical rules that allow the proposition to be manipulated.

This in turn allows the simplification or derivation of logic statements. In this section, you
will learn about propositional logic and some of the tools that can define real world
problems as propositional statements. You will also learn about some of the key tools that
can be used to derive and simplify these logic statements.

Propositional logic

Proposition A is 'It's raining'

Proposition B is 'I have an umbrella'
Proposition C is 'I will get wet'

Logic propositions such as 'it's raining' can have a value of true or false. Statements such as
'what is the weather?', that can generate a number of different answers, cannot be
considered logic propositions. A proposition is an atomic value or placeholder and is
represented algebraically by assigning letters to each proposition. In the above statements,
A was used to represent the proposition 'it's raining'. B and C were also used to represent
two different statements. Most rules used to simplify logic are not dependent on the
meaning of the propositions, but focus on how a logic statement is structured. When
defining problems, it's useful to give the propositions meaning in order to provide more
context. Additional programming focus can also be given by assigning conditional
expressions to them.

Propositional logic uses a number of symbols to represent logical links. These links are
summarised in the table below. A logic statement includes a combination of propositions
connected by logical links. To make it simpler, informal terms have been given to each
symbol, along with their formal names, as shown in the table below.

Symbol Formal term Informal term

. Connection AND
+ Separation OR
Ā Negation NOT
⊕ Exclusive separation XOR

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Different symbols are used for Boolean algebra and it's important that you are familiar with
these.

Symbol Alternative
symbol
. ⋀
+ ⋁
Ā ¬A
⊕ ⊻

Connection (AND)

Consider this connected expression: 'It's raining and I have an umbrella'. The key word is
'and'. For this statement to be true, both propositions represented by A and B must be true.
If one is false, the entire expression becomes false. A connection can be represented by the
simple truth table below.

* Please note: these tables use 1 and 0 to represent True (1) and False (0). This is what will
be used in the examination.

A B A AND B
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0

When we use a connection to connect two propositions, it is represented by the full stop
symbol. If A represents 'It's raining' and B represents 'I have an umbrella', we can represent
the connection of these two propositions as the statement: A . B

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Separation (OR)

Sometimes, we want to see if one thing or another is true. The truth table below shows two
propositions connected using a separation.

A B A OR B
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0

Separation is represented by the symbol + and therefore to show the separation of two
propositions we write: A + B

Negation (NOT)

In order to negate a proposition, for example 'It's not raining', we can use the negation
operation, ̅ , which is also called NOT. Negation is a unary operator and operates on the
proposition below it (or after it, if we use ¬). Therefore, if A represents 'It's raining', we can
represent the negative by putting a bar over statement A to give: � �

A NOT A
1 0
0 1

Exclusive separation (XOR)

Sometimes we want to see if only one thing or the other is true. The truth table below
shows two propositions connected by an exclusive separation.

A B A XOR B
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0

Exclusive separation is represented by the symbol ⊕ and to represent the exclusive

separation of two propositions we write: A ⊕ B

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Introduction to Boolean Algebra

Here:
True will be represented by 1.
False will be represented by 0.

A variable will ususally be represented by a single letter.

The logical operator OR is represented by the character '+'.

For example, A + B means A OR B.

The logical operator AND is represented by the character ' . '.

For example, A . B means A AND B.

𝐴𝐴. 𝐵𝐵� + 𝐴𝐴̅. 𝐵𝐵 is an equation for A XOR B. The XOR operator can also be represented by the
symbol ⊕. For example: A ⊕ B means A XOR B. In order to understand how the formula
𝐴𝐴. 𝐵𝐵� + 𝐴𝐴̅. 𝐵𝐵 works, consider the statement, 'one or the other but never both'.

The logical operator NOT is represented by an overbar. For example: 𝐴𝐴̅ means NOT A.

OR

The OR operator takes two inputs and returns a true value (1) if either of the inputs are true
(1).

0+0=0 0+1=1
1+0=1 1+1=1

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AND

The AND operator takes two inputs and returns a true value (1) if both inputs are true (1).

0.0=0 0.1=0
1.0=0 1.1=1

NOT

The NOT operator takes one input (this is a unary operator) and returns the opposite of that
input.

0� = 1
1� = 0

XOR

XOR takes two inputs and only returns a true value (1) if exactly one input is true (1).

0⊕0=0 0⊕1=1
1⊕0=1 1⊕1=0

Order of precedence
In algebraic expressions, there is an order of precedence for the operations. The mnemonic
BIDMAS can help us remember this order – Brackets, Indices,
Division/Multiplication/Addition/Subtraction.

Similarly, there is an order of precedence for the operations used in Boolean algebra. The
order of precedence is shown below (highest precedence first):

Brackets
NOT
XOR
AND
OR

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It's important to remember that AND takes precedence over OR. Therefore, the expression
A.B + C will correspond to the truth table:

A B C A.B A.B + C
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1

So, A.B + C means exactly the same as (A.B) + C, but the brackets have been removed. They
aren't needed as AND takes precedence over OR.

The OR operator will be placed in brackets if OR needs to be operated first. The expression
would then be A.(B+C). The truth table would look like the following:

A B C B+C A.(B + C)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1

We can see from these truth tables that the order of operation of the operators has a
substantial effect on the result. Brackets are needed in order for OR to take precedence
over AND.

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Commutative Laws
These laws state that the order of (certain) operands doesn't matter. You will also be very
familiar with these laws from algebraic expressions in mathematics – they're so obvious that
you never think of them at all, e.g. 3 x 5 is the same as 5 x 3.
The commutative laws of Boolean algebra are:

A.B = B.A
A+B = B+A
A⊕B = B⊕A

Associative Laws
These laws state that when all operators are of the same type, it doesn't matter in what
order they're operated (for certain operators). These laws are also used in algebraic
expressions and are so obvious that you may have never thought of them, e.g.
(3 x 5) x 4 = 3 x (5 x 4).

The associative laws of Boolean algebra are:

A.(B.C) = (A.B).C
A +(B+C) = (A+B) + C
A ⊕ (B⊕C) = (A⊕B) ⊕C

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Simplifying Boolean expressions (part 1)
Simplifying an expression means writing the expression in a way that uses fewer logical
operators, but has the same meaning.

Basic Rule 1 – Identity Law:

Using the OR operator with an expression that has a FALSE value (0).

A+0 = A

Test with a truth table:

A 0 A+0
0 0 0
1 0 1
In every row in column A+0, we can see that A+0 is always equivalent to the corresponding
row in column A, and therefore the expressions are equivalent.

This means that every time we use OR with an expression that has a False value (0), it will
simplify to the expression only.

Basic Rule 2 – Annulment Law:

Using the OR operator with an expression that has a TRUE value (1).

A+1 = 1

Test with a truth table:

A 1 A+1
0 1 1
1 1 1
We can see that every row in column A+1 contains 1, so when we use OR with any
expression that has a True value (1), this can always be simplified to True (1).

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Basic Rule 3 – Idempotent Law:
Using the OR operator with an expression and another copy of that expression.

A+A = A

� + �A = A
Test with a truth table (note that this is also true for A �):

A A A+A
0 0 0
1 1 1
We can see that every row in column A+A is always the same as the corresponding row in
column(s) A, so A+A is an equivalent expression to A. When the OR operator is used with the
same expression twice, that expression can be simplified to only one of those expressions.

Basic Rule 4 – Inverse Law:

Using the OR operator with an expression that has an inverse value.

�=1
A+A

Test with a truth table:

A 𝐴𝐴̅ A+A �
0 1 1
1 0 1
We can see that every row in column A+A � contains 1, so when we use OR with any
expression that has an inverse value, this can always be simplified to True (1).

Basic Rule 5 – Annulment Law:

Using the AND operator with an expression that has a False value (0).

A.0 = 0

Test with a truth table:

A 0 A.0
0 0 0
1 0 0
We can see that every row in column A.0 is always 0 (False), so when AND is used between
an expression that has a 0 value, it will always be simplified to False (0).

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Basic Rule 6 – Identity Law:
Using the AND operator with an expression that has a True value (1).

A.1 = A

Test with a truth table:

A 1 A.1
0 1 0
1 1 1
We can see that every row in column A.1 is always the same as the corresponding row in
column A. Therefore, the expressions are equivalent.

Basic Rule 7 – Idempotent Law:

Using the AND operator with an expression and another copy of the same expression.

A.A = A

Test with a truth table:

A A A.A
0 0 0
1 1 1
We can see that every row in column A.A is always the same as the corresponding row in
column(s) A, so A.A is equivalent to A. When the AND operator is used with the same
expression twice, that expression can be simplified to only one of those expressions.

Basic Rule 8 – Complement Law:

Using the AND operator with an expression that has an inverse value.

�=0
A.A

Test with a truth table:

A 𝐴𝐴̅ �
A.A
0 1 0
1 0 0
We can see that every row in column A.A � contains 0, so when we use AND with any
expression that has an inverse value, this can always be simplified to False (0).

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Basic Rule 9 – Double Complement Law:
Using the NOT operator twice with one expression.

� =A
�

Test with a truth table:

A �
� �
�
0 1 0
1 0 1
We can see that every row in column A � is always the same as the corresponding row in
column A, therefore the expressions are equivalent. If NOT is used twice with one
expression, it simplifies to just the expression.

Basic Rule 10 – Absorptive Law:

Enabling a reduction in a complicated expression to a simpler one by absorbing like terms.

A + (A.B) = A

Test with a truth table:

A B A.B A+A.B
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1
We can see that every row in column A + A.B is always the same as the corresponding row in
column A, so we can see that the expressions are equivalent.

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Basic Rule 11 – Absortive Law:
Enabling a reduction in a complicated expression to a simpler one by absorbing like terms.

A.(A+B) = A

Test with a truth table:

Remember, as the OR is in brackets, A+B takes precedence, so we solve this first in the truth
table.

A B A+B A.(A+B)
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1
We can see that every row in column A.(A+B) is always the same as the corresponding row
in column A, so we can see the expressions are equivalent.

Alternative test for Basic Rule 11 (this will use information from later on in the notes)
A.(A+B)
= A.A + A.B (Expand the brackets – more details later on in the notes)
= A + A.B (Use Basic Rule 7)
= A (Use Basic Rule 10)

IMPORTANT: Basic Rules 10 and 11 also work in reverse, e.g. the following is true for Basic
�+(A
Rule 11: A � . �B) ≡ �A

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Simplifying Boolean expressions (part 2)
Expansion of brackets – Distributive Law:

You will be familiar with the expansion of brackets in algebraic expressions, e.g.
3(y+9) = 3y + 27. It's also possible to expand brackets in Boolean algebra when an expression
is AND-ed with an expression enclosed in brackets. This can often help simplify the
expression (although sometimes it doesn't help and it's best not to expand the brackets).

Example:

X.(Y + Z)
This is the expression, ...with the expression,
X, being AND-ed... Y+Z in brackets.

X.(Y + Z) = X.Y + X.Z

To expand the brackets, the expressions
outside the brackets are AND-ed with each
term in the expression inside the brackets.

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Factorising

This is the opposite to expanding brackets. You will be familiar with factorising in algebraic
expressions – brackets are added to an expression and the common factor is placed outside
the brackets, e.g. 4y+8 = 4(y+2). It is also possible to factorise more than one Boolean
algebra expression. Doing so can sometimes simplify an expression.

Example:

X.Z + X.Y
The same term (X) appears in the expression on both sides of
the operator '+' so this expression can be factorised.

X.Z + X.Y = X.(Z + Y)

...can be factorised as in the above
Therefore this expression...
expression.

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3. Communication
Networks
A network consists of a number of computer systems connected together. There are many
advantages and disadvantages of using a computer network over a stand-alone computer.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Share hardware • A network manager may need to be

• Share software employed – expensive
• Share data/files • Security problems – files sent between
• Easier for internal communication/can computers could spread a virus
send email • Hackers can gain access to data more
• Central backup easily
• Easier to monitor network activity • If the server is down, all workstations on
• Centrally controlled security the network are affected
• Can access data from any computer • Initial cost of servers, communication
devices etc. can be expensive

There are two main types of network, namely a Local Area Network (LAN) and a Wide Area
Network (WAN).

A LAN is a network in which the computer systems are all located relatively close to each
other, for example in the same building or on the same site, such as a school.

A WAN is a network in which the computer systems are all located relatively far from each
other, for example in different buildings all over the country or in different countries. The
internet is an example of a WAN. Note that many LANs could be linked using a WAN.

Computer networks use agreed upon protocols to communicate, i.e. common methods of
sending data and consistent data formats. If they did not agree on the protocols to be used,
the individual computer systems would not be able to communicate with each other.

Network topologies

A network topology is the theoretical layout of computer systems on a network. There are a
number of different network topologies. Common network topologies include:

• bus network
• ring network
• star network
• mesh network.
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Bus network

The computer systems, also called the nodes of the network,

are all connected to a single cable on which data can be sent,
called the bus. A bus network has terminators on each end,
which are needed to ensure the network functions correctly.

The bus carries data packets along the cable. As the packets
arrive at each computer system, it authenticates the destination address contained in the
packet to see if it matches its own address. If the address doesn't match, the computer
system ignores the packet. If the address of the computer system matches the address
contained in the packet, it processes the data.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Easy to implement and add more • It is difficult to troubleshoot the bus

computer systems to the network • Limited cable length and limited number of
• Quick to set up – well suited for stations – performance degrades as
temporary networks additional computers are added
• Cost-effective – less cabling • If there is a problem with the main cable or
connection, the entire network goes down
• Low security – all computers on the bus
can see all data transmissions
• Proper termination is required
• Data collisions are more likely, which
causes the network to slow down. A
collision is when two computers try to
send a data packet at the same time

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Ring network

In a ring network, computer systems are connected in a ring or a

loop. Data packets are sent around the ring, being passed from one
computer system to the next until they arrive at their destination.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Data is quickly transferred without a • If any of the computer systems fail, the
bottleneck – consistent data transfer ring is broken and data cannot be
speeds transmitted efficiently
• The transmission of data is relatively • If there is a problem with the main cable or
simple as data packets travel in one connection, the entire network goes down
direction only • It is difficult to troubleshoot the ring
• Adding additional nodes has very little • Because all nodes are wired together, to
impact on bandwidth add a another you must temporarily shut
• It prevents network collisions down the network

Star network

In a star network, each computer system is connected to a central node, also known as a
hub.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Good performance/fast network speed • Expensive to install – more cabling

• Easy to set up required
• Possible to add more computer systems • Extra hardware required, such as a hub
without taking the network down
• Any non-centralised failure will have very
little effect on the network
• Minimal network collisions
• Better security

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Mesh network

In a mesh network, each computer system is directly connected to as many other computer
systems as possible. The image above shows a full mesh network, where all computer
systems are connected to each other. It is also possible to have a partial mesh network,
where only some of the computer systems are connected in similar fashion to a mesh
topology, while the rest are only connected to one or two devices. This is called a partial
mesh network. The mesh topology is the most common network topology used on wireless
networks.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Data can be transmitted from different • Installation and configuration can be

nodes simultaneously difficult as the network grows
• Mesh topologies can withstand high • Cabling costs are high
traffic • There is a high chance that many of the
• Each connection can carry its own data network connections will be redundant
load • Set-up and maintenance of mesh
• If one node fails, there is always an topologies is very difficult
alternative present, so data transfer • Administration of the network is difficult
isn’t affected
• A fault can be diagnosed easily
• Expansion and modification in topology
can be done without disrupting other
nodes
• Provides high levels of security and
privacy

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Connectivity
To connect a computer system to a network, a Network Interface Card (NIC) is required. A
physical hardware port allowing a cable to connect your computer system to the network
provides one method of connection. The second method is to connect a computer system
using a wireless connection, called Wi-Fi.

Typical network speeds

A physical connection may be made using:

• a copper cable, with typical data transfer speeds of between 100 Megabits per
second (Mb) and 1 Gigabit per second (Gb)
• a fibre-optic connection which has typical data transfer speeds of between 1 and 10
Gb

Wi-Fi connections have typical data transfer speeds of 54–108 Mb but can go much higher.
However, this can be severely affected by the distance between the device providing the
Wi-Fi connection and the computer system. The data transfer speed can also be severely
affected by atmospheric conditions, such as the weather, and building infrastructure.

Circuit switching
Circuit switching is a type of networking technology that provides a temporary but
dedicated link between two stations or nodes, regardless of the number of switching
devices through which the data has to travel. During the connection, no other data can be
transmitted along the same route. The landline telephone system is an example of a circuit
switched network. When you phone someone and they answer, a circuit connection is made
and you can pass data along the connection until you put down the telephone to end the
connection.

The main advantage of circuit switching is that it is reliable. Once the connection is
established, it is fast and generally error free. However, it takes time to establish the
connection. Should anywhere on the route fail, the connection will be broken.

To overcome the problems with circuit switching, packet switching was developed. Rather
than relying on a dedicated connection, packet switching breaks the data down into small
packets that can be sent by more than one route.

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Packet switching (including data redundancy)
Packet switching is the process of delivering packets from one computer system to another
using a designated device, such as a switch or a router. Packets are provided to a network
for delivery to a specified destination. Each data packet is redirected by a computer system
along the network, until it arrives at its destination. Data may be split up into a number of
packets. These packets are transmitted over a network and may take different routes to its
destination. When all the packets have arrived, the data is reassembled. The internet is an
example of a packet-switching network.

Packets

A packet is a collection of data that is transmitted over a packet-switching network.

Here is a simplified diagram showing what a packet will typically contain:

The source address The destination address

Information which enables the data to be reassembled into its original form

Other tracking information

The data itself A checksum that authenticates the data, i.e.

checks it hasn't been corrupted

INTERESTING FACT
When packets are transmitted over a Wi-Fi network, they can be intercepted by any
device; this is called packet sniffing. If you perform thorough analysis on a large
number of packets, you can often break the encryption. This is why security services,
such as the National Security Agency, do not allow any Wi-Fi devices on their
network.

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Routing
Routing is the name given to the method1 of selecting paths along which packets are sent on
a computer network. Specialist computer systems such as routers, switches, bridges,
firewalls and ports construct a routing table in their memory. This stores a number of routes
which are the best to use to send packets to reach a specific destination. Maintaining
accurate routing tables is essential for ensuring that packets are delivered as quickly as
possible.

126

In the example shown above, computer system 1 is sending a packet to computer system
126. Clearly, the quickest route for the packet to arrive at its destination is to be sent from
router A, on to router B, followed by router E for delivery to computer system 126. This path
would be determined by routing, using a routing table. A poorly constructed routing table
may choose to send the packet from router A, on to router C, followed by router D and then
router E for delivery to computer system 126. This would take longer and is not a good use
of network resources. But A>C>D>E may be faster, depending entirely on the cost (hop
count) of the routes.

Most routers use only one network path at a time, such as the preferred route above
(Computer system 1 > Router A > Router B > Router E > Computer system 126). Some
multipath routing techniques enable the same packets to be sent using multiple alternative
paths at the same time. This means that in the event of Router B failing in the transmission
above, the same packet would also have been sent via the alternative longer route set out
above (Computer system 1 > Router A > Router C > Router D > Router E > Computer system
126), to ensure the packet arrives at its destination.

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IP addresses
An IP address is an address which is allocated to a computer system on a network, usually by
a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server. Alternatively, you may assign your
own IP address if you do not wish to rely on the services of a DHCP server. An example of an
IP address is 195.10.213.120.

It is used to uniquely identify computer systems on a network, thus allowing communication

between them. In routing tables, the corresponding IP address of a unique MAC address is
stored and updated as necessary.

Internet Domain Name System (DNS)

A Domain Name System (DNS) is a distributed database that matches IP addresses to

computer system resources.

One example of this is to match an IP address to a human friendly domain name. For
example, if you wanted to visit the Google search engine, the computer system on which
the website is stored has an IP address assigned to it; 172.217.31.164. Try typing this into
the address bar of your web browser. You should be able to view the website that you
would be more familiar with when accessing the domain name www.google.co.uk. Here,
your computer system sent a request to its DNS server for the IP address that is mapped to
the domain name www.google.co.uk. The DNS server returned the IP address
172.217.31.164, which allowed your computer system to communicate with the computer
system where the Google search engine is stored.

Of course there are many different DNS servers located world-wide. If your local DNS server
does not store the address of the resource you are requesting, it will pass the request along
to another higher level DNS server, such as the DNS server of your Internet Server Provider
(ISP). If again the address is not found, your ISP's DNS server will pass the request on to a
higher level DNS server which may be the DNS server responsible for an entire zone, such as
the .co.uk zone. This continues until the address is found (and returned to the local server)
or the DNS query fails.

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Another example where a DNS server is used is where a computer system, on joining a
network, would query the DNS server for the IP address of other useful computer systems,
such as the logon server, which stores the
details of all usernames and passwords. INTERESTING FACT
In 2015, YouTube users uploaded 400 hours of video per
minute. That means that the equivalent of a 1000 days of
video were uploaded every hour of every day.

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Protocols
A protocol is an agreed format, which allows two devices to communicate. Put simply, a
protocol is a set of rules. These rules can include the following:

• handshaking, where two devices establish their readiness to communicate

• how the sending device will indicate that it has finished sending a message
• how the receiving device will indicate that it has received a message
• the type of error checking to be used
• agreement on the data compression method to be used.
There are many standard protocols used with computer systems. The table below illustrates
the protocols with which you need to be familiar:

Protocol Description

Two protocols that combine to allow communication

TCP/IP (Transmission Control between computer systems on a network. IP is a
Protocol/Internet Protocol) protocol that sets out the format of packets and an
addressing system. TCP is a protocol that allows packets
to be sent and received between computer systems.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer HTTP is a protocol than can be used to transfer
Protocol) multimedia web pages over the internet.

FTP is a protocol that can be used when copying a file

from one location to another via a network or the
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) internet. It is typically used for the transfer of large files,
as it allows broken communications to resume
transferring a file rather than having to restart.

A protocol stack is a set of protocols that work

INTERESTING FACT
together to provide networking capabilities. It is
called a stack because it is designed as a hierarchy
Although the Bluetooth protocol has been
of layers, each supporting the one above it and agreed, the protocol stack varies considerably
using those below it. The use of a layered approach from device to device. Try sending a
enables different protocols to be substituted for photograph via Bluetooth from one
each other, e.g. to allow for new protocols and smartphone to another.
different network architectures. The number of
layers varies according to the particular protocol stack. However, the lowest layer will deal
with physical interaction of the hardware, with each higher layer adding additional features,
and user applications interacting with the top layer.

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TCP/IP 5 layer protocol stack model

TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol. There are
five layers to this model:
• Physical layer
• Data link layer
• Network layer
• Transport layer
• Application layer.

Physical layer

The physical layer transmits the raw data. It consists of hardware such as switches. This
layer deals with all aspects of setting up and maintaining a link between the communicating
computers.

Data link layer

The data link layer sends data from the network layer to the physical layer. It divides the
data to be sent into data frames. A data frame consists of a link layer header followed by a
packet. This layer handles the acknowledgements sent from the receiver and ensures that
incoming data has been received correctly by analysing bit patterns in the frames.

Network layer

The network layer is responsible for the addressing and routing of data. Routers belong to
the network layer as they use logical addresses to direct the data from the sender to the
receiver. A router determines the path the data should take based on network conditions.
Routers manage traffic problems on the network such as the routing of packets to minimise
congestion of data.

Transport layer

The transport layer ensures that data is transferred form one point to another reliably and
without errors. The transport layer is responsible for making sure data is sent and received
in the correct order. The transport layer is implemented in the sending and receiving
computers, but not in the routers on the path between them. It acts as an interface
between the communicating computers and the network.

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Application layer

The application layer provides interfaces to the software to allow it to use the network.
Examples of software include email, file transfer protocol (FTP) and the World Wide Web
(WWW).

Sending data from Host 1 to Host 2

The diagram below shows Host 1 sending a message to Host 2. From Host 1, the data flows
down through the 5 layers of protocols and then to Router 1. Router 1 is the gateway to the
operating area of Host 1 and therefore only the network, data link and physical layers are
involved. Similarly, with Router 2 only the three layers are involved as the data is passed
into the operating region of Host 2. Finally, the data passes up through the layers to Host 2.

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Layers and protocols

Layer Protocol

Application layer Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

Transport layer Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Network layer Internet Protocol (IP)

Data link layer Ethernet Protocol

Physical layer Physical connection using a NIC to connect to the internet

Ethernet Protocol

At the data link layer, Ethernet Protocols describe how network devices can format data for
transmission using frames and packets. Ethernet protocols are also used to define
standards for types of network cabling used at the physical layer, and the corresponding
transmission speeds.

Wi-Fi Protocol

Wi-Fi is a term used for certain types of wireless networks that use 802.11 wireless
protocols for transmitting data using electromagnetic waves in place of cables. 802.11
wireless networks use security protocols, such as Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA), to provide a
level of security and privacy similar to that found on a wired network. Bluetooth is another
example of a Wi-Fi protocol and WAPs (Wireless Application Protocols) are protocols to
standardise the way wireless devices can be used for internet access.

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Email Protocols

To use email, you must have an email client on your computer that has access to a mail
server. Your Internet Service Provider (ISP) will often provide this server. The mail client and
the mail server exchange information with each other using email protocols to transmit
information.

1. IMAP Protocol
IMAP is an email protocol that stores email messages on a mail server. It stands for
Internet Messaging Access Protocol. It allows the email user to read and handle email
messages as though they were stored locally on their own computer. The user can
manage their email with facilities such as the ability to create folders to organise their
messages, store draft messages in the server and delete unwanted messages.

2. POP3
Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3) is the third version of a protocol for receiving email. POP3
receives email for a client and stores it in a single file on the mail server. When the email
client logs onto the mail server, the email is transfered to the user's computer. There are
no copies of the email stored permanently on the server after it's been downloaded.

3. SMTP
The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used to deliver email from the sender to an
email server, or when email is delivered from one email server to another. SMTP can
only be used to send emails, but not receive them.

INTERESTING FACT
Email existed before the World Wide Web. Early email was
very simple – it just put a message in another user’s
directory in a location they could see when they logged on.

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4. Organisation and structure of data
The nature of data
Data is made up of raw facts and figures and can be represented in many different forms
including text, numbers, pictures, sounds and video clips. Information can be derived from
data when it is processed.

Representation of numbers
You will need to be familiar with three different counting systems. These are denary, binary
and hexadecimal.

Denary

The first counting system that you need to be familiar with is the denary counting system,
also known as the Base 10 or decimal counting system. In the denary counting system, the
digits 010, 110, 210, 310, 410, 510, 610, 710, 810, 910 are used to represent numbers. The number
13810 for example, actually means 1 ‘hundred’, 3 ‘tens’ and 8 ‘units’. This gives the total one
hundred and thirty-eight:

Binary

The second counting system that you need to be familiar with is the binary counting system,
also known as the Base 2 counting system. In order for data to be processed by a computer
system, it must be converted into binary format. This is because computer systems can only
store and process Binary digITs, also known as BITs. A BIT is either a 12 or 02. You may think
of this as a light switch, where the switch is either ON or OFF:

• If the switch is ON it is stored as the digit 1.

• If the switch is OFF it is stored as the digit 0.

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A binary number is a string of BITs, for example 100010102:

The binary number 100010102 is therefore a binary representation of the denary number
13810 (12810 + 810 + 210).

Hexadecimal

The third counting system that you need to be familiar with is the hexadecimal counting
system, also known as the Base 16 counting system. In the hexadecimal counting system,
the digits 016, 116, 216, 316, 416, 516, 616, 716, 816, 916 are used to represent 1–9 and then the
characters A16, B16, C16, D16, E16 and F16 are used to represent 10–15. The hexadecimal
number 8A16 for example:

The hexadecimal number 8A16 therefore represents 8 ‘sixteens’ and 10 ‘units’. This gives the
total one hundred and thirty-eight. Remember that A16 = 1010, B16 = 1110, C16 = 1210,
D16 = 1310, E16 = 1410, F16 = 1510.

INTERESTING FACT
The hexadecimal system is widely
Up until the late 20th century, traditional Chinese
weights and measurements used in the marketplace used as binary numbers can be
used the hexadecimal counting system. Other culturesquickly converted into hexadecimal
numbers that are more convenient
used different base counting systems, e.g. the ancient
Babylonians used a Base 60 counting system. for humans to use. For example, a
telephone conversation where you
might read out the binary number 100010102 could cause confusion. It's easier to say 8A16,
and mistakes are less likely to be made.

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Denary to binary and hexadecimal, binary to denary and hexadecimal,
hexadecimal to binary and denary
In this section, we will discuss how to convert between different number systems.

Denary to binary

One way of converting a denary number to a binary number is by drawing a Base 2 table
from the right to the left.

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

In this example, we will convert the denary number 19810 into a binary number. Take 19810
and see if it is more than the first number on the left. In this case, 12810 is the number on
the left and so we write a 1 under the heading 12810.

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1

We now deduct 12810 from our original denary number, which leaves 7010. The next number
in our Base 2 table is 6410. If the number remaining, 7010, is more than the next number on
the left, 6410, write the number 1 under the heading 6410.

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1

We now repeat the process again and deduct 6410 from 7010, which leaves 610. The next
number in our Base 2 table is 32. If the number remaining, 610, is more than the next
number on the left, 3210, write the number 1 under the heading 3210. However, in this case
the number remaining is less than the next number on the left, so we write a 0 under the
heading 3210.

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0

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This process is repeated until you reach the final heading and the binary number for the
denary number 19810 is found:

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0

The binary number for the denary number 19810 is therefore 110001102 (12810 + 6410 + 410 +
210).

Denary to hexadecimal

You may wish to convert a denary number into a hexadecimal number. To do this, take the
number 19810 from our previous example and draw a Base 16 table, from right to left, as
before.

Take 19810 and see if it is more than the first number on the left. In this case, 25610 is the
number on the left and so we write a 0 under the heading 25610.

256 16 1
0

The next number in our Base 16 table is 1610. If the number remaining, 19810, is more than
the next number on the left, 1610, work out how many 16s are needed without going over
the number remaining. In this case it is C (C16 = 1210, 1210 x 1610 = 19210).

Remember that A16 = 1010, B16 = 1110, C16 = 1210, D16 = 1310, E16 = 1410, F16 = 1510.

256 16 1
0 C

We now deduct 19210 from our remaining denary number, 19810, which leaves 610. The next
number in our Base 16 table is 1. If the number remaining, 610, is more than the next
number on the left, 1, work out how many 1s are needed without going over the number
remaining. In this case it is 610.
256 16 1
0 C 6

The hexadecimal number for the denary number 19810 is therefore C616.

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You may find it easier to convert a denary number into a binary number first and then into a
hexadecimal number. See the binary to hexadecimal example on the next page.

Binary to denary

To convert a binary number into a denary number, draw a Base 2 table from right to left and
populate the table with the binary number you are converting. In this case we will use
001000112.

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

Simply convert the binary number into a denary number by adding the headings with a 1
under them: 3210 + 210 + 110 = 3510. The denary number for the binary number 001000112 is
therefore 3510.

Binary to hexadecimal

To convert a binary number into a hexadecimal number, there is a shortcut that you can use
by drawing a Base 2 table from right to left and then populating the table with the binary
number you are converting. In this case we will use 001010112.

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

Now split the Base 2 table into two smaller 4-bit Base 2 tables.

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

Remember that
A16 = 1010, B16 = 1110,
Now change the headings of the left hand 4-bit table.
C16 = 1210, D16 = 1310,
E16 = 1410, F16 = 1510.
8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

2 B

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Now take the hexadecimal number of each 4-bit table. This is the converted hexadecimal
number.
256 16 1
0 2 B

The hexadecimal number for the binary number 001010112 is therefore 2B16.

Hexadecimal to denary

You may wish to convert a hexadecimal number into a denary number. To do this you may
take the number C616 and draw a Base 16 table, from right to left as before.

256 16 1
0 C 6

Now multiply each heading to obtain the denary converted number.

C(12) x 16 = 19210
6x1 = 610 +
19810

The denary number for the hexadecimal number C616 is therefore 19810.

Hexadecimal to binary

To convert a hexadecimal number into a binary number, there is a shortcut that you can use
similar to the one above by drawing two 4-bit Base 2 tables from right to left.

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1

In this example, we will convert the hexadecimal number 2B16 into a binary number. First,
start by representing the first number, 2, in the left hand table.

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1
0 0 1 0

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Then complete the second table by representing B16 in the right hand table. Remember that
B16 = 1110.

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

Now re-label the headings in the left hand table, as shown below, and join the two 4-bit
tables together to make one 8-bit table.

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

And so, the hexadecimal number 2B16 can be represented as 001010112 in binary number
form.

Arithmetic shift functions

Shifts are manipulations of bit patterns. A shift involves moving the bits in a specified
direction, either left or right, by a specified number of places, e.g. for an 8-bit register:

Shift left by 2 places of 001100002 produces 110000002

001100002 000011002
Shift right by 2 places of produces

Arithmetic shifts can be used for division and multiplication.

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Arithmetic shift right

This operation preserves the sign of a number and will divide a binary number by 2 at each
shift. It will work for positive and negative numbers.

At each shift, the right hand bit is lost and a copy of the sign bit is inserted to the left.

Sign bit

1100000012 _ _1000002 111000002

Drop out Shift Copy of sign bit

Negative integer in Two’s complement: - 6310 right shift 1 place = - 3210

0100000012 _ _1000002 001000002

Drop out Shift Copy of sign bit

Positive integer in Two’s complement: 6510 right shift 1 place = 3210
When the right bit has value, i.e. when the shift is applied to an odd number, the result is
rounded down to the next even integer.

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Arithmetic shift left
This is similar to a right shift, but at each shift the sign bit is lost and a 0 bit is moved in to
the right. The effect of each shift is to multiply the integer x 2. The process can be repeated
until the sign bit is changed, at which point overflow occurs.

110000002 1000000_2 100000002

Sign bit drops out Shift 0 bit inserted

Negative integer in Two’s complement: - 64 left shift 1 place = - 128

001000002 0100000 2
010000002

Sign bit drops out Shift 0 bit

Positive integer in Two’s complement: 32 left shift 1 place = 64

100000002 1000000_2 100000002

Sign bit drops out Shift 0 bit

Positive integer in Two’s complement: 6410 left shift 1 place = overflow
The shift changes the sign bit and overflow occurs.

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Binary Addition
Now we know about binary numbers, we'll learn how to add them.
Binary addition is very similar to your usual everyday addition (decimal addition), except
that it carries on a value of 2 rather than a value of 10.
For example: in decimal addition, if you add 8 + 2 you get ten, and write it as 10. In the sum,
this gives a digit of 0 and a carry of 1. Something similar happens in binary addition when
adding 1 and 1. The result is two (as always), but since two is written as 10 in binary, adding
1 + 1 in binary gives a digit of 0 and a carry of 1.
Therefore in binary addition:
02 + 02 = 02
02 + 12 = 12
12 + 02 = 12
12 + 12 = 102 (which is 0 and a carry of 1)

Example
We want to add two binary numbers, 102 and 112. We start with the last digit. Adding 02 and
12, we get 12 (no carry). That means the last digit of the solution will be one. We then move
one digit left: adding 12 and 12, we get 102. Therefore, the solution is 1012.
Note that the binary numbers 102 and 112 correspond to 210 and 310 respectively. And the
binary total 1012 corresponds to 510. Therefore, the binary addition corresponds to our
regular addition.

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More examples:
Problem: 12 + 112 = ?
Solution: 12 + 112 = 1002
Explanation:
12
+1 12
Starting with the right-hand column, we add 12 and 12 which is:
12 + 12 = 102 = 02 carry 1
The last (least significant) digit of our solution is therefore 02.
Now the second column becomes02 + 12 + 12 (as a result of the carry). In binary addition:
02 + 12 + 12 = 102 = 02 carry 1
Therefore, the next digit in our solution is 02 and the 12 is carried into the next column.
There is no next column, so the remaining 1 drops into the next slot in the solution.
Therefore, our solution is 1 0 02.

Problem: 10102 + 112 = ?

Solution: 10102 + 112 = 11012
Explanation:
1 0 1 02
+ 1 12
For the first column, we have (on the right) 02 + 12. In binary addition:
02 + 12 = 12
Therefore, the last (least significant) digit of our solution is 12.
For the second column, we have 12 + 12. In binary addition:
12 + 12 = 02 carry 1
Therefore, the next digit in our solution is 02 and we carry the 1 into the next column. The
next column is now 02 + 02 + 12 (as a result of the carry). In binary addition:
02 + 02 + 12 = 12
Therefore, the next digit in our solution is 1. The final column now contains 12 + 02. In binary
addition:
12 + 02 = 12

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There are no further columns, therefore our solution is 1 1 0 12.

Problem: 1001012 + 101012 = ?

Solution: 1001012 + 101012 = 1110102
Explanation:
1 0 0 1 0 12
+ 1 0 1 0 12
First column (on the right): 12 + 12 = 02 carry 1
Second column: 02 + 02 + 12 (carried) = 12
Third column: 12 + 12 + no carry = 02 carry 1
Fourth column: 02 + 02 + 12 (carried) = 12
Fifth column: 02 + 12 + no carry = 12
Sixth column: 12 + 02 + no carry = 12

Therefore, the solution is 1 1 1 0 1 02.

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How sound can be sampled and stored digitally

As we have already established, a computer system is only able to store and process binary
digits, as it is a digital device. Since sound is an analogue signal, not digital, how then can it
be stored? If an analogue signal, such as sound, is sent to a computer system, it has to be
converted into a digital signal before it can be processed.

Sound is converted into a digital signal by a process called sampling. This is where hardware,
such as a microphone, measures the level of sound many times per second and records this
as binary digits.

Example of sampling analogue

sound
15
10
Voltage (mV)

5
0
-5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

-10
-15
Time (s)

The number of times that the sound level is sampled per second is called the sampling
frequency. The higher the sampling frequency, the better the quality of the sound recorded.
A typical sampling frequency is 44,000 times per second, also
DIGITAL AUDIO QUALITY
known as 44 kHz. This is the sampling frequency used on most
audio CDs. Sample rate – the number of audio
samples captured every second.
Bit depth – the number of bits
Sound sampled at 44 kHz in stereo will produce a large amount
available for each clip.
of data and as such, this data may need to be compressed. Bit rate – the number of bits used
When sound files are compressed, data is removed to reduce per second of audio.
the size.

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How an image is represented by pixels in binary format

Images on a computer system are made up of thousands of small coloured dots, known as
pixels (short for picture elements). Bitmap images are stored as an array of pixels. A black
and white bitmap image will store a 1 for a black pixel and 0 for a white pixel.

0000000
0100010
0000000
0001000 This bitmap image can be represented
0000000 using 56 bits (or 7 bytes).
0100010
0011100
0000000

A colour bitmap image is stored by replacing the 1s and 0s above with a longer number that
represents how much red, green and blue (RGB) is required in the colour of each pixel; this
is known as colour depth. In a 256-colour palette, the image would require 1 byte of storage
per pixel – so we would need 448 bits (or 56 bytes) to store the image above in colour.
There are other colour depths available, which can store more information about the
colours in each pixel of an image. The more information stored about the colour of each
pixel, the larger the file size becomes.

You may also have heard of vector images. These images do not store the data by pixels, but
are a set of instructions for drawing a geometric shape. The advantages of a vector image
are that they can be scaled without loss of quality (pixilation etc.) and use less storage
space.

Images require a large amount of storage space and as such, may need to be compressed.

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Why metadata needs to be included in an image file (including height, width,
colour depth)

The term metadata refers to ‘data about data’. Key properties that are needed to display an
image correctly are stored as metadata. Data such as an image’s height, width and colour
depth are typical examples of data stored in an image's metadata. Without metadata, a
computer system may render an image incorrectly on screen, such as displaying all pixels in
one row.
Other data may also be stored in the metadata of an image file, such as the date the image
was made or the geographical location of a photograph.

Binary numbers representing characters

A character can be a letter, a digit, a space, a punctuation mark or various other symbols.
When characters are stored on a computer system, they are stored as a binary number.

It's important that computer systems recognise that characters can be represented
differently by other computer systems; otherwise data could not be exchanged between
computers.

The terms ‘character set’, Unicode and ASCII

In order to allow for data exchange between computer systems, character sets were
devised. A character set is a table that maps a character with a unique binary number.

One such character set is the 7-bit American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII). Part of the ASCII character set, that includes printable characters only, can be seen
in the table overleaf.
INTERESTING FACT
Before the widespread adoption of graphical
user interfaces, programmers used the ASCII
character set to design simple interfaces. Try
searching for some on the internet.

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Denary Binary Hex Aim Denary Binary Hex Aim Denary Binary Hex Aim
32 100000 20 space 64 1000000 40 @ 96 1100000 60 `
33 100001 21 ! 65 1000001 41 A 97 1100001 61 a
34 100010 22 " 66 1000010 42 B 98 1100010 62 b
35 100011 23 # 67 1000011 43 C 99 1100011 63 c
36 100100 24 $ 68 1000100 44 D 100 1100100 64 c
37 100101 25 % 69 1000101 45 E 101 1100101 65 e
38 100110 26 & 70 1000110 46 F 102 1100110 66 f
39 100111 27 ' 71 1000111 47 G 103 1100111 67 g
40 101000 28 ( 72 1001000 48 H 104 1101000 68 h
41 101001 29 ) 73 1001001 49 I 105 1101001 69 to
42 101010 2A * 74 1001010 4A J 106 1101010 6A j
43 101011 2B + 75 1001011 4B K 107 1101011 6B k
44 101100 2C , 76 1001100 4C L 108 1101100 6C l
45 101101 2D - 77 1001101 4D M 109 1101101 6D m
46 101110 2E . 78 1001110 4E N 110 1101110 6E n
47 101111 2F / 79 1001111 4F O 111 1101111 6F o
48 110000 30 0 80 1010000 50 P 112 1110000 70 p
49 110001 31 1 81 1010001 51 Q 113 1110001 71 q
50 110010 32 2 82 1010010 52 R 114 1110010 72 r
51 110011 33 3 83 1010011 53 S 115 1110011 73 s
52 110100 34 4 84 1010100 54 T 116 1110100 74 t
53 110101 35 5 85 1010101 55 U 117 1110101 75 u
54 110110 36 6 86 1010110 56 V 118 1110110 76 v
55 110111 37 7 87 1010111 57 W 119 1110111 77 w
56 111000 38 8 88 1011000 58 X 120 1111000 78 x
57 111001 39 9 89 1011001 59 Y 121 1111001 79 y
58 111010 3A : 90 1011010 5A Z 122 1111010 7A z
59 111011 3B ; 91 1011011 5B [ 123 1111011 7B {
60 111100 3C < 92 1011100 5C \ 124 1111100 7C |
61 111101 3D = 93 1011101 5D ] 125 1111101 7D }
62 111110 3E > 94 1011110 5E ^ 126 1111110 7E ~
63 111111 3F ? 95 1011111 5F _

Using the ASCII character set, the character A would be stored as the binary number
1000001.

The problem with using this ASCII character set is that it's only able to represent 128
different characters. Computer systems need to be able to store more characters than this.
For example, you may have noticed that the '£' character is missing from the table above. As
a result, other character sets were developed and used to allow computer systems to store
more characters.

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Unicode is a standard character set that has combined and replaced many others. It was
originally an extension to the ASCII character set and it contains many of the characters
used around the world – 137,000 characters in total. Each character requires 2 bytes of
storage.

Data types
Many different data types can be stored on a computer system. The data types that are
most commonly used are as follows:

Data type Description Examples

Integer Whole numbers, positive or 42, -11, 0
negative
Real Numbers, including fractions or 12.9, -17.50, 28.0
decimal points
Boolean True or false 1 or 0

Character Letter, digit, space, punctuation 'A', 'b', '7','?'

mark or various other symbols
String A sequence of characters ‘Computer science’
‘The cat sat on the
mat’

Data structures
A data structure is a specific way of organising data within memory so it can be processed
efficiently. There will be a relationship between the data items that will vary according to
the type of data structure being used.

Static data structure

A static data structure is designed to store a known number of data items. The values of the
data can be changed but the memory size is fixed. An array is an example of a static data
structure; we can change the values of the elements in the array but we cannot alter the
memory size allocated to the array. Memory is allocated at compile-time.

As static data structures store a fixed number of data items, they are easier to program.
There is no need to check on the size of the data structure or the number of items stored.

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Dynamic data structure

Dynamic data structures are designed to allow the data structure to grow or shrink at
runtime. It is possible to add new elements or remove existing elements without having to
consider memory space. Memory is allocated at runtime.

Dynamic data structures make the most efficient use of memory but are more difficult to
program, as you have to check the size of the data structure and the location of the data
items each time you use the data.

List

A list is a data structure that has the data items stored in the order they were originally
added to memory. If the list is made up of a set number of data items, it can be a static data
structure. If the list can vary in the number of data items, then it will be a dynamic data
structure.

Array

An array is a data structure that can hold a fixed number of data items, which must be of the
same data type, i.e. real, integer, string etc. The data items in an array are known as
elements. An array is an example of a static list.

The elements in an array are identified by a number that indicates their position in the
array. This number is known as the index. The first element in an array usually has an index
of 0.

37 11 42 6 26 56 4 76
Elements

Index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

• There are 8 elements in this array.

• The index always starts at position 0.
• Each element can be accessed using its index. The element at index 5 is 56.
• This type of array is known as a one-dimensional array.

Using one-dimensional arrays

A one-dimensional array can be used to store a list of data in memory that can be used by a
program at runtime. There are basic operations that can be carried out on data in a
one-dimensional array.

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 • Traversing – traversing an array simply means using a loop to use each element of
the array in a section of a program. If you wanted to print out the contents of an
array called myArray that has 10 elements you would use a ‘for i. . . . next’ loop. Like
this:

• Insertion – you can add an element to an array at a given index.

myArray[3] = 27

This would store the value 27 at index 3 of the array.

• Deletion – you can delete an element from an array.

myArray[6] = “”

This would leave the memory at index 6 blank.

• Searching – arrays can be searched using the index or the value stored at the index.

Two-dimensional arrays

The data we want to process often comes in the form of a table. The data in a
two-dimensional array must all be of the same data type.

For example, your teacher may have a spreadsheet of your class’ test results.

Elements in a two-dimensional array are indexed by two numbers – one for it's row and one
for it's column.

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If the two-dimensional array is called testMark, then the command to declare this array
would be:

testMark [4,5]

In this declaration, the 4 refers to the number of pupils (rows) and the 5 to the number of
tests (columns). The index for Sam’s marks for Test 2 would be [0,1].

To print out the pupils' test marks, you would need to use one loop inside another loop:

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Records
Arrays can only hold data if it is all of the same data type. If you need to hold related data of
different data types, you will need to use a data structure called a record. A record will be
made up of information about one person or thing. Each piece of information in the record
is called a field.

For example, an after school club wants to store data about its members’ emergency
contact information.

Record Structure

Field Name Field Type Example data

Membership number Integer 1074

First name String Sara

Surname String Davies

Date of birth Date 12/07/2004

Contact name String Mrs Davies

Contact phone number String 07564 191919

Key field

Each record in a file should have a key field, namely an item of data that is unique and can
be used to identify the individual record. In this example, the membership number would be
the key field.

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Files
In order for a computer to function, it must have data flowing through the central
processing unit (CPU) under the control of a program. More often than not, this data will
have come from a stored file.

A program will load the file from secondary storage, such as a hard disk, into the computer’s
memory. The data will be manipulated by the CPU and then output. The output could be
another data file, screen images or a document.

Data stored in a file will have a structure and organisation known as the file format. A data
file will be made up of records. It would be most efficient for the fields in a record to be
stored next to each other, so the data can be read into the record data structure in memory,
for processing by the CPU.

In summary – files are made of records of the same structure and records are made up of
fields containing information about one person or item.

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Validation
Validation is a process to check that input data is reasonable or sensible. Frequently used
validation algorithms include:

Presence checks Used to prevent further progress if a required field is left

blank.

Format checks Used to ensure data matches a specific pattern, such as

dd/mm/yyyy for a date. Input masks are often used to create
format checks on database forms.

Length checks Used to ensure an input data string is a sensible length, e.g.
number of characters in ‘firstName’ to be between 3 and 16

Type checks Used to ensure input data is a particular data type, e.g.
quantity ordered to be integer or cost to be real.

Range checks Used to ensure input data lies within a specified range, e.g.
over time hours to be > 0 and < 15.

Lookup checks can also be used to ensure that input data matches an item in a list of valid
entries e.g. input lookup “none”; ”vegetarian”; ”vegan” will limit the acceptable input to one
of three entries.

Verification
Verification is a process for checking data is correct. It can be carried out as a user enters
data, via a keyboard for example, and also when data is copied from one part of a system to
another. Copying should not change the data.

Examples of verification of user input include double entry and screen based verification.

Double entry involves comparing two versions of data input, e.g. ”re-enter your email
address”. A verification algorithm will compare the two versions and inform the user if they
are not identical.

Screen based verification requires the user to check a display of input data and confirm that
it is correct.

More sophisticated verification algorithms apply calculations to input data, e.g. to produce
the check digits of bar codes. Repeating the calculations and checking the result is the same
can verify the data.

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Similar verification algorithms, including parity checks and checksums, can be used when
sending data between computers, to check that the data has not been corrupted during
transmission.

Algorithm design – examples

A. Design an algorithm that will sensibly validate the input data for a diving
competition, where entrants must be between 16 and 19 years of age. The
competition is to involve 5 dives, with each dive being awarded a score of between
0 and 20.

The algorithm should verify the entrants' date of birth, check they are eligible for
competition and ensure sensible scores are recorded.

B. The table includes input data for a payroll system. Some of the data can be sensibly
validated.

Surname String

National Insurance (NI) Standard format LL123456L

number

Job title Apprentice, semi-skilled, skilled, supervisor

Week no. Integer

Full time Y or N, Full time = 38 hours per week

Hours worked Integer, hours worked in current week, maximum 10 hours

overtime in one week.

Overtime rate = 1.5 x pay rate

Pay rate Real, hourly pay rate, max £15.00/hour

Write validation checks that will help ensure sensible input.

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5. Operating systems
Managing resources
An operating system is software that manages a computer system. The operating system is
loaded by the bootstrap loader. One of its primary functions is to manage resources. Here
are some examples of how the operating system manages the computer system's resources.

Managing peripherals such as input and output devices

• Communicates with and sends data output to a printer/monitor/other valid output
device.
• Communicates with and receives data input to a keyboard/mouse/other valid input
device.

Managing printing using spooling

• Data is stored on a hard disk/in memory/stored in a queue.
• Document is printed when printer is free/in correct order.
• Benefit of spooling – user can carry on working/log off when waiting for job to print.

Managing backing store

• Ensures data is stored and can be retrieved correctly from any disk drive.
• Creates and maintains filing system such asfile allocation table (FAT) or new technology
file systems (NTFS).
• Organises files in a hierarchical directory structure.

Managing RAM
• Ensures that programs/data do not corrupt each other.
• Ensures that all programs and data, including itself, are stored in correct memory
locations.

Managing processes
• Ensures that different processes can utilise the CPU and do not interfere with each other
or crash.
• On a multi-tasking O/S, ensures that all tasks appear to run simultaneously.

Managing security
• Allows creation and deletion of user accounts.
• Allows users to logon and change passwords.

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Providing user interface
Another function of the operating system is to provide a user interface. Here are some
examples of how the operating system provides a user interface:

• allows copying/deleting/moving/sorting/searching of file or folders

• allows access to system settings such as hardware
• provides a command line interface
• allows users to have more than one window open
• provides a graphical user interface (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointers)
• provides user with error/help messages
• allows customisation of interface, e.g. change desktop background/layout
• allows user to switch between tasks (programs/windows).

Human-computer interaction (HCI) INTERESTING FACT

HCI is the term used to describe the communication The original name for Microsoft Windows'
between people and computer systems. To allow a GUI was Interface Manager.
person and a computer system to communicate, an
interface is required, often called a human-computer
interface.

Different interfaces are provided by the operating system and can be identified by the style
of communication they use. Some are entirely text-based whereas others use images to
represent different commands.

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

A GUI is a type of interface that allows users to interact
with a computer system through graphical icons.

GUIs were introduced to help users use computer systems,

as Command Line Interfaces (CLIs) were very difficult for
beginners.

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 There are many different features of a graphical user interface. These include:

• windows • assistants/help files/tutorials

• icons • favourites settings/change environment/customisation
• menus • shortcuts/hot keys
• pointers • task bar/ribbon bar/tabs/customised toolbar.

Here are some of the advantages and disadvantages of a graphical user interface.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Intuitive • Requires a large amount of memory
• Easy to navigate • Is relatively processor intensive
• Uses Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointers • Computing experts may find a GUI slower
• No complicated commands than a CLI
• Data between different software • GUIs take up a much larger amount of hard
applications is easily exchanged disk space than other interfaces

Menu-driven interface
This type of interface allows people to interact with a computer system by
presenting the user with a series of menus, and allowing the user to work
through them. The iPod Classic is a perfect example of a device using a
menu-driven interface. Users are first introduced to a menu containing a
list of artists. Having chosen an artist, another menu appears with a list of
albums belonging to that artist. Following this, another menu is presented
with a list of songs belonging to the chosen album.

Here are some of the advantages and disadvantages of a menu-driven interface.

Advantages Disadvantages
• No need to learn a lot of commands • Irritating if there are too many menu screens to
• Intuitive/easy to understand work through – users get annoyed or bored if it
• Easy to navigate takes too long
• Ideal for beginners – everything is in a logical • Navigating can be a long process
place/order
• No need for expert language to learn
• Little processing power needed

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 Voice-driven interface
Voice-driven interfaces, or voice recognition, can be used to issue
commands to a computer system and enter data into it. Voice-driven
interfaces are popular as it's natural for people to communicate in this way.

Here are some of the advantages and disadvantages of a voice-driven interface.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Speech input is much faster than keyboard • Background noise interferes with speech
input recognition
• No need to learn to type • If user has a speech impediment, a sore
• Less danger of RSI (repetitive strain injury) throat, a cold or a strong accent, they will not
• Reduces typing mistakes such as be understood
spelling/hitting wrong key • Users with a disability that prevents speech
• Keyboard takes up room on the desk would need to find a different method for
• Users with a disability that prevents typing input
can use speech input • Difficult to keep data input private as people
• Hands-free advantages – can multitask can hear what you are saying
• Users find talking more natural than typing • Words that sound the same, such as ‘too’ and
‘two’ may not be recognised

Command line interface (CLI)

A command line interface is an entirely text-based interface
that allows a user to communicate with a computer system by
typing in commands. However, computer systems will only
execute specific commands that are predefined.
Before GUIs were developed, command line interfaces were
the most widely used interface.

Here are some of the advantages and disadvantages of a command line interface.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Quicker to type commands • Very confusing for someone who has never
• Quicker to input commands as shortcut keys used a command line interface
can be used • Commands have to be typed precisely. If
• Little memory and processing power needed there is a spelling error the command will fail
compared with other interfaces • A large number of commands need to be
• Little storage space is required (no graphical learned
images to store) • Instructions cannot be guessed
• Experts who have memorised the commands • Not suitable for a novice
find it very fast to use

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 Touch sensitive interface
Touch sensitive interfaces are becoming more popular and are extensively
used in mobile computing devices. Commands are issued or data is input
by touching the screen with your finger or a stylus pen. As well as tapping
the touch sensitive screen, the screen can interpret other actions made by
the user, such as pinching and swiping.

Here are some of the advantages and disadvantages of a touch sensitive interface.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Very intuitive • Screen can be easily damaged/scratched
• Easier to use as the user simply touches what is • Dirty screens are difficult to read
seen on the display • Users must be within arm’s reach of the display
• No keyboard or mouse is required • It is difficult to select small items
• Touching a visual display of choices requires little • User's hand may obscure the screen
thinking and is a form of direct manipulation that • Screens need to be installed at a lower position
is easy to learn and tilted to reduce arm fatigue
• Easier hand-eye coordination than mice or • Some reduction in image brightness may occur
keyboards

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Disk organisation
File transfer

File transfer is the ability to transfer data from one location to another. This can be done by
simply copying a file from one folder to another, or from one storage medium to another.
You may wish to carry out either of these tasks in order to organise your files better, using
subfolders or to back-up your work onto a secondary storage device, such as a flash memory
stick.

Formatting
INTERESTING FACT
Formatting is the process of preparing a disk for use. Certain specialist software can be used to
During this process, a new file system is installed on a “unformat” a formatted disk and recover all
disk and all data may be erased in readiness for new the data originally stored on it.
data to be stored.

Compression

Compression is the process of making a file size smaller. This may be advantageous as it
allows more data to be stored on the disk, and files may also be transferred more quickly.
There are two methods of achieving disk compression; one is software based and the other
hardware based.

Software based disk compression is often included as a facility of an operating system and
so it is readily available on most computer systems. The disadvantage of this is that it slows
down the process of reading and writing to disk.

Hardware disk compression requires specialist hardware, which can be expensive. However,
it does not affect the speed of access as much as software based disk compression.

Disk based compression is always lossless.

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System maintenance tools
Many different system maintenance tools are included with operating systems, that allow
users to maintain the upkeep of their computer systems. Here are some of the tools used:
INTERESTING FACT
System restore (rollback) Some modern viruses exploit the system
restore facility by deliberately seeking
System restore is the process of replacing lost or corrupt
out back-ups and placing copies of
data by replacing it with an earlier backup.
themselves there.

Disk defragmentation

Files are stored on computer systems that can, over time, become fragmented. This means
they are split and stored on different parts of the disk. If a file is fragmented, it takes longer
for the disk heads to move between parts of the file, which slows the process of loading it.

Defragmentation is the process where files are physically re-arranged on disk so they are no
longer fragmented, and the parts of each file are stored together. This improves the speed
of accessing data from disk.

Control panel

Many operating systems use a control panel to give the user control of software and
hardware features. It enables the user to change settings, such as sound, device and display
settings, all from one convenient location.

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6. Principles of programming
High-level languages
A high-level language is a programming language that allows code to be written. It is similar
to a natural human language, such as English. Some programmers prefer to use high-level
programming languages, as they are easier to understand, learn and program. Their
commands are similar to natural languages like English and identifiers can be long and
meaningful. High-level programming languages also allow the use of powerful commands
that perform quite complex tasks, such as MsgBox in Visual Basic or the SORT clause in
COBOL. Examples of common high-level programming languages include:

• Basic
• Java
• Pascal
• COBOL
• C#
• C++
• Python
• VB

Machine code
Machine code is the opposite of a high-level language, in that it does not resemble any
natural language and is made up entirely of bit patterns (instructions or data) that can be
executed directly by the CPU. Examples of machine code instructions are opcodes and
operands. High-level languages must be converted into machine code before they can be
executed by the CPU.

Low-level languages
Programming in a low-level language, such as assembly code, requires knowledge of the
internal structure of the CPU and is therefore very specialised. The program statements are
written for a particular type of CPU and make direct reference to specific internal registers.
Assembly code uses mnemonics and is converted to machine code for execution using an
assembler. Source code produced in a low-level language is not portable, but can be very
efficient. The programs can be made to run faster than programs produced using a
high-level language.

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Uses of high-level and low-level languages
High-level languages are used when the execution speed is not the most critical factor, e.g.
in common productivity applications, such as a word processor or a spreadsheet. Most
modern applications such as commercial database packages, operating systems,
e-commerce software and social media apps are developed using a high-level programming
language.

Although uncommon, some programmers may wish to program directly in machine code or
use assembly code. This is primarily done when programming device drivers or embedded
systems, where fast execution speeds are critical. Professional game developers may need
to use console specific development software, which is likely to include low-level features
for optimum performance.

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 7. Software engineering
Software development environment
Software development environments, also known as Integrated Development Environments
(IDE), provide programmers with various tools that are needed to create computer
programs. Here are some of the tools and facilities offered by a typical software
development environment.

Facility Use

Editor Allows a programmer to enter, format and edit source code.

Converts source code into executable machine code. Once compiled, a program can
Compiler
be run at any time.

Converts each line of source code into machine code, and executes it as each line of
Interpreter code is run. The conversion process is performed each time the program needs to be
run.

A program which allows previously compiled code, from software libraries, to be

Linker
linked together.

Loader A program which loads previously compiled code into memory.

Debugger A program which helps locate, identify and rectify errors in a program.

A facility which displays the order in which the lines of a program are executed, and
Trace
possibly the values of variables as the program is being run.

Interrupts a program on a specific line of code, allowing the programmer to compare

Break point the values of variables against expected values. The program code can then usually
be executed one line at a time. This is called single-stepping

A facility that displays the current value of any variable. The value can be 'watched'
as the program code is single-stepped to see the effects of the code on the variable.
Variable watch
Alternatively a variable watch may be set, which will interrupt the program flow if
the watched variable reaches a specified value.

Memory inspector A facility which will display the contents of a section of memory.

Used when a program fails to compile or to run. Error messages are displayed to help
Error diagnostics
the programmer diagnose what has gone wrong.

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Libraries
A library is a collection of commonly used private functions and subprograms. Examples of
private functions include standard mathematical operations such as square root and
random number generators. Examples of subprograms include standard input/output
routines, such as saving data to disk. These functions and subprograms can be called from
within your program at any stage, but only when the appropriate library has been linked.

Here are the advantages of using standard libraries:

• related private functions and subprograms are stored in the same location
• time is saved as the programmer can simply use the private functions and programs
stored in a library
• subroutines contained in a library have already been tested, so they should work
reliably and not need further testing
• programs will contain less code and will therefore be easier to maintain.

Most computer languages use standard libraries, although it is also possible to create your
own custom libraries.

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8. Program construction
Assemblers
An assembler is a program which converts the low-level assembly programming language
into machine code. The assembler does this by converting the one-word assembly
instructions into an opcode, e.g. converting AND to 0010. It also allocates memory to
variables, often resulting in an operand.

Assembly code Assembler conversion Opcode Operand

AND A → 0010 0001

LOD B → 0110 0010

Interpreters
Before high-level programming languages can be run, code is converted by an interpreter,
one line at a time, into machine code, which is then executed by the CPU.

Compilers
A compiler is used when high-level programming languages are converted into machine
code, ready to be executed by the CPU. There are four main stages of compilation:

Lexical analysis
• comments and unneeded spaces are removed
• keywords, constants and identifiers are replaced by 'tokens'
• a symbol table is created which holds the addresses of variables, labels and
subroutines

Syntax analysis
• tokens are checked to see if they match the spelling and grammar expected, using
standard language definitions. This is done by parsing each token to determine if it
uses the correct syntax for the programming language
• if syntax errors are found, error messages are produced

Semantic analysis
• variables are checked to ensure they have been properly declared and used
• variables are checked to ensure they are of the correct data type, e.g. real values
are not being assigned to integers

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 • operations are checked to ensure they are legal for the type of variable being used,
e.g. you would not try to store the result of a division operation as an integer

Code generation
• machine code is generated
• code optimisation may be employed to make it more efficient/faster/less resource
intense.

Translators
A translator changes (translates) a program written in one language into an equivalent
program written in a different language. For example, a program written using the PASCAL
programming language may be translated into a program written in one of the
C programming languages, using a translator.

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 Types of error that may occur in programming code

Error Description Example

An error that occurs when a command does not Incorrect: IF A ADN B

Syntax follow the expected syntax of the language, e.g. Then
when a keyword is incorrectly spelt. Correct: IF A AND B Then

An error that only occurs when the program is Program requests more
memory when none is
Runtime/execution running and is difficult to foresee before a program is
available, so the program
compiled and run.
crashes.

An algorithm that
An error that causes a program to output an calculates a person’s age
Logical incorrect answer (that does not necessarily crash the from their date of birth,
program). but ends up giving
negative numbers.

When the square root

An error that occurs when a programmer calls a function is used and the
Linking function within a program and the correct library has library that calculates the
not been linked to that program. square root has not been
linked to the program.

Rounding is when a number is approximated to 34.5 rounded to nearest

Rounding whole number is 35, an
nearest whole number/tenth/hundredth, etc.
error of +0.5.

34.9 truncated to whole

Truncating is when a number is approximated to a
Truncation number is 34, an error of
whole number/tenth/hundredth, etc. nearer zero.
–0.9.

INTERESTING FACT
In 1947, Grace Murray Hopper, an admiral in the US Navy
and a computer programming pioneer, documented the
first actual computer bug when a moth got trapped in a
computer.

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9. Security and data management
Information stored on computers can be sensitive and needs to be looked after very
carefully. This means restricting access to the information. Inappropriate and unauthorised
access to this information is likely to have serious consequences and could result in legal
penalties, identity theft, financial loss, fraud and invasion of privacy.

Other risks to information stored on computers include loss due to accidental deletion or
overwriting parts of files in error; mechanical damage to hard disks, which are the most
fragile parts of a computer; power failure whilst work is in progress; accidental damage to
hardware, such as fire or damage caused by spilling a drink.

Most of these risks can be managed by adopting efficient procedures for saving work and
making regular backups.

Network security
Security is of paramount importance to any network as the loss of data, personal or
confidential data in particular, can have many serious consequences. Risks to data become
greater as it is shared across a network.

User access levels

It is not desirable that every user should be able to access all the data on a computer
system. User access levels are one method used to allow certain users read and/or write
access to data on a computer system. For example, in a program used within a company, an
administrator, possibly the owner, will have read and write access to all data on the system.
An assistant however, will not have access to confidential data such as employees’ salaries.
User access levels will define which users can change and view, view but not change, or not
view stored data.

Suitable passwords
INTERESTING FACT
Passwords are commonly used to prove a person’s The average internet user has 25 online
identity to a computer system, thus allowing them accounts, 6.5 passwords and waits an
access to relevant data. average of 3.1 months before changing
passwords.
Different programs may require a user to use
different complexities of password, as well as different character lengths. An example of a
simple password may be the user’s town of birth, or the word ‘password’. A more complex
password may require the user to use a combination of upper and lower case alphanumeric

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characters, for example ‘Pa55word1234’. Increasingly, computer programs require users to
use a combination of upper and lower case alphanumeric characters as well as other
non-alphanumeric characters such as @ ! ~ - / \ %, for example ‘P@55word/1234!’.

Another user can guess short simple passwords, or a hacker may have access to programs
that have the ability to try multiple guesses in quick succession. This is known as a brute
force attack. Passwords that use a combination of upper and lower case alphanumeric
characters as well as other non-alphanumeric character, will be much harder to guess and
will take longer to ‘brute force’.

As a rule of thumb, the following formula can be used to determine the number of attempts
it would take to brute force a password.

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ

So a password such as ‘computer’ (8 characters), which only contains lower case characters
from the 26 letter English alphabet will take:

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 268 = 208,827,064,576

(on a typical 3.5 GHz computer, this would take less than 6 seconds to brute force)*

Whereas a password that contains upper and lower case alphanumeric characters, such as
‘Computer1’ (9 characters), has 26 + 26 + 10 = 62 possible characters. This will take:

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 629 = 13,537,086,546,263,552

(on a typical 3.5GHz computer, this would take just over 1 hour to brute force)*

*assuming one attempt per clock-tick

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Encryption techniques

Encryption is the conversion of data, using an algorithm, into a form called cyphertext, that
cannot be easily understood by people without the decryption key.

When data is encrypted, a logical operator is sometimes used, called the XOR logical
operator.

XOR Input (A) Input (B) Output (A XOR B)

The XOR logical operator has two inputs 0 0 0
and one output. The output is 1 only if A 0 1 1
and B are different. 1 0 1
1 1 0

When encrypting data, the XOR logical operator is performed on the original data and a key.
The key is a secure binary number, known only to the sender and recipient.

In this example, we will encrypt the data 10101010, using the key 11110000.

Original Data 10101010

Key 11110000 XOR

Cyphertext 01011010

The original data, 10101010, is now encrypted and can be transmitted as 01011010.

To recover the original data, the cyphertext is XOR’ed with the key.

Cyphertext 01011010

Key 11110000 XOR

Original Data 10101010

Other more complex techniques are also used to encrypt data, e.g. SHA256 and Blowfish.

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Compression and compression types
Compression is the process of making a file size smaller. This may be advantageous as it
allows more data to be stored on the disk, and files may also be transferred more quickly.
There are two primary methods that are used to compress files stored on a computer
system; these are lossy and lossless.

Lossless compression

Lossless compression uses an algorithm that compresses data into a form that may be
decompressed at a later time without any loss of data, returning the file to its exact original
form. It is preferred to lossy compression, when the loss of any detail, for example in a
computer program or a word-processed document, could have a detrimental effect.

A simplified version of lossless compression on a word-processed document may to be to

replace a common string, such as ‘the’, with a token such as the symbol @. One character
takes 1 byte of memory. Therefore, the string ‘the’ would take 3 bytes, and the symbol @
would only take 1 byte.

Original The word the, is the most frequently used word 71 characters
uncompressed text in the English language. (bytes)

@ word @, is @ most frequently used word in 63 characters

Compressed text
@ English language. (bytes)

This is an 11% reduction in the file size!

Lossy compression

Lossy compression is a technique that compresses the file size by discarding some of the
data. The technique aims to reduce the amount of data that needs to be stored.

The following versions of the WJEC logo show how much of the data can be discarded, and
how the quality of the images deteriorate as the data that made up the original is discarded.
Typically, a substantial amount of data can be discarded before the result is noticeable to
the user. The compression ratio is calculated using the simple formula below:

𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

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Original image 100 kB Compressed image 10 kB Original image 5 kB

(compression ratio =
100/10 = 10 or 10:1)
File size File size File size

Lossy compression is also used to compress multimedia data, such as sound and video,
especially in applications that stream media over the internet.

Network policies

Acceptable use

Network policies are documents written to outline the rules that users are required to
follow while using a computer network. Each document is often several pages long, written
and agreed by a committee. Following its publication, network users will be expected to
adhere to the rules.

Typical rules set out in these policies include a list of unacceptable types of website that
should not be visited and activities that are not allowed on the network, such as gambling
and installation of unauthorised software.

Disaster recovery

Given the amount of important data often stored on a computer network, it is essential that
an effective disaster recovery policy be in place. Disasters include:

• fire, flood, lightning, terrorist attacks etc.

• hardware failure, e.g. power supply unit failing
• software failure, e.g. virus damage
• accidental and malicious damage, e.g. hacking.

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There are usually three parts to a disaster recovery policy:

• before the disaster: risk analysis, preventative measures and staff training
• during the disaster: staff response – implementing contingency plans
• after the disaster: recovery measures, purchasing replacement hardware,
reinstalling software, restoring data from backups.

Backups
INTERESTING FACT
A backup is a copy of data that can be used if the original Key causes of data loss are:
data is lost. • 78% hardware failure
• 11% human error
Backups of all data should be made regularly as the older • 7% software failure
the backed up data becomes, the less likely it is to match • 2% computer viruses
• 1% other.
any current data stored on a computer system.

A backup policy sets out how often and to what medium backups are made. The backup
medium is generally different to the active storage medium. Historically, the medium used
was magnetic tape backup.

A typical backup policy would require that three different backups be kept at any given
time, with one of these being stored off-site. The oldest backup copy would be named the
grandfather, the second oldest backup being named the father and the most recent backup
being called the son. When a new backup is made, the oldest backup, the grandfather is
overwritten and becomes the son backup, with the original son becoming the father and the
father becoming the grandfather. This backup policy is called the grandfather-father-son
method.

Archiving

Data held on computer systems is often archived. Archiving is the process of storing data
that is no longer in current or frequent use. It is held for security, legal or historical reasons.
The process of archiving data frees up resources on the main computer system and allows
faster access to data that is in use.

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Cybersecurity
Online networks are vital to many business
INTERESTING FACT
operations, but they are liable to attacks
In October 2013, the email addresses and
targeted to access confidential data, such as
passwords of 150 million users, and credit card
customers’ details or technical information data for 2.9 million users, were stolen from
about products, etc. This level of data is very Adobe’s network.
expensive to gather and its loss could result in
loss of reputation and even business failure.

Cybersecurity refers to the range of measures

INTERESTING FACT that can be taken to protect computer systems,
The usernames, encrypted passwords networks and data from unauthorised access or
and email addresses of 145 million users cyberattack. Cyberattacks are carried out using
were stolen from eBay. No payment
various types of malware (malicious software),
information was taken.
including:

Viruses – programs that can replicate themselves

and be spread from one system to another by attaching themselves to host files. They are
used to modify or corrupt information on a targeted computer system.

Worms – self-replicating programs that identify vulnerabilities in operating systems and

enable remote control of the infected computer.

Spyware – installed by opening attachments or Keyloggers are a type of spyware that can
downloading infected software. Spyware can be be used to track keystrokes and capture
used to collect stored data without the user’s passwords and account numbers for
knowledge. fraudulent use.

Trojans – programs that appears to perform a Parents can use keylogger software to
useful function, but also provide a ‘backdoor’ monitor their children’s online activity.
that enables data to be stolen.

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Protection against malware

INTERESTING FACT
Install virus protection software, also
Some advanced viruses attempt to evade the virus
called anti-virus software. This is a protection software by changing their own code so
program that can be loaded into they no longer match the “signature” in the virus
memory when the computer is running. signature database.
It monitors activity on a computer These are known as polymorphic viruses.
system for the signs of virus infection.
Each virus has its own unique ‘signature’ that is known to virus protection software and
stored in a database. Data stored on a computer system is scanned to see if any of the virus
signatures within the database exist on the system.

There are many thousands of known viruses, and new viruses are created daily. Virus
protection software therefore needs to be updated regularly to combat these.

Use a firewall. A firewall can be a software or hardware security system that controls the
incoming and outgoing network traffic. Packets of data are analysed to determine whether
they should be allowed through or not.

The internet

1 4 5

7 6

10

The basic function of a firewall is to monitor where data has come from and where it is
going, and determine if this communication is allowed. It does this by checking a list of
pre-defined rules.

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 Keep your operating system up to
INTERESTING FACT
date. New ways to bypass the
In May 2017 the NHS was attacked by the WannaCry
operating system’s built-in security
virus (WanaCrypt0r 2.0 / WCry). This infection held
user files at ransom. It happened because NHS are often discovered and can be
systems were still using Windows XP which had gone covered by installing the security
out of date in 2014. patches issued by the operating
system manufacturer.

Use the latest versions of web browsers. As with operating systems, the manufacturers of
web browsers seek to continually improve their products and remove possible security
vulnerabilities. Most browsers will download updates automatically, but will need a restart
for the update to be installed.

Look out for phishing emails. Emails that ask you to confirm personal details are usually
fakes. They should be caught by the spam filter, but be suspicious and do not provide any
sensitive information.

If you suspect you have malware on your computer you will need to download and run a
malicious software removal tool that should detect and remove malware not blocked by
the anti-virus software.

Forms of cyberattack

Internet protocols, operating systems and network equipment all present inherent technical
weaknesses that must be recognised and protected against. User behaviour can also
compromise security, e.g. sending sensitive documents to unintended recipients, opening
malicious attachments to scam emails or using the same passwords for multiple systems.
Specific forms of attack include:

Shoulder surfing – using direct observation to get information. It is relatively simple to stand
next to someone and watch as they fill out a form, or enter a PIN number, but shoulder
surfing can also be carried out long distance with the aid of binoculars or even CCTV.

SQL injection – a technique where malicious users can inject SQL commands into an SQL
statement, via web page input. Injected SQL commands can alter SQL statements and
compromise the security of information held in a database.

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Denial of service (DoS) attacks – they do not attempt to break system security, they
attempt to make your website and servers unavailable to legitimate users, by swamping a
system with fake requests – usually in an attempt to exhaust server resources.
A DoS attack will involve a single internet
connection. Distributed denial of service Carphone Warehouse data breach DDoS – 2015
(DDoS) attacks are launched from multiple In July 2015, major UK smartphone retailer
Carphone Warehouse suffered a serious data
connected devices that are distributed
breach. It later transpired that this might have
across the internet. These multi-person, been aided using a DDoS 'distraction' attack. Up
multi-device attacks target the network to one in five DDoS incidents are later found to
infrastructure in an attempt to saturate it be part of a data theft snatch in which IT staff
are occupied fending off the DDoS, giving
with huge volumes of traffic. attackers more opportunity to sneak in and out.

Password-based attacks – passwords are a

good starting point, but are they secure?
Cyber criminals have ways of finding out your password.

This uses a simple file containing words found in a

Dictionary attack dictionary. This attack uses exactly the kind of words that
many people use as their password.
Similar to the dictionary attack but able to detect
Brute force attack non-dictionary words by working through all possible
alphanumeric combinations from aaa1 to zzz10. It’s not
quick, but it will uncover your password eventually.
A user-generated password is unlikely to be random.
Guess Passwords are likely to be based upon our interests,
hobbies, pet names, family names etc. Educated guesses
often work.

IP spoofing – a spoof is a hoax, or a trick. IP address spoofing involves an attacker changing

the IP address of a legitimate host so that a visitor who types in the URL of a legitimate site
is taken to a fraudulent or spoofed web page. The attacker can then use the hoax page to
steal sensitive data, such as a credit card number, or install malware.

Social engineering – internet users frequently receive messages that request password or
credit card information to “set up their account”. Social engineering involves tricking a user
into giving out sensitive information such as a password, by posing as a legitimate system
administrator.

Examples of social engineering attacks carried out by deception include phishing, which is an
attempt to acquire users’ details using fake emails and websites, and pharming, where users

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are unknowingly re-directed to a fake website, again with the intention of committing
identity theft.

Identifying vulnerabilities

Footprinting – this is the first step in the evaluation of the security of any computer system.
It involves gathering all available information about the computer system or network and
the devices that are attached to it. Footprinting should enable a penetration tester to
discover how much detail a potential attacker could find out about a system and allow an
organisation to limit the technical information about its systems that is publicly available.

Ethical hackings – this is carried out with the permission of the system owner to cover all
computer attack techniques. An ethical hacker attempts to bypass system security and
search for any weak points that could be exploited by malicious hackers. This information is
then used by the system owner to improve system security.

Penetration testing – this is a subset of ethical hacking that deals with the process of
testing a computer system, or network, to find vulnerabilities an attacker could exploit. The
tests can be automated with software applications or they can be performed manually.
Penetration testing strategies include:

• targeted testing – testing carried out by the organisation's ITC team and the
penetration testing team working together
• external testing, to find out if an outside attacker can get in and how far they can get
in once they have gained access
• internal testing, to estimate how much damage a dissatisfied employee could cause
• blind testing, to simulate the actions and procedures of a real attacker by severely
limiting the information given to the team performing the test.

Protecting software systems

Secure by design

This is an approach that seeks to make software systems as free of vulnerabilities as possible
through such measures as continuous testing and adherence to best programming practices. At the
design stage, malicious practices are taken for granted and it is assumed that the new system will
have invalid data entered or will be the subject of hacking attempts. These issues are taken into
account and corresponding security measures are considered to ensure security is not an
afterthought. This reduces the need for addressing vulnerabilities and patching security holes as
they are discovered in use.

Some examples of attacks that should be prevented during design and testing include:

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Buffer overflow attacks – a buffer overflow occurs when a program tries to store more data
in a buffer (temporary data storage area) than it was intended to hold. This may occur
accidentally through programming error, or it may be caused intentionally in a buffer
overflow attack, where the overflow data may contain codes designed to change data, or
disclose confidential information. Thorough testing, particularly of any library routines used,
will help prevent this type of attack.

Permissions – every time you want to install an app, you are asked to give permission for
the software to access certain settings and features of your device, e.g. the Facebook
Messenger App, which boasts over 1,000,000,000 downloads, requires permission to access
a large amount of personal data and requires direct control over your mobile device. It is
unlikely that many of those who downloaded this app read the full ‘Terms of Service’ before
accepting them. It is not always easy to understand what you are permitting an app to do.
Should you uninstall an app because its permissions are suspicious?

App developers are keen to develop interactive products that are useful, but they need to
consider the scope of access and limit the number of permissions required at the design
stage. There are malicious apps, but you can avoid them by using common sense.

Scripting restrictions – Same Origin Policy (SOP) is a security measure that prevents a
website's scripts from accessing and interacting with scripts used on other sites. Running
scripts from other sites would be dangerous because a malicious script from a compromised
site could interact with a script from a legitimate site without restriction, potentially leading
to malware infections or sensitive data being compromised.

A programmer can control the range and type of scripts allowed by setting the restrictions
in an HTML web page header for example, or by using standard script execution settings
such as unrestricted, trusted, restricted etc.

Accepting parameter without validation – dynamically generated HTML web pages can
introduce security risks if inputs are not validated on the way in. Malicious script can be
embedded within input that is submitted to web pages and this could then appear to
browsers as originating from a trusted source.

Approaches to prevent this type of cross-site scripting attack rely on the design of validation
rules that will check and filter input parameters.

The role of cookies

Cookies are data stored on a computer system. They allow websites to store a small amount
of uniquely identifying data on your computer system while you are visiting. This may be
useful as the website can then identify you in future without requesting that you identify

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yourself each time, i.e. by entering a username and password. Another use of a cookie
would be when adding items to a shopping basket over a period of time. The cookie allows
you to store this information between separate browsing sessions.

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10. Ethical, legal and environmental
impacts of digital technology
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with right and wrong. What is good for
an individual and what is good for society as a whole? Developments arising from computer
science and the resulting digital technologies produce ethical implications for individuals
and society. These implications are not always obvious and sometimes lead to unanticipated
problems.

The Digital Divide

The digital divide is a term that refers to the gap between populations that have full access
to modern information and communications technology, and those who have restricted
access. It is used mainly to describe the split between those with and those without
broadband internet access.

The divide traditionally exists between those in cities and those in rural areas; between the
educated and the uneducated; between socioeconomic groups; and globally, between the
more and less industrially developed nations. Even among populations with some access to
technology, the digital divide can be evident in the form of lower-performance computers
and lower-speed connections.

The next billion people coming online will do so from cheap mobile phones. While the cost
of phone services is falling globally, fixed broadband which is typically more reliable and
faster than cellular connections, is becoming more expensive in the poorest countries.

Some UN statistics from 2015:

• For the least developed countries, the average broadband cost grew by more than
30%, “a sharp increase that will certainly not improve the already very low uptake of
fixed-broadband in the world’s poorest countries.”

• 43.4% of the world’s population used the internet in 2015, but that figure fell to
9.5% for the least developed countries.

• Women in low and middle income countries were 21% less likely to own a mobile
phone, helping perpetuate inequality between men and women.

• 8% of females used the internet in 2015 compared with 11.3% of males.

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The UN has set goals for broadband services to cost no more than 5% of average monthly
incomes in developing countries by 2020, and to achieve gender equality among internet
users by 2020.

Do you think achieving these the goals will be enough to close the digital divide?
Who should provide the technology and meet the cost?

The ‘World Development Report 2016: Digital Dividends’ from the World Bank
(http://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/wdr2016) says:

“Digital technologies have spread rapidly in much of the world. Digital dividends – that is,
the broader development benefits from using these technologies – have lagged behind. In
many instances, digital technologies have boosted growth, expanded opportunities, and
improved service delivery. Yet their aggregate impact has fallen short and is unevenly
distributed. For digital technologies to benefit everyone everywhere requires closing the
remaining digital divide, especially in internet access. But greater digital adoption alone will
not be enough.”

What other measures will be required to close the digital divide?

Some example discussion topics

Drones

The idea of remotely controlled unmanned vehicles flying through the air either raises
concerns over personal privacy, or leads us to consider citizens who live in fear of drones
used for military purposes.

NASA have successfully tested a prototype system that allows unpiloted drones to detect
and avoid other aircraft in their midst. The agency’s drones are able to sense when
something was in their flight path and make adjustments on their own.

In the UK, the Civil Aviation Authority is warning that drones being flown as high up as
2,000ft are putting passenger aircraft in danger. Drones can be used to monitor pollution
levels and track wildlife poachers. Should their use be controlled?

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Self-driving cars

Standard features on many ordinary cars include intelligent cruise control, parallel parking
programs, and even automatic overtaking – features that allow you to sit back and let a
computer do the driving.

Many car manufacturers are beginning to design cars that take the driving out of your hands
altogether. It is claimed that these cars will be safer, cleaner, and more fuel-efficient than
their manual counterparts, but can they ever be perfectly safe?

The idea of the computer controlling the car raises some ethical questions. How should the
computer be programmed to act in the event of an unavoidable accident? Should it
minimize the loss of life, even if it means sacrificing the occupants, or should it protect the
occupants at all costs?

Artificial Intelligence

Google's AlphaGo computer learned to play Go at an expert level by watching people

compete and then simulating millions of its own games against itself. It eventually became
good enough to defeat even the best software that had been pre-programmed to play Go.
In October, Google pitted AlphaGo against Fan Hui, the best player in Europe. They played
five games. The computer won all of them. In 2016 AlphaGo defeated multiple world
champion Lee Sedol, 4 games to 1.

Neuromorphic chips configured more like brains than traditional chips make computers far
more astute about what is going on around them – computers that learn by experience.
New generation robotics can react without pre-programming. The possibility of creating
thinking machines raises a host of ethical issues relating both to ensuring that such
machines do not harm humans and to the moral status of the machines themselves. If
something goes wrong who is responsible? Should it be the robot's programmer, designer,
manufacturer, human overseer or his superiors?

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Issues of privacy and cybersecurity
Causes of loss of privacy:

• The monitoring of online activity, including browsing histories and use of social
media.

Consider. In 2014, the world discovered that the US security agency NSA had been
spying on the communications of millions of its own citizens. In 2014 the UK
government amended the Computer Misuse Act to provide a new exception for law
enforcement and GCHQ to hack without criminal liability. This was done without
public consultation or any debates over mass surveillance.

• The interception and reading of email messages.

One ethical problem that relates to the private communications of an individual involves the
interception and reading of email messages which is often justified in terms of security.

• Distribution of databases storing personal information.

The individual may not be aware of the extent of the personal information being
distributed, or who has access to the database, or whether the information is accurate.

Consider. Genome-based treatment, based on wider and cheaper availability of

genome data, will provide new and personalised ways of fighting life-threatening
diseases. However, privacy risks associated with data storage of genome data will
invariably arise, particularly as such databases are often shared for security reasons
(for example, between international police forces), increasing the possibility of
hacking or abuse by authorities.

• Theft of private information by hackers.

In the handling and processing of November 2014 – hackers leak a release of

private and personal information confidential data from Sony Entertainment,
organisations are confronted with including personal information about employees
several ethical issues: and their families, salaries, internal emails and
copies of unreleased films.

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 • deciding on the scope of personal and private information they can gather
• the confidential treatment of such information
• the accuracy of information – who checks that the information is correct
• the purposes for which various categories of information may be used
• the rights of a person – the question of consent.

February 2016 – there was confrontation between Apple and the FBI over a dead terrorist’s
iPhone. The FBI wanted Apple to write new code that would unlock an iPhone belonging to
a dead terrorist. Apple refused, arguing they should not be forced to weaken the iPhone’s
encryption in the name of national security, as this would compromise the privacy of its
customers and the strength of its product security.

Codes of Conduct
A code of ethics, or code of conduct, defines acceptable behaviour within an organisation.
Higher standards are generally promoted when a code of ethics is accepted and followed by
members of an organisation. It is useful as individuals working for the organisation have a
benchmark upon which they can judge their own behaviour and that of others.

Informal and formal codes

Most small organisations do not have a formal written code of ethics. Instead, they rely on
senior members of staff to lead by example, showing what acceptable behaviour is.
Members understand the informal code by observing how senior members conduct
themselves, e.g. the type of language used in emails and behaviour towards clients.

Formal codes are written documents that outline expected behaviours within an
organisation. Formal codes of ethics are usually enforced by the threat of disciplinary action
should the code not be adhered to. Each code of ethics is different and usually reflects an
organisation’s ethos, values and business style. Some codes are short and set out general
guidelines, whereas other codes are large documents that include a variety of aspects
relating to an organisation’s values, ethics, objectives and responsibilities.

An individual’s own personal code

An individual’s own personal code often supersedes the bare minimum requirements of an
organisations ethics code. An individual’s own personal code will vary from person to person
as they choose to act upon their own ethical standards in their everyday actions.

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Legislation relevant to computing
Many pieces of legislation govern the use of computer systems. Relevant examples of
legislation include:

• The Computer Misuse Act (CMA) 1990

• The Freedom of Information Act 2000
• The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (RIPA) 2000
• The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) 2018

The Computer Misuse Act (CMA) 1990

When the use of computer systems became widespread, the Computer Misuse Act (CMA)
1990 was put in place to help combat issues arising from their misuse.

The Act makes it an offence to:

• access data without permission, e.g. looking at someone else's files

• access computer systems without permission, e.g. hacking
• alter data stored on a computer system without permission, e.g. writing a virus that
deliberately deletes data.

The Freedom of Information Act 2000

The main principle behind freedom of information legislation is that people have a right to
know about the activities of public authorities, unless there is a good reason for them not to
have this information.

Most countries operate some form of freedom of information law. In the UK it is the
Freedom of Information Act 2000. The Act provides public access to information held by
public authorities in two ways:

1. Public authorities are obliged to publish certain information about their activities.
2. Members of the public are entitled to request information from public authorities.

The Act covers any recorded information that is held by a public authority in England, Wales
and Northern Ireland, and by UK-wide public authorities based in Scotland.

There are some exemptions, including information held for criminal investigations or
relating to correspondence with the royal family, and where disclosure may cause a specific
type of harm, such as endangering health and safety, prejudicing law enforcement or
prejudicing someone’s commercial interests.

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The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (RIPA) 2000

The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (RIPA) 2000 is an Act that regulates the powers
of public bodies to carry out surveillance and investigation. It also regulates the interception
of communications.

The purpose of the Act is to provide clear legal guidelines for organisations, such as the
security services and the police, to carry out surveillance and access the digital
communications of individuals, such as email, telephone calls, text messages etc. It also
makes it a crime for anyone who is not authorised under the Act to carry out surveillance
and monitoring of communications.

The aim of allowing certain organisations to intercept communications is to:

• prevent or detect crimes
• prevent public disorder from occurring
• ensure national security and the safety of the general public
• investigate or detect any abnormal or illegal use of telecommunication systems.

Concerns around privacy

Only nine organisations, including the police and the Ministry of Defence, were allowed to
intercept and monitor electronic communications when the Act was originally passed in
2000. Thousands of organisations now have this right.

There are a number of people who regard the RIPA as a threat to our privacy. There are
increasing concerns that the RIPA is being misused by organisations, and that it no longer
adheres to its original purpose of primarily upholding the law and protecting national
security.

The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) 2018

In 2018, the Data Protection Act 1998 was repealed and replaced with the GDPR 2018; a
new european-wide law that sets out data protection principles and the main
responsibilities of organisations who store data.

The GDPR applies to all ‘personal data’. Personal data is classed as any information relating
to a person who can be directly or indirectly identified.

This definition provides for a wide range of personal identifiers that constitute personal
data, including name, identification number, location data or an online identifier, reflecting
changes in technology and the way organisations collect information about people.

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Principles

The GDPR requires personal data to be:

• processed lawfully, fairly and in a transparent manner in relation to individuals
• collected for specified, explicit and legitimate purposes and not further processed in a
manner that is incompatible with those purposes
• adequate, relevant and limited to what is necessary in relation to the purposes for which
it is processed
• accurate and, where necessary, kept up to date; every reasonable step must be taken to
ensure that inaccurate personal data, with regard to the purposes for which it is
processed, is erased or rectified without delay
• kept in a form which permits identification of data subjects for no longer than is
necessary for the purposes for which the personal data is processed
• processed in a manner that ensures appropriate security of the personal data, including
protection against unauthorised or unlawful processing and against accidental loss,
destruction or damage, using appropriate technical or organisational measures.

The individual’s rights

The GDPR provides the following rights for individuals.

1. The right to be informed

• Individuals have the right to be informed about the collection and use of their
personal data.
• Organisations must provide individuals with information including the purpose of
processing their personal data, retention periods for that personal data, and who it
will be shared with.

2. The right of access

• Individuals have the right to access their personal data. They can request the data
verbally or in writing.
• Organisations have one month to respond to a request.
• Organisations cannot charge a fee to deal with a request in most circumstances.

3. The right to correction

• The GDPR includes the right for individuals to have inaccurate personal data
corrected, or completed if it is incomplete.

4. The right to erasure

• The GDPR introduces the right for individuals to have personal data erased. This right
is also known as ‘the right to be forgotten’.

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 • Individuals can request erasure of their data verbally or in writing.

5. The right to restrict processing

• Individuals have the right, in certain circumstances, to request the restriction of their
personal data.
• When processing is restricted, organisations are permitted to store the personal
data, but not use it.

6. The right to data portability

• The right to data portability allows individuals to obtain and reuse their personal
data for their own purposes across different services.
• It allows them to move, copy or transfer personal data easily from one IT
environment to another in a safe and secure way, without affecting its usability.
• Doing this enables individuals to take advantage of applications and services that can
use this data to find them a better deal or help them understand their spending
habits.

7. The right to object

• The GDPR gives individuals the right to object to the processing of their personal
data in certain circumstances.
• Individuals have an absolute right to stop their data from being used for direct
marketing purposes.
• Organisations must tell individuals about their right to object.

8. Rights in relation to automated decision making and profiling

• The GDPR has provisions for making a decision solely by automated means, without
any human involvement.
• Individuals also have rights regarding profiling, which is the automated processing of
personal data to evaluate certain things about an individual.

Exemptions

There are several exemptions that can apply to the GDPR, where it is a necessary and
proportionate measure to safeguard the following:
• national security
• defence
• public security
• the prevention, investigation, detection or prosecution of criminal offences
• other important public interests, in particular economic or financial interests, including
budgetary and taxation matters, public health and security
• the protection of judicial independence and proceedings

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• breaches of ethics in regulated professions
• monitoring, inspection or regulatory functions connected to the exercise of official
authority regarding security, defence, other important public interests or crime/ethics
prevention
• the protection of the individual, or the rights and freedoms of others, or the
enforcement of civil law matters.

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Environmental impacts
The technologies we use every day consume a lot of resources and power and can present
health hazards such as obesity and RSI arising from technology addiction.

Building the hardware can cause harm to the environment, including air, water, heat and
noise pollution arising from manufacturing processes and the use of non-renewable
resources, including precious metals such as gold used in circuitry.

Carbon emissions are released into the atmosphere when electricity created from burning
fossil fuels is used. Creating electricity takes a lot of resources, and it can be expensive to
use it. It is sensible to reduce how much you use, by taking measures, such as:

• turning off computers and peripherals when not in use

• adjusting the settings of your power options to help minimise power consumption
• choosing more energy efficient and environmentally friendly options, e.g.:
o laptop computers use 75% less power than desktop machines
o monitors account for up to half of the energy used by a computer, and the
larger the monitor, the more power it uses
o ink jet printers use about 90% less energy than laser jets
o any product that earns the Energy Star label uses 30% to 75% less electricity
than a standard product.

Landfill

Old computers get thrown out when they become out-dated. They contain all sorts of
hazardous materials that need to be disposed of using special methods. Otherwise, the
waste would become landfill.

Most electronics contain non-biodegradable materials and heavy metals and toxic materials
like cadmium, lead and mercury. Over time, these toxic materials can leak into the ground,
where they can contaminate water, plants and the animals that live around the area. Many
countries have banned technology products from landfills.

Increased populations

The negative impacts of technology on society include increased pollution and the depletion
of scarce resources. A further negative impact arises from improving health research,
helping people to live longer, resulting in an increase in population.

This is good news for people in developed countries, but causes problems in developing
countries that may not be in a position to access the healthcare benefits brought about by

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technology. In these countries, mortality rates remain high, food is scarce and healthcare is
poor.

Repair or Recycle?

Before throwing away old computers or mobile devices, consider repairing or recycling
them. There are many charities that will try to refurbish and repair old computer equipment
and then donate the equipment to worthwhile causes, either at home or abroad.

Repairing prolongs the life of the equipment, delaying the need to manufacture a
replacement. Recycling is also an environmentally friendly solution that allows components,
such as precious metals, to be retrieved and reused.

Before donating a machine for repairing or recycling it is important to remove all your
files and data from it. The recycle bin only partially removes the information – you need to
run a special program that erases your hard drive.

Waste from paper and packaging

You can reduce waste paper by thinking twice about printing documents, email messages,
pictures and things you find on the Web. Buy paper that is made from recycled products and
recycle the paper you use. Software companies are reducing their waste by offering their
products as an online download instead of selling it in a box.

Positive impacts of technology on the environment

Advances in computer technology have produced many positive impacts on society,

including:

• the development of new materials and processes that are sustainable and do not harm
the environment
• enabling the study of our environment to better understand how it works and the
impact of our actions on it
• smarter technologies that respond to how we use them and adjust themselves to reduce
their environmental impact
• helping experts from all fields share their research, experience and ideas to come up
with better solutions
• communications that reduce the environmental impact people would normally have due
to traveling
• improved education, including distance learning and visual learning using integrated
technologies.

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Unit 2
1. Problem Solving
Programmers can only write programs for computers to solve problems if they understand
how to solve the problem themselves. This means that a programmer has to have a toolkit
of different methods they can use to consider the ways in which the problem can be solved.

To write successful problem solutions, programmers must develop good computational

thinking skills that will help them break the problem down into manageable chunks and
simplify the situation.

Computational thinking

To be able to represent a problem as a set of steps that can be carried out by a computer
requires good computational thinking skills. These steps could be presented as algorithms.

Decomposition

Programmers use a technique called decomposition to break a large program down into a
series of sub-problems.

The starting point is to decompose the large problem so that each

sub-problem is described in the same level of detail and can be
solved independently from the other sub-problems. The solutions
to the sub-problems can then be brought together to provide a
solution to the whole problem.

One of the advantages of decomposition is that different people

can work on different sub-problems. However, a disadvantage would be that the solutions
to the sub-problems might not come together to provide a solution to the whole problem.

Example problem

A school has decided to introduce a smart card system for its pupils to pay for food and
drinks in the school’s dining hall. It has asked a programmer to design the system for the
school.

The whole problem is the introduction of the smart card system but the programmer must
break the problem down into manageable chunks. The system must be able to:

• allow parents to add money to their child’s smart card

• allow pupils to pay for their food and drink
• update the amount of money remaining on the card.

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So now the programmer has three sub-problems, but each of the three is quite complex and
can be broken down further.

'Allow parents to add money to their child’s smart card' can be broken down into the
following problems:

• add money over the internet

• add money by giving cash or a cheque to the pupil, to take to the school office
• add money by allowing the pupil to use a cash-loading machine in the dining hall.

'Add money over the internet' can be broken down into the following problems:

• logon to the school’s payment system

• identify the child who uses the smart card
• enter the details of the bank card to be used for payment
• confirm the payment
• logoff from the school’s payment system.

Logon to system

Identify child

Add money over Enter bank card

the internet details

Add money to Use cash or Confirm

card cheque payment

Smart Card Use cash loading Log off from

Pay for food
System machine system

Update amount

This process has broken part of the problem into distinct sub-problems that can be solved
and combined to form part of the solution to the original problem.

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Abstraction

Abstraction is a technique to reduce something to the simplest set

of characteristics that are most relevant to solving the problem.

The programmer has to concentrate on the most important aspects

of the problem without worrying about fine details.

A simple example of abstraction

I want to create a program to draw a square in Scratch. The

square must have four sides of 50 units with an angle of 90o
between each side. The code in Scratch looks like this:

There are a lot of repeated commands in the code. It can

be simplified by using a loop for the repeating code.

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This code can be defined as a procedure that can be called whenever it is needed.

So instead of considering a series of issues or commands, the problem has been simplified
to one procedure without all the unnecessary details that have been hidden.

Decomposition and abstraction are two ways of computational thinking that are used to
analyse complex problems. Computational thinking allows us to understand a complex
problem and present our analysis in a way that a human being can use to create a
computerised solution.

Variables
In computer programming, a variable may be required to store data that can change.
Variables are given identifiers (names) that should reflect the data being stored in them. An
example of a variable is txt_FirstName. This variable has a self-documenting identifier,
which implies the type of data being stored in it is text containing a person’s first name.

Constants
Constants are used in computer programming to store data that does not change. Constants
are also given self-documenting identifiers that should reflect the data being stored in them.
An example of a constant would be Pi = 3.14, as this is a self-documenting identifier that
does not change. A constant is usually written in capitals, e.g. ‘BOILING_POINT_OF_WATER
= 100’ as the boiling point of water never changes.

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Local and global variables

A local variable is a variable that is defined within a sub-procedure and as such is only
accessible from within that same sub-procedure. This is known as its scope. A global
variable is a variable that has a larger scope as it is defined globally and is therefore
accessible from anywhere within a program. The advantage of defining a local variable over
a global variable is that it is easier to track the changes to a variable, and the reason for the
changes when it is only used within a sub-procedure. An advantage of defining a global
variable over a local variable is that sometimes it can be the most efficient way of ensuring
that an important piece of data is accessible to all sub-procedures, e.g. the details of the
user currently logged into a program.

Below is an example of an algorithm that calculates the area of a circle:

An example of a global variable here is Radius as it can be accessed throughout the entire
program. An example of a local variable is Area. It is a local variable as it has been defined
within the sub-procedure called FindArea.

Can you spot the error with the following line from the algorithm above?

17 output “The area is ”, Area

How would you amend the algorithm to correct this problem?

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Static and dynamic variables

Each time a program is run, static variables are stored in a location in memory and have a
lifespan that lasts the entire time that program is running. For example, if you assign the
number 2.14 to a static variable (and do not change it), the static variable will still contain
2.14 the next time you run the sub-procedure and until the whole program stops running.

Each time a dynamic variable is defined, it is assigned a new location in memory and has a
lifespan that ends when the sub-procedure in which it was defined ends. For example, if you
assign the number 2.14 to a dynamic variable in a sub-procedure (and do not change it) and
the sub-procedure ends, the next time you run that sub-procedure, the dynamic variable
will no longer contain any value.

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2. Algorithms and programming constructs
In programming, an algorithm is a set of instructions that can be used to solve a given
problem. The instructions must be clear and in the correct order to produce the solution.
These instructions will be the starting point for writing a computer program to solve the
given problem.

An algorithm should not be in computer code. It should be presented in a way that it can be
used in different programming languages. We are going to present algorithms as pseudo
code or flowcharts. Pseudo code is a way of writing instructions in plain English. A flowchart
is a diagram showing the instructions to be carried out in the order they should be carried
out.

Here is an algorithm to add together two numbers and output their total shown as a
flowchart and in pseudo code.

A good algorithm should:

• be finite – if an algorithm never ends trying to solve the problem, it is not going to be
of use
• have well defined instructions – each step of the algorithm should be clear so that it
can be carried out exactly as intended
• be effective – the algorithm should give the correct result/solution to the problem.

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We are going to use the following rules for pseudo code and flow charts.

Construct Example usage

Declare subroutines Declare CapitalLetterOfName

End Subroutine
Call a subroutine call SubroutineNeeded
Declare and use arrays myarray[99]
Literal outputs output “Please enter a number"
Variable names myvariable
Define variable data type myvariable is integer
Data types integer, character, string,
Boolean, real
Assignment set counter = 0
Selection if … else … end if
Indent at least single space after if or do or if counter = 1
repeat etc. output counter
end if
Annotation {some annotation goes here}
Comments (for Java only) /** Comments for Java */
Repetition for i … next i
repeat … until
do … loop
do …while
while … repeat

Algorithms represented using a flowchart will use the following convention:

Start/Stop procedure

Decision box

Input/Output

Operation

Connector

Store/Subroutine call

Flow of control

(Arrowhead indicates
direction of flow)

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Sequence, selection and iteration
These are the three basic constructs we use to design algorithms.

Algorithms consist of a series of instructions in a specific order. This is the order or sequence
in which the instructions must be carried out for the algorithm to work. A computer can
only follow instructions in the order they are given. If the sequence is not right the
computer will still follow the order in which the instructions are given.

A selection instruction is one where a decision must be made. There are times when an
instruction in an algorithm may give different options.

Sometimes an algorithm will require a set of steps to be carried out more than once or
many times. This is called iteration and often referred to as a loop in the program.

If we want a program to repeat a set of two instructions four times we can use a ‘for i…next’
loop.

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Using count and rogue values with loops
All loops must eventually be terminated. Sometimes we won't know how many times we
will need the instructions in the loop to be used. If this is the case, we can control the
program by using a count or rogue value.

A count will record the number of times a process is carried out. When the count reaches
the required number, the loop will terminate.

A rogue value is a value that falls outside the range of possible values for the data being
processed. If we were calculating the average age of a class of children, we could set a rogue
value of -1 to stop the loop as no child can have a negative age.

Why is the ‘if . . .then’ statement

included in the algorithm?
A count can also be used to check whether a
condition has been met.

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A set of 30 test results is to be entered into a program. Each time the program is run the
teacher wants to know how many pupils had marks over 50.

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String handling
We are going to use the following rules in relation to pseudo code for string handling.

Construct Example usage

Variable names myvariable

Define variable as string myvariable is String

Length of string len (string)

Mid string where x is the offset and y is mid (string, start, length)
the length
Replace part of a string replace (string, find,
replacewith)
Compare two strings str(Comp (string1, string2)

Creating strings

To create a string, we need to define a variable as a string and assign a value to the variable.

greeting is String
greeting = “Hello from me!”
print greeting

Hello from me!

Measuring the length of a string

To find out how many characters are in a string, we use the ‘len’ command. Any keyboard
stroke is counted as a character so spaces and special characters like an exclamation mark
are counted as well as letters and numbers.

greeting is String
greeting = “Hello from me!”
length = len(greeting)
print length

13

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Returning all or part of a string

To discover the contents of all or part of a string, we have to use the ‘mid’ command.
Normally you would use the ‘len’ command to find out how long the string is before you
would use the ‘mid’ command.

txt is String
partMessage is String
txt = “Have a happy birthday”
partMessage = mid(txt, 8, 5)
print partMessage

happy

Replacing part of a string

To replace part of a string you need to use the ‘replace’ command.

txt is String
message is String
txt = “Have a happy birthday”
message = replace(txt, “happy”, “fantastic”)
print message

Have a fantastic birthday

txt is String
message is String
txt = “Have a happy birthday”
message = replace(txt, “a”, “xx”)
print message

Hxxve xx fxxntxxstic birthdxxy

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Comparing two strings

To compare the contents of two strings, we use the ‘str(Compare’ command. This command
will return a value of 0 (true) if the two strings are identical and a value of -1 (false) if they
are not.

txt1 is String
txt2 is String
response = Integer
txt1 = “Hello”
txt2 = “Hello”
response = str(Compare, txt1, txt2)
print response

Sometimes we just want to compare whether the content is identical, and not the use of
upper and lower case letters. We can add another parameter (1) to the ‘str(Compare’
command to carry out a textual comparison.

txt1 is String
txt2 is String
response = Integer
txt1 = “Hello”
txt2 = “hello”
response = str(Compare, txt1, txt2,1)
print response

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Joining strings together and adding text

The process of combining a string with text or combining two strings with or without
additional text is called concatenation. The example below combines someone’s first name
and surname with a welcome message.

txt1 is String
txt2 is String
concatString is String
txt1 = “Sarah”
txt2 = “Smith”
print “Welcome “ & txt1 & txt2

Welcome Sarah Smith

Sorting
INTERESTING FACT
A sorting algorithm will sort items in a list into a Data takes the longest to sort when it is in the
particular order, which may be alphabetic or reverse order of the order required. For
numeric. As sorting a large list of items can be example if data is sorted into ascending order
timely, computer algorithms have been developed when it needs to be sorted into descending
to do the work for us. order.

Merge Sort

The merge sort is a sorting technique based on the idea of ‘divide and conquer’. A merge
sort first divides a list into two equal halves and then combines them in a sorted list.

To understand how the merge sort works we will use a merge sort algorithm to sort the
following list:

37 14 10 27 24 19 44 35

We need to divide the list into two equal halves.

37 14 10 27 24 19 44 35

We then split the halves in half.

37 14 10 27 24 19 44 35

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We keep dividing the list until each list is a single item.

37 14 10 27 24 19 44 35

We then combine them in the same way they were divided but in order.

14 37 10 27 19 24 35 44

In the next move (iteration) we combine the lists to make lists of 4 sorted items.

10 14 27 37 19 24 35 44

After the final iteration the list should be fully sorted.

10 14 19 24 27 35 37 44

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The merge sort algorithm

The bubble sort

The bubble sort is a simple sorting algorithm. The algorithm is based on the comparison of
adjacent data items, swapping them if they are not in the correct order. The bubble sort is
not suitable for large sets of data.

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How the bubble sort works

The bubble sort starts with comparing the first two items, in this case 37 and 14. They are
out of order so they need to be swapped over.

Next we compare the 37 with 21. These two items need to be swapped.

Now we compare 37 with 27. Again these two items need to be swapped.

Comparing 37 with 19 means that the two items need to be swapped again.

After the first set of comparisons, know as an iteration, the list looks like this:

After the second iteration it will look like this:

Notice that after each iteration at least one item has moved to the correct position. After
the third iteration the list will look like this.

When an iteration results in no swaps being needed, the bubble sort is stopped.

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The bubble sort algorithm

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Searching
Searching for data is one of the basic operations of computing.

Linear search

The linear search is a very simple search algorithm. Each item in the data set is compared
with the search condition in sequence until the item is found or the end of the data set is
reached. As the items are compared in sequence the linear search is sometimes known as
the sequential search. The items in the list are not in any particular order within the data
set.

The test data included at line 15 would produce a successful search for the search item '45'.
The test data at line 16 would be unsuccessful as the search item '20' is not included in the
test data.

The linear search is not an efficient search. We can measure the efficiency of a search by
considering the number of comparisons that are made before the required item is found.
The items in the list are not ordered so the probability that the item we are looking for is in
any particular position is exactly the same for each position in the list. This means that we
may have to compare every item before we find the required one in the last position. We
would also have to search the entire list before we discovered that the item was not
included in the list.

Binary search

A more efficient method of searching a list of data is an algorithm known as the binary
search.

For a search to be more efficient it is necessary to sort the data into order. Once the data is
in order you can adopt methods that would not work on unordered data. Rather than

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starting the search at the beginning of the list, the search starts at the mid point of the list.
The data item is compared with the search item, with three possible outcomes:

• the item at the mid point will match the search item
• the search item will be less than the item at the mid point
• the search item will be greater than the item at the mid point.

If the search item is less than the item at mid point, then all the items after the mid point
can be ignored. Similarly if the search item is greater than the mid point then the first half of
the list can be discarded.

This process is then repeated on the remaining data time after time until the required item
is found.

This list has been sorted. We are going to search the list for the number 31.

11 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

To calculate the mid point we use this formula:

mid point = low + (high – low)/2

mid point = 0 + (8 – 0)/2
mid point = 4
With the mid point being 4, we need to compare our search item (31) with the data at
position 4 (29).

The search item is greater than the data at position 4, so we can discard the first part of the
list.

11 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

We need to recalculate the mid point:

mid point = 5 + (8 – 5)/2

mid point = 6.5
In this situation, the mid point is taken as the integer part of the result, so the mid point will
be 6.

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The search item is less than the data item at position 6 so we can discard the list from the
mid point upwards.

11 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

When we recalculate the mid point:

mid point = 5 + (5 – 5)/2

mid point = 5

The search item is now equal to the item at position 5. We have had to make 3 comparisons
to find the required data. This is far more efficient than a linear search. It is important to
remember that our examples have limited data. If you were searching through thousands of
data items, the difference between the two methods would be significant.

The binary search algorithm

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3. Programming languages
HyperText Markup Language (HTML)
Why HTML is important as a standard for web page creation
HTML is a standard used when creating web pages.

Web standards, such as HTML, are important in order to simplify the development of web
pages, so web programmers will be able to understand another developer’s code. It is also
important for the end users of web pages, as following standards ensures that different web
browsers are able to display web pages in the way in which they were intended.

Use of HTML tags and their closures

HTML tags commonly come in pairs, such as <html> and </html> or <b> and </b>. The first
tag in a pair is called the opening tag and the second tag is called the closing tag. Between
these tags, programmers can add text, more tags, comments and other types of text-based
content.
INTERESTING FACT
The purpose of a web browser, such as Browser use statistics (December 2018)
Internet Explorer, Google Chrome and Safari • Chrome 62.9%
is to read HTML code and render it on • Internet Explorer and Edge 7.1%
screen. The browser does not display the • Firefox 6.2%
• Safari 14.3%
HTML tags, but instead uses the tags to
• Opera 3.0%
interpret the content of the page.
• The text between the <html> and
</html> tags describes the web page.
• The <head> element is a container for all the head elements. The head elements can
include a title for the document, scripts, styles and meta information.
• Meta elements are used to describe the page, including key words, author of the
document and when the document was last altered.
• The text between <body> and </body> tags includes the contents of the web page.
• The <p> tag defines a paragraph. Web browsers will automatically add some space
before and after each <p> element.
• When an element within a web page is hyperlinked, it is placed within the
<a href=”url”> and </a> tags.
For example, <a href=”http://www.wjec.co.uk”>WJEC</a> will be displayed as WJEC.
• The <img> tag is slightly different, as it does not contain a closing tag. For example,
<img src="logo.gif"> will display the image file logo.gif.

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The table below shows how unformatted text will look when placed within the commonly
used formatting tags.

Command Opening Closing Unformatted text Formatted text

tag tag

<h1> to </h1> to Computer Computer

Headings
science
<h6> </h6>
science
Computer
Bold <b> </b> Computer science
science

Computer
Italic <i> </i> Computer science
science

Computer Computer science

Centre align <center> </center> science

Bulleted list

To create a list of bullet points, we need to use the tag for an unordered list, <ul>. For each
line, in the list we use the <li> tag.

For example:
<ul>
<li>Apples</li>
<li>Oranges</li>
<li>Pears</li>
</ul>

will display as:

• Apples
• Oranges
• Pears

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Blockquote

The Blockquote tag is used to specify a section that is quoted from another source. Web
browsers indent <blockquote> elements.

The horizontal rule tag, <hr>, is used to separate content in an HTML page.

For example:
<h2>HTML</h2>
<p> We use HTML to control the way a web page looks</p>
<hr>
<h3>XHTML</h3>
<p>XHTML stands for eXtensible HyperText Markup
Language</p>

will display as:

HTML
We use HTML to control the way a web page looks

XHTML
XHTML stands for eXtensible HyperText Markup Language

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Here is an example of how original text is formatted using HTML tags.

Original text

For Sale

Bluetooth Hands Free Car Kit

Make calls without wearing a headset with this Bluetooth v1.2 EDF Multipoint
Hands-free Speakerphone! Visit www.edfweb.com to see. Simply pair this
device to any Bluetooth enabled phone and talk hands-free today!

HTML
<html>

<body>

<h1><center>For Sale</center></h1>

<p> <b>Bluetooth Hands Free Car Kit</b></p>

<p>Make calls without wearing a headset with this Bluetooth

v1.2 EDF Multipoint Hands-free Speakerphone!</p>

<p>Visit <a href="http://www.edfweb.com/”>www.edfweb.com</a> to

see.</p>

<p><i> Simply pair this device to any Bluetooth enabled phone

and talk hands-free today! </i></p>

</body>

</html>

Formatted web page

For Sale
Bluetooth Hands Free Car Kit

Make calls without wearing a headset with this Bluetooth v1.2 EDF Multipoint
Hands-free Speakerphone!

Visit www.edfweb.com to see.

Simply pair this device to any Bluetooth enabled phone and talk hands-free
today!

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Assembly Language
PYTHON
Assembly language is a programming language that is
VB.NET
once removed from machine code. Machine code is made HIGH-LEVEL
up of 0s and 1s and is extremely difficult for a programmer LANGUAGE
to use. Assembly language has the same structure and ASSEMBLY
instruction set as the commands in machine code but they LANGUAGE
MACHINE CODE
use mnemonics (names) rather than binary code.
HARDWARE
Each type of computer has its own machine code and
assembly language. This means that a program written in
machine code for one CPU will not run on another type of CPU.

Computer programs were INITIALLY all written in low-level languages, but over time,
high-level languages have been developed that are closer to written English and easier to
use.

However, assembly language programs:

• require less memory and execution time
• allow code to interact directly with hardware, such as device drivers
• are suitable for time-critical processes.

Instruction Mnemonic What does it do?

Input INP Inputs a value and stores it in the

accumulator
Output OUT Displays the contents of the accumulator

Store STA Transfers a number from the accumulator to

RAM
Load LDA Transfers a number from RAM to the
accumulator
Add ADD Adds the contents of the accumulator to the
contents of a RAM address
Subtract SUB Subtracts the contents of the accumulator
from the contents of a RAM address
Branch BRA Jumps to the RAM location specified – used
for loops
End/Stop/Halt HLT Stops the processor
Data definition DAT Defines variables

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Some example programs

This is an assembly language program to add together two numbers.

INP ‘input a number

STA 99 ‘store the number in memory slot 99
INP ‘input a number
ADD 99 ‘add this number to the number stored in memory slot 99
OUT ‘output the result of the addition
HLT ‘halt/stop/end

This is an assembly language program for subtraction.

INP ‘input a number

STA first ‘store the number in a variable called 'first'
INP ‘input a number
STA second ‘store the number in a variable called 'second'
LDA first ‘load the number in the 'first' variable into the accumulator
SUB second ‘subtract the contents of the 'second' variable from the accumulator
OUT ‘output the number in the accumulator
first DAT ‘declare 'first' as a variable
second DAT ‘declare 'second' as a variable

Object oriented programming

Object oriented programming (OOP) can be viewed as a collection of objects that
communicate with each other.

To understand OOP we need to know about objects, classes, methods and instance
variables.

Object – an object has states and behaviours. Let’s think about

the little wombat from Greenfoot.

The wombat has states, i.e. a name and breed.

It also has behaviours, i.e. grunting, burrowing and moving.

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Class – a class is used to describe
one or more objects. The class is a
plan or template for creating
objects within a program. Each
object is created from a single
class but a class can be used to
create many objects. Each wombat
in a scenario will be a class instance (object).

Class names must always begin with an uppercase letter.

Methods – a method is a behaviour. One class can contain many methods such as the
wombat grunting, burrowing and moving. Method names must always begin with a
lowercase letter.

Instance variables – these are variables that are bound to class instances. Imagine that you
have created a Greenfoot game in which wombats eat leaves. Each wombat will have an
instance variable called leaves. This variable will record how many leaves each wombat has
eaten. Wombat1 could have eaten 4 leaves and Wombat2, 6 leaves. These are both values
of the instance variable but independent of each other.

Properties of OOP languages

OOP languages have four main properties that reduce the amount of code required in a
program. They are:

• Encapsulation – the process of wrapping data and the

code that operates on it into a single entity. The
variables and methods are wrapped up inside the
class.

• Abstraction – the process of

hiding non-essential features
and showing the essential
features.

The wombat’s states are

hidden from other objects
but its behaviours are not.

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• Inheritance – this allows a new class to use the properties and methods of another
existing class. The new (derived) class inherits the states and behaviours of the
existing (base) class. The derived class is also called the subclass and the base class is
called the superclass. In our example, Actor is the superclass and Wombat is the
subclass.

The subclass can have its own variables and methods in addition to those inherited
from the superclass. A superclass can have many subclasses but a subclass can
inherit from only one superclass.

• Polymorphism – this concept

allows actions to act differently
based on the object performing
the action.

One of the wombat’s behaviours

or actions is to grunt when it
makes a sound. We will call this
action makeSound(). The sheep
will bleat (Baaaa!!) when it
makes a sound. We can also call this action makeSound(). The makeSound() action
makes the wombat object grunt and the sheep object bleat. The action acts
differently depending on the object.

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 WHAT DO YOU NEED TO BE ABLE TO CODE IN GREENFOOT?

You should be able to:

• create new classes and extend existing classes
• create new objects and edit existing objects
• create new worlds and edit existing worlds
• write and invoke methods
• change existing methods
• create new properties and edit existing properties (including public, private,
static, etc.)
• add and remove objects from worlds
• use actors
• move objects around a world
• keyboard input
• add and play sounds
• implement and use parameter passing (by value and by reference)
• access one object from another
• implement object collision detection
• implement random number generation
• use the concept of inheritance and encapsulation.

You must use version 2.4.2

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4. Data structures and data types
USING DATA STRUCTURES AND DATA TYPES

You should be able to:

• Create new data structures including:-
o one-dimensional arrays
o two-dimensional arrays
o files and records.
• Implement data types including:-
o Integer
o Boolean
o Real
o Character
o String.
• Assign, identify and explain the use of constants and variables in
algorithms and programs.
• Describe the scope and lifetime of variables in algorithms and programs.

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5. Security and authentication
USING SECURITY TECHNIQUES

You should be able to:

• Use appropriate security techniques such as usernames and
passwords in algorithms and programs.
• Use appropriate authentication techniques.

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