is a subject

which holds
the key to
our future.

Michael Palin

(Compiled by Marilda van Niekerk and presented by Clinton van der Merwe)

pngegg & digitalscrapbook

adapted by Marilda van Niekerk

Page 1 Geography Revision Notes 2021

Questions on climate will come up in Questions 1 and 2 of Paper 1, the theory paper as well as
questions that may be applicable to the Map of Paper 2.
These revision notes cover just the basics - the bare essentials. Detailed notes and case
studies can be found in the prescribed textbooks.

These revision notes cover the following sections:

1. MID-LATITUDE CYCLONES
2. TROPICAL CYCLONES
3. ANTICYCLONES
4. TRAVELLING DISTURBANCES THAT AFFECT SOUTH AFRICA’S WEATHER
5. VALLEY CLIMATES
6. URBAN CLIMATES

When checking whether you understand each section, try to explain the following questions
about each section:
What?
Where?
When?
Why?
Associated weather?
Human Impact?

1. MID-LATITUDE CYCLONES

Other names
• Mid-Latitude Depressions
• Sub-tropical cyclone
• Frontal depression
• Temperate cyclone

Need to know:
• What mid-latitude cyclones are
• Place of origin Polar front
• Life cycle (formation process) weatherphotos.co.za

• Weather associated with each front

• The impact they have on the environment and people

1.1. What are mid-latitude cyclones

• Mid-latitude cyclones are low pressure cells that have warm
and cold fronts attached to them.
• A front is the interface between two air masses with different
temperatures and moisture content.
• Warm (humid) and cold (dry) air do not mix!
scioly.org

1.2. Where do mid-latitude cyclones occur

• They are found between 40 ̊ and 60 ̊ latitude in both hemispheres, within the
Westerly Wind Belt.

Page 2 Geography Revision Notes 2021

 • As the mid-latitude cyclone move eastward, they approach continents from the
west and bring winter rains to these parts.
• It is called a Mediterranean Climate.
• They are carried by westerly winds moving from WEST to EAST.
• Initially they move in the direction of the equator but is then turned in the direction
of the poles.
• This change in direction is due to the stronger cold front that moves faster and
their deflection from the subtropical high-pressure belts by Coriolis force.

Position of mid-latitude cyclones

1.3. Characteristics of a Mid-Latitude Cyclone

• Rotation around the centre of low pressure in the southern hemisphere is
clockwise.
• Warm air rises at the cold front and subsides at the warm front.
• Speed of movement is 30-50 km/h.
• Lifespan is 4 to 14 days.
• An extended core of low pressure occurs.
• The diameter of the entire system can be up to 3 000 km.
• The isobars are oval shaped.
• Occur in families where a cold front from an earlier depression connects with a
cold front from a younger depression.

1.4. Life Cycle (formation process) of a Mid-Latitude Cyclone

1.4.1. Initial or Formative Stage

• A mid-latitude cyclone originates at the
polar front - ± 60 ° north and south of the
equator.
• Friction between the Westerlies and Polar
Easterlies causes a disturbance in the
polar front as warm air pushes up over
cold air.
• A wave is formed and the low pressure
cell begins to form.

Page 3 Geography Revision Notes 2021

1.4.2. Mature Stage
• A cell of low pressure forms.
• Air circulating around the low pressure cell causes the Polar Front to break up into
a separate cold front and warm front.
• You must be able to recognise the Mature Stage on a synoptic map (plan view)
and as a cross section.

Cross section from A to B of a mid-latitude cyclone

Synoptic weather map Satellite photograph

weathersa.co.za
rekordeast.co.
za
Page 4 Geography Revision Notes 2021
1.4.3. Occluded Stage
• The cold front catches up to the warm front and wedges in below the warm sector.
• The warm sector narrows.
• The two fronts combine to form an occluded front.
• Nimbostratus clouds with rain are present.

Occlusion on a synoptic weather map

Occlusion

weathersa.co.za

Cross-section of a cold front occlusion of a mid-latitude cyclone

Cold front touches

the ground
Focus Geography Grade 12

1.5. Weather associated with Mid-Latitude Cyclones

• Mid-Latitude Cyclones move from west to
east.
• The warm front is experienced first, followed
by the warm sector, then the cold front and
cold sector.
• Warm fronts bring warm air and longer
periods of gentle rain.
• Cold fronts bring cold air and heavy rain
often with lightning and thunder or even
snow.
• They can form families when one mid-
latitude cyclone connects with the next one. slideshare.net
• The following changes occur as each front
moves west:

Page 5 Geography Revision Notes 2021

 ➢ Temperature
➢ Pressure
➢ Cloud
➢ Rainfall
➢ Wind direction (wind always BACKS in the Southern Hemisphere)

WARM FRONT COLD FRONT with reason for change

Temperature gradually Temperature decreases abruptly.
increases. Reason: The cold air behind the front arrived.

Pressure rises. The pressure drops but rises again.

Reason: The pressure is at its lowest just
before the front, but increases when the front
passes and the cold air arrives
The cloud cover increases.
Reason: The warm air rises over the incoming
cold air, it cools and condensation occurs.
As the warm front approaches Cumulonimbus clouds forms.
cirrus clouds are seen first, Reason: The cold air forces the warm air to
giving way to alto stratus clouds rise sharply and condensation takes
and finally stratus and place up to high altitudes
nimbostratus clouds.
Light rain which is set in for a Heavy rainfall occurs over a small area.
couple of days. Reason: In an active cold front (big
temperature difference between the warm and
cold sectors) Cumulonimbus clouds with
thunderstorms occur.
The wind backs. The wind The wind backs. The wind direction usually
direction usually shifts from shifts from Northwest to South Westerly.
Northeast to Northwest. (Diagram below from 2 to 3)
(Diagram below from 1 to 2) Reason: The air circulates clockwise around a
low pressure.
Snowfall can occur on the mountains.
Reason: Because of the high altitudes snow
does not melt before it reaches the ground.

Diagram illustrating backing wind

Page 6 Geography Revision Notes 2021

1.6. Impact of Mid-Latitude Cyclones on the environment and people
• Mid-Latitude Cyclones are responsible for winter rainfall in the Western Cape.
• A steep pressure gradient can result in very strong winds and violent storms which
cause property damage.
• Strong winds, lightning, hail and heavy rain, sometimes snow can disrupt people's
lives and sometimes loss of life occurs.
• Communication is disrupted, shipping and aviation could not continue as normal
and outdoor activities are limited.
• More often, rainfall is gentle and set in for a day or two.
• This gentle rain is good for farming as there is time for the rain to seep into the
soil.

1.7. Precautions
• Closure of mountain passes.
• Driving with fog lights in heavy weather.
• Ships cannot depart from port.
• Alerts can be sent out to tourists.
• Small aircraft may be grounded.

2. TROPICAL CYCLONES

Names
• Associated with the area of appearance
➢ Hurricanes - Atlantic & Eastern Pacific oceans
➢ Typhoons – Western Pacific Ocean
➢ Cyclones – Indian ocean

Global distribution of Tropical Cyclones arabnews.pk

Hurricanes Hurricanes Typhoons

Equator Cyclones

Areas in which
Tropical cyclones
form
Cyclones
Typical path of
storm

spaceplace.nasa.gov

Need to know:
• What Tropical Cyclones are,
• Their place of origin (where they start forming),
• Life cycle (stages of development)
• Impact on the environment and people.

Page 7 Geography Revision Notes 2021

2.1. What are Tropical Cyclones
• Tropical cyclones are intense low pressure cells that form over warm tropical
oceans and cause severe weather.
• A tropical cyclone is a warm-core, low pressure system WITHOUT any "front"
attached.

2.2. Origin of Tropical Cyclones

• Tropical Cyclones originate in the Tropical Easterly wind belt.

• Over the western side of warm oceans where the sea surface temperature is at
least 27°C or warmer.
Reasons:
➢ It causes a lot of evaporation.
➢ Warm temperatures provide thermal (heat) energy.
➢ Convection currents causes warm air to rise.
➢ Low pressure forms as air rises.

• Tropical cyclones need a high humidity and a large area of ocean.

Reason:
➢ Condensation needs to occur so that latent heat is released which provides
thermal energy.

• LOW pressure – less than a 1000 mb.

Reasons:
➢ Air rises quickly and a steep pressure gradient strengthens Coriolis force and
causes air to spiral.
➢ Convergence causes air to rise, creating a low pressure.

• They originate between 5 ̊ and 10 ̊ North or South of the Equator.

Reason:
➢ They need Coriolis force and does NOT form over the Equator because there
is not enough Coriolis force to deflect the wind to start a vortex (circulating
air).

2.3. Recognition of tropical cyclones on a synoptic weather map

A. The map symbol.

B. The round isobars.
C. The name. A

B
C

Adapted by Marilda van Niekerk

Page 8 Geography Revision Notes 2021

2.4. Stages of development of Tropical Cyclones

1. Formative Stage
• Troughs of low pressure develop in the Tropical
Easterly winds.
• The isobars bend AWAY from the equator.

2. Immature Stage
• Pressure drops to BELOW 1 000hPa.
• An EYE develops.
• The storm is given a NAME.
• The storm is indicated on a synoptic chart with the
symbol.
• Winds are now hurricane strength (150 km/h) in the
area 30–50 km from the eye.

3. Mature Stage
• Lowest pressure is reached.
• The system stops growing.
• Wind speeds reach hurricane strength as far as 300
km from the eye.
• The calm, clear eye is well developed and the air
pressure drops to less than 980 hPa (or lower).
• The low pressure and the fast wind over the ocean
cause a storm surge.
• The worst weather is experienced in the forward left-
hand quadrant (Dangerous quadrant).
• In the dangerous quadrant, the speed of the wind is
increased due to the fact that the whole system is
moving in the same direction as the winds are
blowing.

4. Dissipating Stage
• Pressure starts to increase, thus weakening the
strength of the wind and the system dies out.
• Pressure increase can be due to any of the following:
➢ The storm moves over land so there is less water
vapour in the air.
➢ The storm moves over land and friction slows the
wind down – less convergence, less uplift.
➢ The storms move further from the equator so the
sea temperature is too cold.

Page 9 Geography Revision Notes 2021

2.5. A cross section of a tropical cyclone

2.6. Associated weather

As you can see from the cross section above, tropical cyclones are symmetrical – they
are the same on both sides, with an eye of clear weather in the middle. They bring a
specific set of weather conditions listed below, which result in destruction and flooding.

• In the eye the pressure is very low (lower than 980hPa)

• There is a very steep pressure
gradient (isobars very close).
• Air is pulled to the low pressure (This
is called convergence).
• This results in gale force winds (up to
300 km/h) around the eye.
• The winds and low pressure cause a Eye
storm surge – high seas.
• As the air spirals to the centre it rises
quickly to form cumulonimbus clouds.
• These clouds bring torrential rain.
• This chain reaction causes the air to
rise quickly to higher than 10 - 15 km.
• The cloud bank along the eye is called
the vortex.
newsforkids.net
• Some of the air moves into the eye
and descends in the eye. Tropical cyclone Idai, 2019
• NB! Because the air in the eye is
descending, there are no clouds.

Page 10 Geography Revision Notes 2021

2.7. Impact on the environment and people

2.7.1. FOUR main causes of damage:

1. Strong winds of over 130 km/h. In extreme cases, the wind can reach over 300
km/h.
2. Storms over the oceans and high waves may flood coastal areas.
3. Floods are not only caused by the ocean, but also by the heavy rainfall
associated with the storm.
4. Landslides occur on all slopes where there is human activity in relatively unstable
areas, whether rural or urban.

2.7.2. Other consequences:

Storm surge damage in Cameron, Louisiana
• Storm surges cause coastal flooding.
after Hurricane Laura on 27 August 2020
• Destroy homes and other
buildings.
• Heavy rain causes flooding inland.
• Crops are ruined, buildings
damaged, bridges washed away,
telecommunications disrupted.
• Infected water can cause the
spread of diseases such as
cholera.
• Bridges and roads can be
destroyed, cutting off access for
emergency personnel.
• Pressure on the economy as food indianexpress.com
may need to be imported and
buildings and infrastructure needs
to be rebuilt.

2.8. Precautions:
• The only way to protect and lessen the damage is through proper management
strategies.
• The authorities and the public must be aware of the specific actions to take.
• Information and evacuation procedures need to be planned in advance so that
people know how to prepare themselves and their property.
• People may still not evacuate the area or move to shelters due to personal
perceptions, and cultural or economic factors.

3. ANTICYCLONES (High Pressure cells that dominate South Africa’s weather)

• South Africa is situated between the latitudes 22°S and 34°S. This means that our
climate is dominated by the belt of subtropical high pressures.
• The three high pressure cells that affect South Africa’s weather are:
➢ the South Atlantic High
➢ the Kalahari High and
➢ the South Indian High.

Page 11 Geography Revision Notes 2021

 Focus Geography Gr 12 adapted by Marilda van Niekerk

Need to know:
• What are anticyclones.
• Characteristics of anticyclonic circulation.
• The impact that each of the three anticyclones have on South Africa’s weather.

3.1. What are anticyclones

• Anticyclones are high pressure cells caused by descending air.

3.2. Characteristics of anticyclonic circulation

• South Africa lies between latitudes 22° S and 35° S.
• This position means our climate is dominated by the
belt of subtropical highs that circle Earth at 30° S.
• High pressure cells (anticyclones) are associated
with sinking air.
Anticyclone
• While the air is sinking, it circulates in an anti-
clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere.
• As the air sinks, it heats adiabatically.
• The descending air causes clear skies with dry,
stable air.
High pressure
• When the air reaches the ground, it diverges.
(diverging air)
• The three high pressure cells are found more north
in winter and are further south in summer. wiremea.com

3.3. The impact of the three anticyclones on South Africa’s weather

The anticyclones that affect South Africa's weather

• South Atlantic Anticyclone
• Kalahari High (Kalahari Anticyclone)
• South Indian Anticyclone

Page 12 Geography Revision Notes 2021

 Focus Geography Gr 12

South Atlantic High Pressure South Indian High Pressure

• The HP causes stable • The HP causes north easterly or
conditions on the west south easterly onshore moist air to
coast. reach South Africa.
• The HP can ridge in behind • Brings rain to the eastern side of SA.
a cold front and cause it to • It’s further north in summer but
move across the country. moves south in winter.

Kalahari High Pressure

• The HP is lower in winter, as the landmass is cold and there is less air
rising.
• Temperature inversion develops below the level of the escarpment
(Drakensberg Mountains) in winter.
• Moist air is unable to reach the plateau.
• The inversion lies at an altitude higher than the escarpment in summer,
which allows moist air to reach the plateau.
• The descending air of the HP leads to stable conditions, clear skies and
no rain over the plateau in winter. This leads to frost in winter.
• In winter, the off-shore air flow can cause berg wind conditions.

Page 13 Geography Revision Notes 2021

4. TRAVELLING DISTURBANCES THAT AFFECT SOUTH AFRICA’S WEATHER
When given a synoptic weather map to interpret and you are asked to explain or predict
the weather conditions, always consider the following:
Locate the high and low pressures because that will indicate the wind movement.
When wind is off-shore (blowing from land to sea), there is less chance of cloud and
rain.
When the wind is on-shore (sea to land), there is a good chance of cloud and rain. This
does not apply to the west coast because the air is too dry.

Outlined below are six examples of common pressure patterns, with their associated
weather.

4.1. Mid-Latitude Cyclone approaching from the west

• Mid-Latitude cyclones are driven by the Westerly Wind Belt, so they come in from
the west.
• The clockwise air movement around the low pressure cell turns the warm front away
from South Africa
• Therefore, it is the cold front that affects South Africa’s weather, causing winter
rainfall in south-western parts of the country.
• It only reaches South Africa in winter, when all the pressure belts have shifted north.

Marilda van Niekerk

4.2. South Atlantic Anticyclone ridging south of the country

• In summer, when the pressure belts are further south than normal, the South
Atlantic Anticyclone often extends south of the country.
• The anti-clockwise air movement drives moist air from the Indian Ocean, over the
land.
• This causes cloud and rainfall over the land.

Page 14 Geography Revision Notes 2021

4.3. Berg Wind conditions
• In winter (between April and September), the Kalahari High Pressure dominates the
eastern side of the country.
• Anti-clockwise air movement cause air to subside down the escarpment, heating
adiabatically.
• This results in hot, dry conditions.
• Although it is winter, temperatures over 30 ̊C will be experienced.
• Run-away veld fires may occur because the air and the vegetation are dry.
• If a mid-latitude cyclone follows shortly afterwards, temperatures my drop by as
much as 20 ̊C in a few hours.

4.4. Moisture front and Line thunderstorms

• In summer, the hot land surface contributes to a trough of low pressure developing
over the land.
• This trough usually extends from the northwest towards the southeast.
• Air is drawn to the low pressure, where it converges and rises.
• Warm, moist northeast winds come from the South Indian High Pressure (SIH).
• Cooler air from the South Atlantic high pressure (SAH) is moving in from the
southwest.
• Clouds and rain (line thunderstorms) often occur to the east of the trough /
moisture front.

Page 15 Geography Revision Notes 2021

4.5. Cut-off Low
• Normally the anti-clockwise air movement around the South Atlantic and South
Indian Anticyclones keep the low pressure cells in the West Wind Belt away from
the country.
• Sometimes the South Atlantic Anticyclone pushes a low pressure cell further north,
onto the land.
• If the South Indian Anticyclone is too close to the land, it may trap that low pressure
cell over the land.
• Moist air converges in this pressure cell, cause set-in rain for a few days.
• This is a major cause of flooding in the southern and central parts of the country.

L Blocking SIH
SAH

Marilda van Niekerk

4.6. Coastal Lows

• A Coastal Low is a low pressure cell that lies half over the land and half over the
sea.
• Normally only one will be seen at a time.
• They can occur along any part of our coastline.
• Remember that air move clockwise around the low pressures, so where there is on-
shore flow, clouds and rain is likely and where there is off-shore flow, dry conditions
prevail.

fog
L
clouds
L

clouds Ahead of the coastal

low the wind is warm
L and dry.
Behind the coastal low the
onshore wind is cooler
and moist. Marilda van Niekerk

Page 16 Geography Revision Notes 2021

4.7. Satellite images and synoptic weather maps that illustrate weather associated
with subtropical anti-cyclonic conditions

4.7.1. Winter Synoptic Chart – 23 June 2015

• Notice the following winter conditions:
➢ Low temperatures (and dew point temperatures) over the land
➢ Dominant Kalahari High Pressure over the interior
➢ Mid-latitude cyclones cross over South Africa
➢ Berg winds are common

Passing mid-latitude
cyclones cause
frontal rain over the
Southwestern Cape
in winter.

weathersa.co.za adapted by Marilda van Niekerk

4.7.2. The effect of the interior plateau on South Africa’s weather in winter
• The subsiding air in the Kalahari high pressure cell heats up at the dry adiabatic
lapse rate and is warmer than the air from the coastal areas.
• This causes a temperature inversion (inversion layer) to form.
• The inversion layer sinks below the escarpment and prevents any moist air from
reaching the central plateau.
• Therefore, no or very little rain occurs over the interior in winter.

Blue book series adapted by Marilda van Niekerk

Page 17 Geography Revision Notes 2021

4.7.3. Summer Synoptic Chart – 22 February 2000.
• Notice the following summer conditions:
➢ High temperatures over the interior with thunderstorms
➢ Heat low dominant over the interior and NO Kalahari HP
➢ Mid-latitude cyclones pass south of South Africa
➢ High pressures south of South Africa
➢ Tropical cyclones and line thunderstorms can occur

Focus Geography Gr 12 adapted by Marilda van Niekerk

4.7.4. The effect of the interior plateau on South Africa’s weather in winter
• In summer, the Kalahari high pressure system lifts due to continental heating.
• This allows the moist air from the coast to reach the interior and results in summer
rain.

Blue book series adapted by Marilda van Niekerk

Page 18 Geography Revision Notes 2021

4.7.5. The influence of the oceans
• Ocean currents influence the areas adjacent to
them.
• The cold Benguela Current is found on the
west coast. It causes cold air above the ocean
which holds very little moisture. Fog can form
on the west coast with very little rainfall.
• The warm Agulhas current on the east coast
causes the air to be warm, humid and unstable.
This increases the likelihood of rain. Atlantic Indian
Ocean
• Oceans moderate temperatures along the Ocean
coast, causing summers to be less hot and
winters to be less cold, than in the interior.
mer.co.za

4.7.6. The influence of South Africa’s altitude

• Most of South Africa is

situated on a plateau.
• The areas situated on the
plateau are generally cooler.
• The steep escarpment
along the eastern side of the
plateau prevents moist air
reaching the interior in
winter, resulting in dry
conditions over the plateau.

Pinterest

5. VALLEY CLIMATES
Valley climate questions can come up in the Mapwork Paper as well as Question 1 or
Question 2 of the theory paper.

Need to know:
• What is the micro-climate of valleys?
• Influence of slope aspect.
• Valley winds.
• Thermal belt, frost pocket and radiation fog.

5.1. What are the micro-climates of valleys?

• Micro-climate refers to the climate of
a small or local area
• Valley climates are local, small scale
variations in weather that takes place
in valleys.
• They have their own particular
temperature, pressure and wind
conditions. Marilda van Niekerk

Page 19 Geography Revision Notes 2021

5.2. Influence of slope aspect on temperature in valleys
• Aspect refers to the direction that a slope face.
• Slope aspect is the angle at which the sun’s rays strike a slope.
• Slopes facing the equator will be warmer than slopes facing away from the
equator.
• In the southern hemisphere, north facing slopes receive direct rays from the sun
and are warmer.

Top Class Geography Grade 12

• People living in the southern hemisphere choose to live on the warmer north-
facing slopes so that they can receive the maximum amount of sunlight, especially
in the winter.

5.3. Valley Winds

5.3.1. Anabatic wind / Upslope wind

• This is a wind that blows up the slopes of a mountain during the day.
• They occur during the day due to the heating of the earth’s surface.
• Sun’s rays heat up the slopes.
• Hot air is less dense and therefore rises, hence the winds blowing up the slope.
• This is called an upslope wind or anabatic wind (ana means 'up').
• Anabatic winds are gentle and can reach speeds up to 18,5 km/h.

5.3.2. Valley wind

• This wind blows up the valley floor
during the day.
• This is mostly from the coast towards
the mountains.

Warm air

kaiserscience.wordpress.com

Page 20 Geography Revision Notes 2021

5.3.3. Katabatic wind / Downslope wind
• These winds occur at night due to the cooling of the earth’s surface.
• Mountain tops cool quickly because of terrestrial radiation.
• The air sinks down the valley sides due to gravity flow and is known as katabatic
winds or down-slope winds.
• The cold air is denser and therefore sinks.
• This cold air collects in the bottom of the valley and may form a frost pocket in the
winter
• At night a temperature inversion can
also occur as a result of cool, katabatic
air displacing warm air that has
accumulated during the day.
• Katabatic winds can reach a speed of
up to 175 km/h for example the Bora.

5.3.4. Mountain wind

• These winds blown down the valley
floor at night.
Cool air
• They normally blow from the mountains
towards the coast. kaiserscience.wordpress.com

5.4. Thermal belt, frost pocket and radiation fog

• At night the land cools down, cooling the air above it.
• The cold, dense air sinks to the bottom of the valley due to gravity
• The cold air fills the lower part of the valley, displacing the warm which creates a
thermal belt about halfway to two thirds of the way up the valley.
• If the cold air at the bottom of the valley is colder than dew point, the water vapour
will condense forming fog. This is called radiation fog.
• If the dew point temperature is below zero degrees, frost will at the bottom of the
valley – frost pockets will form.
• These conditions are most likely to occur:
➢ during winter
➢ at night
➢ clear conditions (no cloud)
➢ calm conditions (no wind)

Focus Geography Grade 12

Page 21 Geography Revision Notes 2021

6. URBAN CLIMATES (City Climates)

Air temperature, humidity and wind movements in a built-up urban area are different
from the surrounding countryside because of the amount of artificial materials used in
urban areas.

Need to know:
• Why cities are warmer than outlying areas
• The effect on humidity and rainfall over urban areas
• Wind movements in cities

6.1. Temperature differences

Urban areas are warmer than surrounding rural areas because:

• Artificial surfaces (bricks, tar, glass, concrete) absorb heat better than vegetation
in rural areas.
• High-rise buildings catch the sun’s rays more directly and create a larger surface
are, therefore, heating is more efficient.
• Pollution traps terrestrial radiation at night. Keeping the temperatures warm.
• Artificial sources of heat such as factory furnaces and vehicle engines contribute
to raised urban temperatures.
• Less evaporation takes place in urban areas because storm water is drained
away and there is less vegetation so less transpiration occurs. (Evaporation has a
cooling effect)

slideshare.net

Page 22 Geography Revision Notes 2021

6.2. Humidity and rainfall
• Lower humidity in urban areas because storm water is channelled off into drains.
BUT
• More frequent rainfall occurs because: (change)
➢ Higher temperatures cause air to rise.
➢ This creates a low pressure.
➢ Which draws in moist air from the rural areas.
➢ Warm, unstable air rises easily creating cumulonimbus clouds.
➢ Thunderstorms are common.
➢ Hygroscopic nuclei form more clouds.

• Between 5 and 10% more cloud cover and rainfall occurs in cities than the
surrounding rural areas.

6.3. Wind
• High rise buildings create obstacles causing the wind speed to be up to 30%
slower in cities that surrounding areas.
BUT
• Buildings can channel wind, causing the wind to blow very strong in certain parts.

6.4. The impact of increased city temperatures on the urban microclimate

• Smog occurs that are toxic and cause poor visibility.
• Heat island effect/heat bubble leads to trapping of the pollutants especially at
night.
• Less snow and frost.
• Increased rainfall.

6.5. Urban heat island

• An urban heat island refers to a situation where the air temperature of a city centre
is warmer than the air temperature of surrounding suburban and rural areas.

bayareamonitor.org adapted by Marilda van Niekerk

Page 23 Geography Revision Notes 2021

6.5.1. During the day:
• Heat over the CBD causes the air to expand and rise.
• The inversion layer is elevated above the earth’s surface.
• Cool air is moving in from the rural areas to replace the rising hot air.
• The heat island is a dome-shaped cushion of warm air over the city because the
dominant air pressure over the region is anticyclonic.
• This results in subsiding warming air.
• This means that the warm, polluted air cannot rise high in the atmosphere.

6.5.2. During the night:

• The heat island is smaller at night.
• The city itself cools, so the upward-moving hot air currents are not as strong.
• The inversion layer is closer to the earth’s surface.
• The surfaces in the city lose heat quickly at night, but the grass, trees and
cultivated land of rural areas lose heat more slowly.
• As a result, there is no longer such a big difference between the temperature in
the surrounding rural area and the city centre, and so the air movement into the
city centre is also not as strong.

twitter.com adapted by Marilda van Niekerk

6.6. Urban heat island on an isotherm map
• An isotherm is a line that connects places with the same temperature.

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Page 24 Geography Revision Notes 2021
6.7. Urban pollution dome
• A pollution dome is a mass of polluted air in and above a city or industrial complex
that is prevented from rising by the presence of an inversion above it.

Still stable air Local wind

Pollution dome Wind direction

Pollution plume

City Rural area City Rural area

Via Afrika, Geography Grade 12
6.7.1. Causes of a pollution dome
• Vehicle exhausts – these emit carbon monoxide, which is a poisonous gas, and
nitrogen oxides.
• The burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, which produces carbon dioxide
and sulphur dioxide.

6.7.2. Effects of a pollution dome

• The dirty air traps the earth’s radiation and increases the heat above the city.
• It is a health risk for the people living in the city.
• Smog, a mixture of fog and smoke, limits visibility and can cause traffic accidents.
• The prevailing wind can cause the pollutants to affect the suburbs next to the
CBD.
• The effects can be worse if the city is situated in a valley for example
Pietermaritzburg in KwaZulu-Natal.

Pietermaritzburg in June 2019

news24.com

6.8. Strategies to reduce the heat island effect:

• Making surfaces lighter coloured and more reflective.
• Reduce private transport in CBD.
• Green methods of producing electricity for air conditioners - solar energy.
• Using eco-friendly building designs and materials.

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6.8.1. Greening of cities
• Increase the number of parks and open green spaces called green belts in urban
areas like Camps Drift in Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal and Sandton Gate in
Johannesburg.
• Plant more trees and vegetation on sidewalks.
• Install more water features to cool the air.

bizcommunity.com
6.8.2. Roof-top gardens
• Roof-top gardens occur where plants and vegetables are grown on the roofs of
buildings in a city.
• By replacing heat-absorbing materials like concrete and tar with plants, green roofs
help to lower the temperature of the air around them.
• Roof-top gardens act as insulators for buildings, which reduces the energy needed
for heating and cooling.
• Workers can also use these spaces to take a break.

Priority Zone - A roof-top garden in Durban

Before After

priorityzone.weebly.com

Page 26 Geography Revision Notes 2021