I.

Precision application of fertilizer and its importance

Traditional farming methods heavily relied on widespread fertilizer application and

agricultural chemical use to boost crop yields. However, this approach led to
environmental contamination, soil degradation, and the presence of harmful residues on
agricultural products (Talha et al., 2012; Manikyam et al., 2022). Nowadays, consumers
are increasingly demanding safe agricultural products grown using minimal fertilizer
application in accordance with sustainable farming practices. Typically, fertilizers have
been applied manually by farm laborers, resulting in uneven distribution among plants
within the field (Manikyam et al., 2022). Maintaining a consistent rate of fertilizer
application can lead to uneven distribution across a field, causing some areas to be under-
fertilized while others are over-fertilized. Under-fertilization can result in reduced yields,
whereas over-fertilization typically boosts yields up to a certain point. However, excess
fertilizer is often inefficiently utilized or mobilized and can pose environmental risks
(Tola et al., 2008; Gurjar et al., 2017).

Fertilizer usage in India is disproportionately distributed (Chand and Pavithra 2015;

Pahalviet al., 2021), with the fertilizer industry being a significant source of heavy metals
and radionuclides such as cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni), lead
(Pb), copper (Cu), and natural radionuclides like U238, Th232, and Po210 (FAO 2009;
Sönmez et al. 2007; Pahalvi

et al., 2021). Fertilization practices can lead to the accumulation of heavy metals in the
soil system, subsequently allowing them to enter the food chain through plant absorption.
Large quantities of chemical fertilizers are utilized in greenhouses and aquaculture
operations during peak seasons. Prolonged use of chemical fertilizers has led to a decline
in agricultural soil quality, characterized by reduced soil organic matter (SOM) content,
increased environmental pollution, and soil acidity (Dinesh et al. 2010; Dar et al. 2016;
Pahalviet al., 2021). This degradation has become a significant concern (Chaudhry et al.,
2009; Bhat et al., 2017; Dervash et al., 2020; Mushtaq et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2020;
Pahalvi et al., 2021). Chemical fertilizers, containing salts as a major component, are
detrimental to both plants and soil health.

Utilizing fertilizer application in a scientific, logical, and efficient manner is crucial for
maximizing crop yield, enhancing grain production, and securing food supplies. This
approach is essential for achieving sustainable development in modern agriculture (Shi et
al., 2020). Addressing the issues associated with uneven fertilizer application, the
creation and advancement of precision fertilizer applicators have become essential. These
devices are designed to precisely distribute granular fertilizers at specified rates, ensuring
the desired results are met. Enhancing the accuracy and consistency of fertilizer
application, these instruments can enhance the efficiency and sustainability of crop
cultivation (Manikyam et al., 2022).

Precision Agriculture (PA) is a farming management concept based upon observing,

measuring and responding to inter and intra-field variability in crops (Zarco-Tejada –
Hubbard – Loudjani, 2014; Gyarmati et al.,2020). Precision agriculture (PA) integrates
various processes and farming practices such as soil cultivation, seeding, fertilization,
harvesting, and animal husbandry through the use of sensors.Variable Rate Technology
(VRT) is a significant component of precision agriculture, allowing for the application of
production inputs like fertilizers or seeds at tailored levels suited to specific management
zones. Typically, a VRT system consists of two main components: a subsystem for
determining tailored rates and a subsystem for implementing that rates (Yuan et al.,
2010).

Variable rate fertilization (VRF) is indispensable for the adoption of precision agriculture
and for optimizing the utilization of mineral fertilizers and nutrient management in crops
tailored to the characteristics of specific field locations. Variable-rate fertilization, serving
as a key technology and cornerstone of precision agriculture, offers a novel and efficient
approach to address the requirements of modern agricultural practices, particularly in
meeting the demands of "green planting" through customized inputs and balanced
fertilization (Shi et al., 2020).The technology has the potential to enhance fertilizer
utilization efficiency and minimize environmental impact. The objective of VRF is to
accurately apply tailored amounts of fertilizer to various locations in order to meet site-
specific management needs. In contemporary large-scale agriculture, the majority of
fertilizers is granular and should be applied to the soil at specific depths (Ning et al.,
2015). VRF is intricately associated with advanced digital technologies like Global
Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), Remote Sensing (RS), Geographic Information
Systems (GIS), tools for crop or soil mapping, machine learning, and remote as well as
proximal sensors capable of real-time measurement and prediction of crop and soil
attributes (Kazlauskas et al., 2021).

Van et al.(2000) proposed a precision N fertilization methodology for high-input

farming systems. This approach utilizes split fertilizer strategies and a mechanistic
simulation model to quantify soil mineral-N levels and N uptake rates in real-time. Early
warning signals prompt additional fertilizer application when N concentrations drop
below critical thresholds, which are dynamically defined based on actual uptake rates.
Experimental strips receiving precision fertilization showed a significant reduction in
fertilizer inputs (23% decreases) while slightly improving grain yields (3% increases) and
hectoliter weights (4% increase) compared to traditional fertilization methods.

Yang et al. (2001) compared uniform and variable rate fertilizer applications in grain
sorghum fields over two years. Variable rate treatment resulted in significantly higher
yields compared to uniform treatment (400 kg/ha higher in 1997 and 338 kg/ha higher in
1998). Coefficients of variation for yield were smaller with variable rate treatment.
Economic analysis showed positive relative returns for variable rate treatment ($27/ha in
1997 and $23/ha in 1998). Results suggest variable rate fertilization can increase yield,
reduce variability, and improve economic returns.

Basso et al.(2009) determined optimal nitrogen (N) fertilizer rates for specific
management zones identified through various techniques including yield maps, remote
sensing imagery, ground truth measurements, and electrical resistivity imaging. After
validation, the study simulated seven N rates ranging from 0 to 180 kg N/ha, with
increments of 30 kg N/ha. Results showed varied N responses for each zone, leading to
identification of optimal N rates based on agronomic, economic, and environmental
sustainability criteria. The analysis revealed different optimal N rates for each zone: 90-
120 kg N/ha for the High Yield Zone (HYZ), 90 kg N/ha for the Medium Yield Zone
(MYZ), and 60 kg N/ha for the Low Yield Zone (LYZ). Further increases in N rates for
MYZ and LYZ did not yield additional benefits. Optimal rates were determined not only
by maximizing yield but also by considering cost reduction and environmental impact
mitigation. Although 150 kg N/ha might have seemed optimal for HYZ based solely on
yield, considering environmental impact and marginal N value suggested that rates
between 90 and 120 kg N/ha were more appropriate. Similar analyses led to
recommended rates of 90 kg N/ha for MYZ and 60 kg N/ha for LYZ.

Romaneckasetal.(2015)compared conventional agriculture (CA) with precision

agriculture (PA) techniques in terms of their impact on soil fertility, nutrient distribution,
weed density, and the productivity and quality of spring wheat crops. In the PA system,
fertilization rates were determined based on soil electrical conductivity and crop stand
optical properties, while in CA, mineral fertilizers were applied uniformly before sowing.
Results showed that in PA conditions, spring wheat plants were well distributed and
effectively competed with weeds. Soil nutrient levels varied, with lower quantities of
P2O5 and K2O in PA soils compared to CA. Additionally, soil pH ranged from 6.5 to 7.4
in PA. The distribution of viable phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) in PA fields was
found to be more even compared to CA, although the overall quantities of P and K were
lower in PA soils. The average quantity of P was 142.4 mg·kg-1 in PA and 151 mg·kg-1
in CA, while the average quantity of K was 123.1 mg·kg-1 in PA and 160 mg·kg-1 in
CA. Sensor tests revealed that spring wheat stands were more developed in CA conditions
compared to PA. Theoretical maps suggested varying fertilization rates for different areas
within the PA field.

Stamatiadiset al.(2018) evaluated the performance of a variable-rate application

(VRA) system for granular fertilizer in a wheat field. Three treatment strips were tested:
preplant uniform application, preplant + in-season uniform farmer rate, and preplant + in-
season VRA. Crop monitoring included soil and plant analysis, water balance, and grain
yield assessment. Results showed that VRA reduced in-season N usage by 72% or total N
by 38% compared to farmer practices, without yield losses. VRA achieved a 58% N-use
efficiency, outperforming the farmer's practice (44%) and preplant control (52%). VRA
also yielded higher revenue over fertilizer costs, surpassing both preplant control and
farmer practice by €68/ha and €118/ha, respectively. VRA's return per unit of N was
equal to preplant application, but with lower leaching losses. The study found that VRA
adapted N application to canopy chlorophyll status, leading to improved efficiency and
profitability. Correlation analysis revealed that VRA supplied more N in areas of lower
soil fertility and plant productivity, resulting in better grain yield particularly in field
slopes. The economic optimum N rate (EONR) of VRA improved N-use efficiency by
6% to 14% compared to preplant and farmer applications.
 Dong et al.(2020) proposed a novel approach for precision fertilization in maize
cultivation using a wavelet-based backpropagation (BP) neural network. By combining
wavelet multi-resolution analysis with the robust non-linear approximation capabilities of
neural networks, the proposed method aims to achieve adaptive resolution and high fault
tolerance. The wavelet-BP neural network effectively predicts crop yield trends in
response to changes in fertilizer application, providing a basis for precise fertilization
management decisions. The research demonstrates that the wavelet-BP neural network
outperforms traditional BP neural networks, Support Vector Machine (SVM), and
Random Forest models in terms of accuracy and stability. By accurately predicting maize
yield based on soil nutrients and fertilization data, the proposed method facilitates optimal
fertilizer application to maximize yield or profit.

Baimuratovet al. (2021)examined the impact of mineral fertilization on three winter

wheat varieties' grain yields and NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) using
precision agriculture technologies. Different combinations of NPK fertilizers were
applied, and agrochemical cartograms were utilized to assess soil fertility. Results
indicated that the highest NDVI index was consistently observed with the N150P120K90
fertilizer combination across all three seasons and varieties. Multivariate analyses
highlighted the connection between fertilizer application, soil fertility, and grain yield.
Differential phosphorus fertilizer application was recommended due to field
heterogeneity. Grain yields varied between varieties and fertilizer combinations, with the
highest yields generally associated with the N150P120K90 treatment. Notably,
application of only phosphorus fertilizer significantly increased mean yield. High
concentrations of NPK fertilizers led to substantial yield increases compared to control
plots. The high fertilizer concentrations boosted NDVI indices and grain yields across all
three wheat varieties, suggesting the potential for using NDVI data to tailor fertilizer
application.

Roma et al. (2023)utilized precision agriculture techniques in olive orchards to

optimize nitrogen fertilizer application. A GIS-based methodology, incorporating
GEOBIA algorithms, was developed to create prescription maps for variable-rate nitrogen
fertilization. Each olive tree's nitrogen balance was individually assessed considering soil
and leaf nutrient variability, production levels, and biometric and spectral data. Geo-
referencing of trees, measurement of trunk cross-sectional area (TCSA), soil and leaf
sampling, and spectral data collection were conducted using advanced technologies such
as UAV platforms and multispectral cameras. Results demonstrated a significant
reduction (31%) in nitrogen fertilizer application compared to standard dosing, leading to
economic, agronomic, and environmental benefits. Specifically, the methodology allowed
for more precise estimation of nitrogen requirements based on individual tree
characteristics and current agronomic conditions. This reduction in fertilizer usage not
only lowered costs but also enhanced sustainability by minimizing nitrogen leaching,
thereby reducing environmental pollution risks.
 II. Methods for applying the granular fertilizers

Applying fertilizer is a crucial aspect of crop farming. Proper placement of fertilizer

consistently enhances the uptake of nutrients by plants, ultimately promoting optimal yields
in cultivated agronomic crops (Robert, 2001).

Granular fertilizer application methods vary, including surface broadcasting, broadcast-

incorporation, surface banding, and deep banding. Banding can occur before or after seeding,
either near the seed as a starter or separately. Fertilizer can be banded on the soil surface or
subsurface, with options like gravity feed openers or air drills. Simultaneous application of
fertilizer and seed is possible with air drills, distributing them in a band up to 4 inches wide.
Alternatively, some designs utilize separate lines for seed and fertilizer, often placing
fertilizer 2 inches below and 2 inches to the side of the seed (known as "2 x 2" application)
(Jones et al., 2003).

Singh et al. (2018) conducted research on the principles and techniques of fertilizer
application in soil. Fertilizers come in various forms such as solid granules, fully soluble,
partially soluble, and liquid. The methods of applying solid and liquid fertilizers differ. Solid
fertilizers can be applied through broadcasting, placement, in-situ operations, and foliar
application. The ring placement method, commonly used for fruit trees in orchards or
individually grown trees, involves creating a trench resembling a ring around the tree using a
spade. This trench is typically one foot wide and four to six inches deep, matching the
circumference of the tree's shoot system. After digging the ring, the required amount of
fertilizer is calculated and applied evenly within the trench. Once the fertilizer is applied, the
ring is covered with soil. As of now, no mechanical device has been developed for digging
the ring.

Placement of fertilizer precisely or around the vicinity of plant by fertilizer applicator is

important for plant’s growth, and in improving fertilizer efficiency. Various types of fertilizer
applicators have been developed for this purpose which also serves the purpose of fertilizer
saving per hectare and reducing environmental degradation. Applicators designed for variable
rates of granular fertilizers include spinner and pneumatic spreaders. Spinner applicators
typically adjust only one product rate at a time by altering the gate opening or conveyor belt
speed. However, in the case of horticultural fruit crops like citrus, spinner applicators may
feature independent left and right spinners with two conveyor belts, allowing two rows of
trees to simultaneously receive customized fertilizer rates. Pneumatic applicators, on the
other hand, have centrally located bins, and air tubes lead from a metering unit to the
discharge point, where fertilizers are suspended in the air stream. These applicators can
distribute single or multiple products (Schumann, 2010).

Grift et al. (2006) optimized spread pattern uniformity in fertilizer application by

controlling the drop location of particles on a spinner disc by utilizing an optical sensor to
measure discharge velocity, location, and particle diameters, predicting a spread pattern for a
single disc. Combining mirrored patterns from dual discs, transverse patterns are simulated
and evaluated for quality based on three criteria. Maps relate gate settings to pattern quality
for a given mass flow rate, with optimal settings found at the minimum of the quality map.
Results demonstrate achieving an acceptable coefficient of variation (CV) below 15%, even
with rudimentary disc designs.

Chang et al. (2017) developed an automated sensing and control system for real-time
spot-application of granular fertilizer in mowed wild blueberry fields. Custom hardware was
integrated into a commercial pneumatic fertilizer spreader. Laboratory simulations achieved
94.9% accuracy, while real-time field tests demonstrated effective performance at ground
speeds of 1.6 and 3.2 km/h. However, 4.8 km/h was deemed unacceptable due to image
blurring caused by field unevenness. The system aims to save fertilizer by targeting only
mowed wild blueberry plant areas.

Cool et al. (2017) introduced an innovative multi-camera system for predicting the
spread pattern of granular fertilizer from centrifugal spreaders. By using high-speed
stereovision and a ballistic model, the system accurately determines particle ejection
parameters and landing positions relative to the spreader's coordinate system. Experiments
with a commercial spreader demonstrated high repeatability in predicting particle size
distribution and velocities. Results showed a good correlation between predicted spread
patterns and those obtained from field experiments, with minor differences in Coefficient of
Variation (CV).

Zinkevičienėet al. (2021) created a simulation model within EDEM software for
granular organic fertilizer distribution via centrifugal spreaders. By considering physical and
mechanical parameters alongside spreader disc settings, the model determines key factors
affecting fertilizer trajectory and uniformity. Results indicate that factors like particle size,
initial speed, and discharge flow rate influence distribution patterns. The model showcases
improved uniformity for specific particle sizes at different flow rates. The simulation model
offers the potential for optimizing spreader design, reducing prototype iterations, and
enhancing precision agriculture practices. It also suggests applicability in developing cost-
effective and compatible setting-up and control systems for variable rate fertilizer application.

Jotautieneet al. (2022) studied the spreading of organic granular cylindrical manure
fertilizers using a two-disc centrifugal fertilizer spreader. Experimental field studies were
conducted to assess spreading uniformity, comparing one-directional and gradual spreading
methods. Results showed a gradually decreasing trend in fertilizer distribution from the
spreader's center, with higher spread rates resulting in a more uniform distribution.
Additionally, dispersion studies were performed using DEM software, showing close trends
with experimental results but with a 10% lower fertilizer application on average. While no
significant difference was found between one-way and gradual spreading methods, gradual
application led to a slightly more even distribution, with approximately 8.9% more fertilizer
in outer boxes.

Wang et al. (2023) improved the performance of multichannel pneumatic granular

fertilizer spreaders (MPGFS) by addressing inconsistent discharge rates of each channel.
Through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and discrete element method (DEM)
simulations, it was found that rotational airflow in the pneumatic system caused irregular
particle movement, leading to uneven fertilizer distribution. By introducing partitions in the
throat of the spreader, the discharge rate consistency of each channel was significantly
improved, resulting in a reduction of the coefficient of variation (CV) from 20.16% to 7.70%.
The optimized MPGFS with partitions demonstrated better-spreading uniformity compared to
the one without partitions, with CV of spreading uniformity decreasing from 15.32% to
8.69%. This indicates that the partition design effectively enhanced both discharge rate
consistency and fertilization uniformity, offering promising prospects for granular fertilizer
application technology.

Bakhtiari (2014) evaluated different fertilization methods (broadcasting, furrow pouring, single-sided
banding, and double-sided banding) and application rates on corn yield and yield components in
Hamedan, Iran. Fertilization method significantly influenced net yield and thousand-kernel mass, while
application rate had a highly significant effect on net yield and thousand-kernel mass. Fertilizer
banding on one side of seedling with 60 kg of nitrogen/ha at 10 cm depth was identified as the most
suitable treatment, resulting in optimal yield. Overall, fertilizer banding placement in one side of
seedling with 60 kg of nitrogen/ha was recommended for corn fertilization in Hamedan.

Bakhtiari, M. R. (2014). Selection of fertilization method and fertilizer application rate on corn
yield. Agricultural Engineering International: CIGR Journal, 16(2), 10-14.

https://cigrjournal.org/index.php/Ejounral/article/view/2700/1887

Szulc et al. (2016) investigated the impact of nitrogen fertilizer application methods and maize hybrid
types on nitrogen efficiency indicators. Compared to traditional broadcast fertilization, row fertilization
or a combination of row fertilization and top dressing increased nitrogen uptake, utilization, and
efficiency. The stay-green cultivar generally exhibited higher nitrogen content in grain and better
nitrogen uptake and utilization than the traditional cultivar. However, the stay-green cultivar showed
poorer use of nitrogen uptake, as indicated by lower physiological effectiveness, regardless of the
fertilization method. Overall, row fertilization methods improved nitrogen efficiency traits and yielded
higher protein content compared to traditional broadcast fertilization.

Szulc, P., Waligóra, H., Michalski, T., Rybus-Zając, M., & Olejarski, P. (2016). Efficiency of nitrogen
fertilization based on the fertilizer application method and type of maize cultivar (Zea mays L.).

http://pse.agriculturejournals.cz/pdfs/pse/2016/03/06.pdf

Blackshaw et al. (2002) investigated the effect of different nitrogen fertilizer application methods on
nitrogen uptake in green foxtail, wild mustard, and spring wheat, as well as on crop-weed competition.
Surface broadcast application often led to greater nitrogen uptake by green foxtail compared to
surface pools or point-injected nitrogen, while wild mustard uptake was rarely affected by application
method. Weed biomass was higher with surface broadcast than with other methods. Wheat yields
were similar across application methods in the absence of weeds, but point-injected nitrogen resulted
in greater yields in the presence of green foxtail, while surface pools or point-injected nitrogen led to
greater yields in the presence of wild mustard compared to surface broadcast. The study suggests
that point-injected nitrogen suppresses weed growth by increasing wheat competitiveness rather than
reducing weed nitrogen uptake.

Blackshaw, R. E., Semach, G., & Janzen, H. H. (2002). Fertilizer application method affects nitrogen
uptake in weeds and wheat. Weed Science, 50(5), 634-641.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/weed-science/article/abs/fertilizer-application-method-
affects-nitrogen-uptake-in-weeds-and-wheat/31313FCB1AEDDEE2389A99A35986E406

Wang et al. (2021) investigated the impact of conventional surface broadcasting fertilization (CF)
versus deep placement fertilization (DPF) methods on NH3 volatilization in rice paddies at different
basal fertilizer (BF) application ratios. Results indicate that DPF significantly reduces NH3
volatilization by 23.13% to 60.57% compared to CF, particularly during the BF application period.
Higher BF application ratios coupled with DPF effectively mitigate NH3-N losses. The study
underscores DPF's potential as a practical method to reduce NH3 volatilization from rice paddies but
suggests further research across diverse conditions is necessary for a comprehensive understanding
of its efficacy.

Wang, C., Sun, H., Zhang, J., Zhang, X., Lu, L., Shi, L., & Zhou, S. (2021). Effects of different
fertilization methods on ammonia volatilization from rice paddies. Journal of Cleaner Production, 295,
126299.

Jyoti et al. (2022) developed a mechanical sensing system for precise fertilizer application in grape
vineyards to address labor-intensive methods and overuse of fertilizers. Experimental optimization
yielded results about urea's physical properties (bulk density: 0.759 g/cm³, angle of repose: 26.22°,
grain diameter: 3.38 mm), and coefficient of static friction with different surfaces. The sensor device
opened the delivery tube in 0.9–0.95s. Factors affecting fertilizer delivery included exposure length of
the fluted roller and forward speed of the machine. Despite speed's impact, it remained within
practical operational limits (1 to 3 km/h). The system achieved acceptable uniformity (CV: 13.5% to
22%) for fertilizer application in orchard fields with row spacing of 2.5 to 3 m, adaptable to wider
spacings.

Jyoti, B., Thorat, D. S., Singh, K. P., Kumar, M., Magar, A., & Parmar, B. S. (2022). Design and
development of site specific grape vineyard fertilizer applicator prototype.

III. Sensors and techniques used for detection and counting of seeds

Raymond et al.(1979) developed a microwave seed sensing apparatus for a seed planting
apparatus, which includes a mobile planting machine connected to a tractor. The apparatus
comprises a seed hopper and a seed dispensing mechanism. The microwave sensor detects
seeds in the path of travel and produces an observable indication to the operator.
Additionally, the sensor may be connected to a control circuit for actuating magnetic seed
treatment apparatus in response to seed presence.

Kocher et al. (1998) developed an opto-electronic seed spacing evaluation system,

utilizing a photogate sensor, significantly improved seed spacing measurements by
incorporating front-to-back seed drop location relative to the planter. Tests showed strong
correlation (average r = 0.951) between measurements obtained from the opto-electronic
system and those from a grease belt test stand. This system offers a rapid and accurate
alternative to evaluate planter seed spacing uniformity in the laboratory, suitable for seeds
with an effective diameter of about 4 mm or larger.

Heege et al. (2002) proposed a method to control the number of seeds per unit area
instead of seed mass in present-day grain drills. By recording the number of seeds passing
through the seed tube, deviations in seed numbers can be kept below 2.5%. Experiments
show that using at least 200 seeds per control sample provides smooth control curves,
suitable for site-specific farming. This method eliminates the influence of wheel slip, bulk
density, and average seed mass on plant density, allowing farmers to monitor seed density per
unit area in real-time.

Moody et al.(2003) evaluated the performance of a row crop planter, focusing on

quantifying intra-row seed spacing variability and identifying its sources. The planter was
equipped with sensors to monitor seed drop timing at two points within the seed tube, while
seed spacing in the furrow was assessed through manual measurements. Tests were
conducted at ground speeds of 4.8 km/hr, 7.2 km/hr, and 9.7 km/hr, with seed meter
rotational speeds of 0.16 rev/s achieved using a hydraulic drive and controller. Cotton seeds
were planted, and the results presented are specific to a meter rotational speed of 0.16 rev/s.
Overall, the planter demonstrated good seed spacing uniformity, with the Quality of Feed
Indices ranging from 76.2% to 91.4% and a maximum standard deviation of normally sown
seeds of 6.1 cm (2.4 in). A significant portion of spacing variability originated above the
upper seed tube measurement point, possibly due to variations in meter exit velocity and
other factors. Variability increased with increasing ground speed, as expected, with
placement errors in the time domain scaled into the distance domain by ground speed.

Karayel et al. (2006)developed a high-speed camera system to evaluate seed spacing

uniformity and seed velocity of fall in seed drills. It performed well, detecting all seeds
without error. Seed spacing uniformity improved as the speed of the metering rollers
increased. The system's results were comparable to those obtained from a sticky belt test
stand. The system offers advantages such as larger sample size, waste avoidance, and
potential for measuring seed fall velocity.

Sui et al.(2010)developed a system to simulate the pneumatic flow arrangement present

in picker-type cotton harvesters. The simulation system was constructed to mimic the
pneumatic cotton flow system of a cotton picker. It consisted of components such as a
centrifugal fan, hopper, cotton feeder, and cotton picker duct. Both John Deere and Case-IH
cotton picker ducts fit in the simulator. The simulator was capable of operating with varying
cotton flow rates. Through testing with different cotton flow rates, the relationship between
feeder speed and the amount of conveyed seed cotton was found to be consistent. This
calibration allowed for accurate adjustment and control of the cotton flow rate. The simulator
was used to evaluate a novel optical-reflectance-based mass-flow sensor designed for cotton
yield monitoring. A strong correlation (R2=0.99) was found between the conveyed seed
cotton weight and sensor output, indicating the sensor's accuracy in measuring cotton flow.
During testing of the simulator, it was observed that recycled seed cotton undergoes physical
changes, potentially affecting sensor response. This factor needs to be considered when using
a laboratory simulator to test cotton yield monitors.

Hajahmedetal.(2011) developed an optoelectronic monitoring system for assessing the

performance of a mechanical planter's seed metering unit, with a specific focus on seed
spacing uniformity. The developed system comprises an optoelectronic sensor for seed
detection, a rotary encoder for measuring forward speed and seed position, amplifiers for
signal adjustment, a microcontroller for synchronizing sensor signals, and a computer for
program operation and result display. The system was successfully tested using chickpea
seeds at different operating speeds and metering system gear combinations. Results showed
that the developed system accurately detects seed flow from the metering system, with a
strong linear relationship between measured and actual seed numbers (R = 0.993).
Additionally, the system can be easily adapted to measure seed spacing on the go, allowing
for real-time monitoring of both seed flow and spacing. The developed optoelectronic
monitoring system offers a precise and efficient means of assessing seed metering unit
performance, enhancing the process of precision seed placement in agricultural applications.

Al-Mallahi and Kataoka (2013) developed a mass flow model using fibre optic sensors
to monitor small seeds. They found that the mass flow model was able to accurately measure
the flow rate of seeds when the rotational speed was low. However, when the rotational speed
was high, the error increased and the overall estimated error was 5.3%. The use of fibre optic
sensors in the mass flow model allowed for real-time measurement of the seed flow rate,
which provided a more accurate representation of the actual flow rate compared to traditional
methods that rely on indirect measurements. They also found that the mass flow model had a
response time of less than 0.1 seconds, which indicates that it was able to accurately measure
changes in the flow rate quickly.

Sun et al.(2013) developed and evaluated capacitance sensors for real-time seed-metering
device performance detection in corn planters. Three types of capacitance sensors were
proposed and tested: a crossed E-shape plate sensor, a parallel-plate sensor, and a differential
tri-plate sensor. The adjustable stand was designed to analyze the impact of sensor structure
and seed velocity on sensor outputs. Sensitivity and feasibility were studied by detecting
capacitance variations at different corn-seed speeds. Experimental results indicated that the
crossed E-shape plate sensor and the differential tri-plate sensor were suitable for measuring
corn-seed metering device performance. These sensors exhibited average capacitance
variations of 0.1245pF and 0.1115pF, respectively. However, the parallel-plate capacitance
sensor was found to be ineffective in detecting seed flow motion. Based on the requirements
of seeding performance detection and sensor assembly, the crossed E-shape plate sensor and
the differential tri-plate sensor were identified as appropriate choices for monitoring seeding
performance in corn planters. These sensors offer the necessary sensitivity and feasibility for
accurate detection of seed flow.

Okopnik and Falate (2014) used the Infrared Sensor DFRobot RB-DFR-49 by using a
microcontroller, to determine the distance between maize seeds. The results demonstrated
that the electronic system, with the sensor connected to the microcontroller, provided
sufficient precision to be used in plantability tests. The study found a correlation coefficient
of 0.9998 and a slope of 1.03 when comparing the distances measured between seeds by the
proposed system and manual measurements. The average standard deviation on distance
readings was 1.9 mm, as determined from a test performed with 45 seeds arranged along the
belt, repeated 22 times. Furthermore, the sensor was able to detect over 96.5% of the 1000
maize seeds tested. These findings suggest that the DFRobot RB-DFR- 49 sensor is suitable
for use in systems requiring seed detection due to its precision.
 Raheman and Kumar (2015) designed an embedded system for detecting seed flow in
the delivery tube of a seed drill to give feedback to the operator about malfunctioning of
metering mechanism. This system comprised an indirect incidence Thin Small Outline
Package (TSOP) based infrared sensor for sensing flow of seeds from seed metering
mechanism, a direct incidence infrared sensor for sensing choking of delivery tube of a seed
drill with seeds and a microcontroller to control the input signals from the sensors and output
signals (both visual and audible). They reported that the detection of seed flow in the delivery
tube satisfactory at different speeds (40 to 80 rpm) of the seed metering mechanism for
different seed rates of wheat (80-120 kg/ha) and ragi seeds (2-6 kg/ha).

Hadi et al. (2016) developed a seed drill performance monitoring system to make a
practical approach to comparative design of non-contact sensing systems for seed flow rate
detection. To determine actual seed flow rate, they designed light detection resistors (LDR),
Infra-red (IR) and laser diodes (LD) sensing units that consist of sensors which have a type of
LED and a radiation receiver. They compared sensing unit’s ability with the same seed flow.
For each flow rate in experiment with these sensor units they found that there is a strong
linear relationship (r = 0.87) between the actual seed mass changes and the corresponding
voltage of Infra-red sensing unit. Comparison with other sensing method they recommended
that Infra-red technique is a more proper technique for estimation of seed rate flow.

Karimi et al.(2017) compared non-contact sensing techniques for seed flow rate
detection. The study focused on evaluating the effectiveness of light-dependent resistors
(LDR), infrared (IR), and laser diodes (LD) as seed sensing units. The sensing units for LD,
IR, and LDR were successfully designed and developed. Each sensor comprised LEDs
emitting infrared, visible light, or laser, along with a receiver element. As seeds passed
through the sensor's light beam, their shadows fell on the receiver elements, causing changes
in output voltage. This allowed for estimation of seed flow rate by analyzing the signal
corresponding to passing seeds. A test apparatus was designed to compare the performance of
the sensing units under the same seed flow conditions. Pulse signals and the mass of
discharged seeds were recorded for each seed flow rate during experiments. Results indicated
a strong linear relationship (r = 0.87) between actual seed mass changes and the voltages
recorded by the IR sensing unit. Compared to other methods, the IR detection technique was
found to be more suitable for estimating seed flow rate. The study recommends the use of IR
sensing units for estimating seed mass flow rate from the metering system due to the strong
linear relationship observed.

Bangura et al.(2018) developed a seedling counting system for a high-speed rice

seedling transplanter to accurately quantify the number of seedlings planted during
experiments on rice breeding and other tests. The seedling counting system consisted of two
main parts: a counting signal acquisition device and a counting display device. The Hall
sensor generated the signal, which was then displayed on a counting relay. Additionally, an
absolute rotary encoder was used to synchronize the counter signal with the transplanting
claws, determining the angle of the push point and stop position. After that, a logic analyzer
processed the encoder signal into a readable data form on a computer. The counting device
was installed on the transplanting shaft within a specific range of degrees. Both idle running
tests and field tests demonstrated the accuracy of the counter device. It was concluded that
the Hall sensor installed on the transplanter shaft effectively generated pulse signals for real-
time seedling counting. This approach was deemed simple in structure, cost-effective, and
easy to operate. During transplanting, the driver only needed to set the desired number of
seedlings using the input type counting relay. Once the set number was reached, the driver
automatically knew the quantity of seedlings planted.

Yin et al.(2018) developed and tested a CAN bus-based maize monitoring system for
precision planting incorporating seeding rate sensors, a GPS receiver, a vehicle monitoring
terminal, a touch screen monitor, and a buzzer alarm. Opposite-type infrared photoelectric
sensors were selected for counting dropping seeds, and their deployment in the seed tube was
analyzed for optimal performance. A distributed information communication structure was
adopted to decrease response time, with individual sensor nodes responsible for acquiring,
processing, and transmitting data. Laboratory tests demonstrated a nearly normal distribution
of random errors, with a high linear relationship (R^2=0.9991) between observed and true
values. Field tests showed a maximum relative error of 2.92% and a maximum root mean
square error (RMSE) of 1.64% for seeding rates across the six tubes, indicating high
precision and accuracy. The maize monitoring system proved dependable and stable during
over 14 days of continuous field experiments. It provides a reliable solution for real-time
monitoring and assessment of maize planting performance, contributing to precision planting
operations' improvement. Additionally, it offers a platform for designers to optimize planter
structural designs.

Besharatietal.(2019) developed an infrared (IR) sensing system for seed drills to measure
the sowing rate of various seeds with different physical properties. The system utilized IR
LEDs and photo-diodes to detect changes in light intensity as seeds passed through the
sensor. The output voltage of the light-receiving sensor changed proportionally with
variations in light intensity, which was then processed by a microcontroller and DAC chip to
convert it into an analog value. The system was calibrated and evaluated using chickpea,
wheat, and alfalfa seeds, representing large, medium, and fine seeds respectively. Results
demonstrated a strong correlation between the sensor output voltage and the mass flow of
seeds in the delivery tube. A model was developed to predict seed flow rate using sensor
output voltages, thousand seed weight, and equivalent seed diameters as input variables. This
model achieved a coefficient of determination (R^2) of 0.94, indicating a strong correlation
between the predicted and actual seed flow rates. This model enables the estimation of seed
mass flow based on physical properties and sensor output voltage, providing a convenient
method for assessing planter row performance in laboratory settings and facilitating easy
calibration of seed drills before field planting.

Jianguo et al.(2019) developed a precise detection system for wheat planter seeding
quantity based on capacitance sensors. Parallel plates were designed to improve the accuracy
of the capacitance sensor. The relationship between capacitance value and the number of
wheat seeds was studied under two distinct modes: single seed falling and multiple seeds
falling. A differential dynamic threshold method was proposed to detect the number of wheat
seeds when they fall individually, achieving a maximum relative error of 1.54%. For multiple
seeds falling simultaneously, a least squares regression model was developed to establish a
relationship between the number of wheat seeds and the capacitance integral value at
different seeding speeds. The experiment results showed high detection accuracy for different
seeding speeds, with relative errors between -2.16% and 2.23%.

Karimi et al.(2019) developed a seed drill monitoring system using infrared seed sensors,
ground speed sensors, GPS modules, and ultrasonic sensors. This system allowed for real-
time monitoring of seed flow rates, seed presence or absence, ground speed, sowing rate
calculation, and hopper levels. Field tests conducted with a seed drill equipped with 13
sowing units evaluated the system's performance under outdoor conditions. Results indicated
that the system achieved a correlation coefficient of 85% between the mean of weighted data
obtained from the scale and the mass flow estimates. However, the performance of the
sensing system was adversely affected by dust obstructing the optical elements.

Bo et al. (2020) developed an arc array seeding flow sensor using piezoelectric ceramics
for precise detection of seeding quality in air flow conveying seeders. Through analysis of
seed movement characteristics, they optimized the sensor's layout and structure. A signal
conditioning circuit and pulse counting circuit enabled real-time measurement and
transmission of seed data. Testing on an airflow seeding bench revealed a linear relationship
between detection error and air pressure, with a maximum error below 5% under
recommended parameters. The sensor also showed 100% accuracy in detecting blockage
failures, demonstrating its effectiveness in monitoring seeding performance.

Zhang et al.(2023)developed a real-time monitoring system based on photoelectric

sensors to assess the effectiveness of soybean seed metering devices. The system included
components such as photoelectric sensors, Hall sensors, a microcontroller unit (MCU), alarm
modules, and a human-machine interface (HMI). It aimed to estimate key indices such as
miss rate, multiples rate, flow rate, and application rate based on various signals collected
during the seeding process. In laboratory tests, the system demonstrated high accuracy in
detecting seeding quantity for both big and small-diameter soybeans, with detection errors of
less than 2.0%. The miss and multiples indices estimated by the system were found to be
within 0.4% and 0.5% compared to a seeding image monitoring platform (SIMP), indicating
excellent monitoring performance. The system's ability to evaluate seed metering device
performance was confirmed in field tests, with more precise detection of big-diameter seeds
compared to small ones. The monitoring system provided valuable support for assessing the
precision of seed metering devices in no-tillage machine seeding tests, helping to prevent
miss seeding and accurately record seeding quantity and quality information.

IV. Microcontroller based systems developed for seed drills and planters(ADD
FERTILIZER PORTION TOO IN THIS, BOTH IN INTRO OF THIS AND
FURTHER. MATERIAL FOR THAT ON TELEGRAM)

The primary objective of a planting machine is to sow seeds at a precise depth and interval
within a row. Seed metering mechanisms encompass various types such as fluted feed,
internal double run, cup feed, inclined plate, cell feed, brush feed, auger feed, picker wheel,
and variable orifice found in seed drills or planters (Varshney et al., 2004). These devices
typically rely on a ground wheel for power transmission, which can compromise planting
accuracy due to issues like ground wheel slippage and chain vibration, particularly at higher
forward speeds (Lie et al., 2015).

Kepner et al., 1978 demonstrated that inconsistent seed placement would decrease the final
crop yield. A microcontroller-based seed metering mechanism operates alongside a sensor-
equipped electronic metering system, enhancing precision in the process. This setup allows
for easy control of seed rate through an RPM controller and enables adaptation to various
seed types by adjusting the seed metering plate. An electronic metering mechanism
represents one potential solution for achieving precise seed spacing with increased efficiency
(Koley et al., 2017).

Variable rate fertilizer application technology is a key focus of site-specific crop management. By
effectively managing nitrogen (N) levels, areas of both over- and under-fertilization can be identified
based on crop leaf greenness. Once assessed, N fertilizer, typically urea, can be applied accordingly to
each specific zone. One feasible approach to develop a variable rate fertilizer applicator involves
modifying a conventional applicator, which typically distributes fertilizer uniformly, by integrating a
microcontroller (Larson et al., 1993; Mirzakhaninafchi et al., 2021). However, due to the real-time
feedback loop between the control system and the applicator, some degree of misapplication may
occur, particularly if there is significant time lag. To minimize such errors, it is essential to optimize
the system to reduce response time as much as possible.

Placing fertilizer in specific bands near the plant instead of spreading it uniformly across the entire
field leads to more efficient utilization of nutrients by the plants (Nkebiwe et al., 2016; Mahore et al.,
2024). Therefore, positioning fertilizers at the recommended locations relative to the plants is crucial
for improving efficiency of use and reducing input costs.

In recent times, there has been a proliferation of fertilizer applicator designs, particularly those
tailored for granular fertilizers. While a spreader is commonly used to broadcast fertilizer in smaller
fields, ensuring uniformity in fertilizer distribution across the entire field poses significant challenges
(Yildirim, 2006; Chouriya et al., 2024).

Numerous researchers (Chandel et al., 2016; Alameen et al., 2019; May &Kocabiyik, 2019; Chouriya
et al., 2024) have devised variable-rate fertilizer applicators featuring electronically controlled fluted
roller metering mechanisms. However, these developed metering mechanisms are typically utilized
for continuous fertilizer application during seed drilling at sowing time. Variations in discharge rate
are typically managed by adjusting the exposed length of the fluted roller type metering unit
(Chouriya et al., 2024).

The primary objective of a planting machine is to sow seeds at a precise depth and interval within a
row. Seed metering mechanisms encompass various types such as fluted feed, internal double run, cup
feed, inclined plate, cell feed, brush feed, auger feed, picker wheel, and variable orifice found in seed
drills or planters (Varshney et al., 2004). These devices typically rely on a ground wheel for power
transmission, which can compromise planting accuracy due to issues like ground wheel slippage and
chain vibration, particularly at higher forward speeds (Lie et al., 2015).
Kepner et al., 1978 demonstrated that inconsistent seed placement would decrease the final crop yield.
A microcontroller-based seed metering mechanism operates alongside a sensor-equipped electronic
metering system, enhancing precision in the process. This setup allows for easy control of seed rate
through an RPM controller and enables adaptation to various seed types by adjusting the seed
metering plate. An electronic metering mechanism represents one potential solution for achieving
precise seed spacing with increased efficiency (Koley et al., 2017).

Variable rate fertilizer application technology is a key focus of site-specific crop management. By
effectively managing nitrogen (N) levels, areas of both over- and under-fertilization can be identified
based on crop leaf greenness. Once assessed, N fertilizer, typically urea, can be applied accordingly to
each specific zone. One feasible approach to develop a variable rate fertilizer applicator involves
modifying a conventional applicator, which typically distributes fertilizer uniformly, by integrating a
microcontroller (Larson et al., 1993; Mirzakhaninafchi et al., 2021). However, due to the real-time
feedback loop between the control system and the applicator, some degree of misapplication may
occur, particularly if there is significant time lag. To minimize such errors, it is essential to optimize
the system to reduce response time as much as possible.

Placing fertilizer in specific bands near the plant instead of spreading it uniformly across the entire
field leads to more efficient utilization of nutrients by the plants (Nkebiwe et al., 2016; Mahore et al.,
2024). Therefore, positioning fertilizers at the recommended locations relative to the plants is crucial
for improving efficiency of use and reducing input costs.

In recent times, there has been a proliferation of fertilizer applicator designs, particularly those
tailored for granular fertilizers. While a spreader is commonly used to broadcast fertilizer in smaller
fields, ensuring uniformity in fertilizer distribution across the entire field poses significant challenges
(Yildirim, 2006; Chouriya et al., 2024).

Numerous researchers (Chandel et al., 2016; Alameen et al., 2019; May & Kocabiyik, 2019; Chouriya
et al., 2024) have devised variable-rate fertilizer applicators featuring electronically controlled fluted
roller metering mechanisms. However, these developed metering mechanisms are typically utilized
for continuous fertilizer application during seed drilling at sowing time. Variations in discharge rate
are typically managed by adjusting the exposed length of the fluted roller type metering unit
(Chouriya et al., 2024).

Aware et al. (2014)developed a microprocessor-based electronic metering mechanism for a

three-row planter, utilizingoptoelectric rotary sensing, the electronic system received input pulses
from sensors and switches to determine seed spacing. Laboratory tests showed that for a set input
spacing of 15 cm, the obtained output seed spacing was 16.2 cm. This electronic modification offers
improved precision over mechanical systems, with versatility for different seeds and potential
scalability for multi-row planters.

Jianboetal.(2014) developed a precision seeding control system to synchronize the rotational

speed of the seed-metering device with the seeder's working speed, reducing the impact of ground
wheel slipping. The system, incorporating a Hall sensor and a single chip microcomputer, effectively
improved seeding uniformity and achieved high reliability. Experimental results showed significant
improvement in seeding uniformity compared to systems driven by ground wheels, with qualified
rates above 88%. This design offers a solution to issues with seed-metering devices and precision
seeders, promising enhanced sowing quality and increased production.
 Kamgaretal.(2015) designed a new controlled seed metering unit (FSMU) for direct seeding
of wheat performed satisfactorily in dynamic tests, maintaining a desirable seeding rate despite
variations in forward speed and stubble coverage. Compared to a common seed metering unit
(CSMU), FSMU significantly improved seed spacing uniformity, reducing the coefficient of variation
(CV) by approximately 50%. The closed-loop control system effectively adjusted seeding rates based
on feedback, demonstrating precision seeding capabilities even at high forward speeds (8 km/h) and
varying stubble levels.

Li et al.(2015) designed a mechatronic driving system to enhance precision corn planting in

China, addressing issues like ground wheel slippage and vibration. Testing on a two-row pneumatic
precision planter at different forward speeds and tillage conditions showed significant improvements
in planting accuracy with the mechatronic system compared to conventional mechanical systems. The
mechatronic system maintained uniform seed distribution even at high speeds (≥11 km/h) and rotary-
tillage lands, outperforming mechanical systems. This technology promises increased planting
accuracy and efficiency, especially at higher speeds.

Koley et al.(2017) developed an electronic metering system utilizing an inclined plate type
mechanism for precision agriculture. Synchronized with forward speed through a proximity sensor
and microcontroller, the system was tested in the laboratory for groundnut at speeds of 2.5, 3, and 3.5
km/h. Results showed optimal operation at 2.5 km/h with a metering plate speed of 50 rpm, ensuring
desired seed spacing, seed rate, and minimal seed breakage.

Mangus et al.(2017) evaluated the accuracy of electric seed metering systems used in high-
speed planting scenarios, with specific attention to identifying machine operating states that affect
seeding accuracy. The study utilized a Horsch Maestro 24.30 planter and conducted simulations at
various speeds and operating conditions, including accelerations/decelerations, contour planting, and
different seed rates. Singulation errors nearly doubled with fast accelerations and decelerations, as
well as abrupt changes such as shifts during headland turns. Exceeding a planting rate of 1250 seeds
per minute led to a higher occurrence of singulation errors. Vision-based measurements were within
0.8 ± 0.2% of commercial seed tube sensors, indicating high accuracy. Slow speed changes (2.4
kph/s) resulted in fewer singulation errors compared to fast speed changes (4.8 kph/s). Planting at
speeds specific to the population rate (limiting singulating seed meter to 1250 seeds per minute) with
gradual acceleration and deceleration maximized planter precision and accuracy.

Sabancıet al.(2017) developed a seed volume monitoring system for a Pneumatic Precision
Seeder, utilizing an ultrasonic distance sensor and Arduino Mega 2560 microcontroller. The system
accurately measured seed volume and displayed it as a percentage on an LCD screen. Tests with
coated corn and beet seeds showed a 100% success rate, with visual and audible alerts activated when
seed volume dropped below 10%. The system improved user ergonomics by allowing continuous
monitoring of seed volume, ensuring timely refilling and preventing unsowed lines. It can also be
adapted for use in grain sowing machines.

Pradhan et al.(2021) developed and tested an electronic seed metering system using LiDAR
navigation for check row planting of maize seeds. The system showed accurate distance measurement
up to 40 m with minimal deviation. Optimal parameters for seed metering mechanism were
determined: linear cell speed of 99.46 mm/s and cell size of 11.90 mm. Multiple index increased with
higher cell speeds, while quality of feed index increased with decreased cell speed and larger cell size.
Miss index decreased with decreased cell speed and increased with smaller cell size. Precision
worsened with higher cell speeds. A seed flow sensing system successfully measured seed fall lag
time. The LiDAR-guided system-maintained check row planting pattern at speeds of 2 and 3 km/h,
but higher deviations were observed at 5 km/h due to increased vibration.

Gautam et al. (2023), developed a microcontroller-based low-cost seed metering module for
cultivators, combining electronics and mechanical components. Laboratory tests showed high-quality
feed index (QFI) of 90% for green gram and 86% for black gram at a speed of 1.56 km/h, with close-
to-desired plant spacing achieved. The optimal performance was observed with a 5.5 mm cell size and
a forward speed of 1.56 km/h.

Talha et al. (2012) developed a control system equipped with pneumatic circuitry, including
a double-acting cylinder, solenoid-operated valve, computer, microcontroller, and rotary encoder, to
address this gap. The system efficiently automated the setting of target fertilizer application rates and
demonstrated the precise application of granular fertilizer, with an overall error of ±6%. Key findings
include efficient automatic rate setting, precise variable-rate application, and response times ranging
from 0.08 to 1.00 seconds during adjustments.

Yumang et al. (2016) enhanced fertilizer distribution and efficiency in rice crops by developing a
microcontroller-based fertilizer dispenser. Utilizing a TCS3200 color sensor for leaf saturation
detection, the system accurately dispenses nitrogen fertilizer based on sensor readings processed by
a gizduino mini ATmega328 microcontroller. Calibration ensured precision in fertilizer application.
Application occurred during the 3rd and 6th weeks after planting, with grain yield measured at maturity
for validation. Statistical analysis via t-test at a 5% significance level confirmed significant
improvements in rice yield.

Yumang, A. N., Avendano, G. O., Cruz, J. C. D., Ballado, A., Agustin, L. E., Del Mundo, D. M., ... &
Caya, M. V. (2016, November). Microcontroller-based fertilizer dispenser for rice crop. In 2016 6th
IEEE International Conference on Control System, Computing and Engineering (ICCSCE) (pp. 464-
467). IEEE.

Oberoi et al. (2017) addresses the issue of inferior crop quality due to unplanned fertilizer use by
introducing a cost-efficient and farmer-friendly automated fertilization unit. Utilizing a pH sensor to
assess soil quality and determine macronutrient deficiencies, the prototype allows targeted fertilizer
application. Compared to conventional methods, such as Ion Selective Field Effect Transistors
(ISFET) and Optical Sensors, the proposed unit is significantly cheaper and saves manual labor.
Case studies near Ambedkar Nagar, Sarjapur, demonstrate its efficacy in improving soil quality and
crop durability across 3 acres. By optimizing soil pH and reducing over-fertilization, the system
promotes precision agriculture and enhances crop yield and nutritional content. Overall, it offers a
cost-effective, reliable, and automated solution for farmers, leading to better agricultural outcomes.

Oberoi, A., Basavaraju, S., & Lekshmi, S. (2017, December). Effective implementation of automated
fertilization unit using analog pH sensor and Arduino. In 2017 IEEE International Conference on
Computational Intelligence and Computing Research (ICCIC) (pp. 1-5). IEEE.

Riskiawan et al. (2017) developed a tool to measure the fertilizer requirement for corn plants based on
leaf color using a TCS3200 color sensor and Arduino Uno microcontroller. Results showed an 82%
accuracy rate in determining fertilizer dosage. The tool demonstrated stability during color readings for
up to 40 minutes but experienced decreased accuracy due to battery voltage decline thereafter.

Riskiawan, H. Y., Rizaldi, T., Setyohadi, D. P. S., & Leksono, T. (2017, September). Nitrogen (N)
fertilizer measuring instrument on maize-based plant microcontroller. In 2017 4th International
Conference on Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and Informatics (EECSI) (pp. 1-4). IEEE.
Mahore et al. (2024) developed a novel grooved belt type metering system with autonomous plant
detection-based spot fertilizer application for orchards. Lab evaluation showed variations in fertilizer
placement accuracy and application rate per plant within acceptable limits. Optimal parameters
were determined through full factorial experimental design. The developed applicator demonstrated
three times less variation in fertilizer dosing compared to mechanical sensing-based applicators,
indicating promising potential for orchard fertilizer management.

Mahore, A., Singh, K. P., Jyoti, B., Agrawal, K. N., & Kumar, M. (2024). Microcontroller based
Automatic Spot Granular Fertilizer Dispensing Machine for Orchards: AUTOMATIC SPOT GRANULAR
FERTILIZER DISPENSING MACHINE. Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research (JSIR), 83(2), 214-224.

Mirzakhaninafchi et al. (2021) developed a variable rate fertilizer applicator to detect real-time
nitrogen deficiency and adjust fertilizer application accordingly. The system demonstrated a
response time of 3.49 to 4.90 seconds and effectively adjusted fertilizer rates based on nitrogen
levels, resulting in increased NDVI. The fluted roller mechanism uniformly applied fertilizer with a
coefficient of variation ranging from 2.34% to 5.1%, indicating precise application. The applicator
offers a cost-effective and sustainable solution for fertilizer application.

Mirzakhaninafchi, H., Singh, M., Bector, V., Gupta, O. P., & Singh, R. (2021). Design and development
of a variable rate applicator for real-time application of fertilizer. Sustainability, 13(16), 8694.

Chouriya et al. (2024)developed and tested a cotton fertilizer applicator integrated with a Machine
Vision Based Embedded System (MVES). The system, including a cotton detection system and a
fertilizer metering control unit, achieved precise and site-specific fertilization. Results showed a
Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) of 5.71% & 8.5%, and Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD) of
0.74 g/plant & 1.12 g/plant for urea and DAP (di-ammonium phosphate), respectively. ANOVA
revealed no significant effect of forward speed on fertilizer discharge amount. The MVES performed
reliably, with quick response and proper functionality, ensuring accurate application dosage aligned
with recommendations.

Chouriya, A., Thomas, E. V., Soni, P., Patidar, V. K., &Dhruw, L. (2024). Development and evaluation
of a machine vision-based cotton fertilizer applicator. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 22(1),
e0201-e0201.

May et al. (2019)developed an Electronic Drive and Control System (EDCS) for microgranular
fertilizer metering in precision planters and assess its impact on fertilizing accuracy. Results showed
high coefficients of determination (R2), low mean absolute percent error (MAPE), and mean absolute
deviation (MAD), indicating the system's success in achieving target fertilizer application rates. EDCS
demonstrated precise control of roller speed and accurate application rates, with minimal need for
calibration. The system enabled fast and simple adjustments, synchronized control, and operation at
high speeds.

May, S., &Kocabiyik, H. (2019). Design and development of an electronic drive and control system for
micro-granular fertilizer metering unit. Computers and electronics in agriculture, 162, 921-930.

Gurjar et al. (2017)developed a variable rate fertilizer metering mechanism by adjusting the feed shaft
speed using a microcontroller unit with PWM motor driver. Both straight and helical fluted rollers were
tested with varying numbers of flutes, showing no significant difference in discharge rate. However,
there was a significant difference in discharge rate between di ammonium phosphate (DAP) and
single super phosphate (SSP) fertilizers, with SSP exhibiting higher discharge rates. Helical fluted
rollers were found to mitigate the problem of intermittent dropping observed with straight flute rollers.
The developed metering mechanism is suitable for retrofitting existing machines for variable rate
fertilizer application, but adjustments are needed for higher RPM of the roller when using SSP
fertilizer.

Gurjar, B., Sahoo, P. K., Kumar, A., & Kushwaha, H. L. (2017). Precision metering system design for
variable rate granular fertilizer applicator. Journal of environment and ecology, 35(2), 746-51.

Sabancı et al. (2017)developed a system for monitoring seed volume in the seed tank of a Pneumatic
Precision Seeder using an ultrasonic distance sensor and Arduino Mega 2560 microcontroller. The
system provides real-time feedback to the operator via an LCD display and audible alerts when the
seed volume falls below 10%. Testing on a seeder with a 30 dm3 seed tank yielded a 100% success
rate, with the system effectively alerting the operator to low seed levels. This ensures user
ergonomics and early detection of seed depletion, preventing unsowed lines and mechanical issues.

Sabancı, K., Unlersen, M. F. U., & Aydin, C. (2017). Determination of seed volume in the seed tank of
pneumatic precision seeder by using microcontroller based control system. International Journal of
Applied Mathematics Electronics and Computers, 5(1), 7-11.

Kachor et al. (2019)proposed the use of an Agribot, a self-decision robot for agriculture, designed to
perform various tasks such as planting, weeding, and spraying fertilizers and insecticides. Tested on
pomegranate crops, the Agribot is controlled by an Arduino Mega board and utilizes Bluetooth and
GSM for communication. Results indicate that the Agribot can significantly improve crop yield by
treating crops individually and monitoring parameters like soil moisture and nutrient levels. It operates
day and night, saves fertilizers and pesticides, and increases yield efficiency through proper water
management. The Agribot also addresses issues like water shortage and high labor costs, potentially
enabling farmers to multiply their income by 2022-23. Additionally, it can reclaim unused land by
replanting crops.

Kachor, A. Y., &Ghodinde, K. (2019, May). Design of microcontroller based agribot for fertigation and
plantation. In 2019 International Conference on Intelligent Computing and Control Systems
(ICCS) (pp. 1215-1219). IEEE.

Concluding Remarks

IR sensor will be used as it has capacity to transmit the signal faster than any other
sensors available for the seed detecting purpose.

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