7.

Curriculum development is an ongoing

Lesson 1: Fundamentals of Curriculum process. Continuous monitoring, examination,
Designing evaluation, and improvement of curricula are to be
considered in the design of the curriculum. As the
Building on Peter Oliva's 10 Axioms for needs of learners change, as society changes, and as
Curriculum Designers new knowledge and technology appear, the
curriculum must change.
Before a teacher designs a curriculum, it would be of
great importance to connect to the fundamental 8. Curriculum development is more effective if it
concepts and ideas about the curriculum mentioned is a comprehensive process, rather than a
in Modules 1 and 2. Every curriculum designer, "piecemeal". A curriculum design should be based
implementer, or evaluator should take in mind the on a carefully designed plan, should clearly establish
following general axioms as a guide in curriculum intended outcomes, support resources and needed
development (Oliva, 2003): time available and should equip teaching staff
pedagogically.
1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary,
and desirable. Earlier it was stated that one of the 9. Curriculum development is more effective
characteristics of curriculum is its being dynamic. when it follows a systematic process. A curriculum
Because of this, teachers should respond to the design is composed of desired outcomes, subject
changes that occur in schools and in its context. matter content complemented with references, set of
Societal development and knowledge revolution procedures, needed materials and resources and
come so fast that the need to address the changing evaluation procedure which can be placed in a
condition requires new curriculum designs. matrix.

2. Curriculum is a product of its time. A relevant 10. Curriculum development starts from where
curriculum should respond to changes brought about the curriculum is. Curriculum planners and
by current social forces, philosophical positions, designers should begin with existing curriculum. An
psychological principles, new knowledge, and existing design is a good starting point for any
educational reforms. This is also called timeliness. teacher who plans to enhance and enrich a
curriculum.
3. Curriculum changes made earlier can exist
concurrently with newer curriculum changes. A Building upon the ideas of Oliva, let us continue
revision in a curriculum starts and ends slowly. More learning how to design a curriculum by identifying
often, curriculum is gradually phased in and phased its components. For most curricula the major
out, thus the changes that occur can coexist and components or elements are answers to the following
oftentimes overlap for long periods of time. questions:

4. Curriculum change depends on people who will 1. What learning outcomes need to be achieved?
implement the change. Teachers who will (Intended Learning Outcomes)
implement the curriculum should be involved in its
development, hence should know how to design a 2. What content should be included to achieve the
curriculum. Because the teachers are the learning outcomes? (Subject Matter)
implementers of the curriculum, it is best that they
should design and own the changes. This will ensure 3. What learning experiences and resources should
an effective and long-lasting change. be employed? (Teaching-Learning Methods)
5. Curriculum development is a cooperative 4. How will the achieved learning outcomes be
group activity. Group decisions in some aspects of measured? (Assessment of Achieved Learning
curriculum development are Outcomes)
suggested. Consultations with stakeholders when
possible will add to a sense of ownership. Even Elements or Components of a Curriculum Design
learners should participate in some aspect of
curriculum designing. Any significant change in the There are many labels or names for curriculum
curriculum should involve a broad range of design. Some would call it a syllabus, or a lesson
stakeholders to gain their understanding, support, plan. Some would call it a unit plan or a course
and input. design. Whatever is the name of the design, the
common components for all of them are almost the
6. Curriculum development is a decision-making same. However, some schools, institutions or
process made from choices of alternatives. A departments may add other minor parts or trimmings
curriculum developer or designer must decide what to the design.
contents to teach, philosophy or point of view to
support, how to provide for multicultural groups, Let us take the Lesson Plan as a miniscule
what methods or strategies, and what type of curriculum. A lesson plan or teaching guide -
evaluation to use. includes (1) Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO) or
the Desired Learning Outcomes (DILO) formerly
labelled as behavioral objectives, (2) Subject Matter
or Content, (3) Teaching and Learning Methods, and
(4) Assessment Evaluation. Each of these II. Content/Subject Matter
components or elements is described below.
The content of the lesson or unit is the topic or
I. Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning subject matter that will be covered. In selecting
Outcomes content, you should bear in mind the following
principles in addition to those mentioned about the
Begin with the end in view. The objectives or content in previous lessons:
intended learning outcomes are the reasons for
undertaking the learning lesson from the student's • Subject matter should be relevant to the
point of view; it is desired learning outcome that is outcomes of the curriculum. An effective
to be accomplished in a particular learning episode, curriculum is purposive and clearly focused
engaged in by the learners under the guidance of the on the planned learning outcomes.
teacher. As a curriculum designer, the beginning of
• Subject matter should be appropriate to
the learning journey is the learning outcomes to be
the level of the lesson or unit. An effective
achieved. In this way, both the learner and the
curriculum is progressive, leading students
teacher are guided by what to accomplish.
towards building on previous lessons.
The behavioral objectives, intended learning Contents which are too basic or too advanced
outcomes or desired learning outcomes are expressed for the development levels of learners make
in action words found in the revised Bloom's students either bored or baffled, and affect
Taxonomy of Objectives (Andersen & Krathwohl, their motivation to learn.
2003) for the development of the cognitive skills. For • Subject matter should be up to date and, if
the affective skills, the taxonomy made by possible, should reflect current knowledge
Krathwohl and for the psychomotor domain by and concepts.
Simpson.
III. References
The statement should be SMART: Specific,
Measurable, Attainable, Result-oriented and Time The reference follows the content. It tells where the
bound. For a beginner, it would help if you provide content or subject matter has been taken. The
the Condition, Performance and Extent or Level of reference may be a book, a module, or any
Performance in the statement of the intended publication. It must bear the author of the material
learning outcomes. and if possible, the publications. Some examples are
given below.
For example, if a lesson intends the students to
identify the parts of a simple flower as stated in the 1. Project Wild (1992). K to 12 Activity Guide, An
desired learning outcomes, then students should have Interdisciplinary Supplementary Conservation and
identified the parts of a simple flower, at the end of Environmental Education Program. Council of
the lesson. Environmental Education, Bethesda, MD
Sometimes the phrase intended learning
outcomes is used to refer to the anticipated results 2. Shipman, James and Jerry Wilson, et al (2009). An
after completing the planned activity or lesson. In Introduction to Physical Science.Houghton Mifflin
framing learning outcomes, it is good practice to: Co. Boston MA

• Express each outcome in terms of what 3. Romo, Salvador B. (2013). Horticulture an

successful students will be able to do. For Exploratory Course. Lorimar Publishing Inc.
example, rather than stating Students will be Quezon City
able to explain the reason why… it should be:
‘Students must have explained the reasons 4. Bilbao, Purita P. and Corpuz, Brenda B. et al
why…’ This helps students to focus on what (2012). The Teaching Profession 2nd Ed. Lorimar
they have to achieve as learning. It will also Publishing Inc. Quezon City
help curricularist devise appropriate
assessment tasks. IV. Teaching and Learning Methods
• Include different kinds of outcomes. The These are the activities where the learners derive
most common are cognitive objectives experiences. It is always good to keep in mind the
(learning facts, theories, formulae, principles teaching strategies that students will experience
etc.) and performance outcomes (learning (lectures, laboratory classes, fieldwork etc.) and
how to carry out procedures, calculations and make them learn. The teaching-learning methods
processes, which typically include gathering should allow cooperation, competition as well as
information and communicating results). In individualism or independent learning among the
some contexts, affective outcomes are students. For example:
important too (for developing attitudes or
values, e.g. those required as a person and for * Cooperative learning activities allow students to
a particular profession). work together. Students are guided to learn on their
own to find solutions to their problems. The role of
the teachers is to guide the learners. Democratic
process is encouraged, and each one contributes to
the success of learning. Students learn from each
other in different ways. Group projects and activities Application of the Fundamental Components to
considerably enhance the curriculum. Other Curriculum Designs

* Independent learning activities allow learners to While our example refers only to designing a lesson
develop personal responsibility. The degree of plan which is a mini curriculum, similar components
independence to learn how to learn is enhanced. This will also be used in making a syllabus for teaching in
strategy is more appropriate for fast learners. higher education courses or other curricular projects.
Based on the curriculum models we have learned, the
* Competitive activities, where students will test fundamental components include the following:
their competencies against another in a healthy
manner allow learners to perform to their maximum.
Most successful individuals in their adult life are Major components of a Course Design or Syllabus
competitive, even in early schooling. They mostly
become the survivors in a very competitive world. 1. Intended Outcomes (or Objectives)

* The use of various delivery modes to provide 2. Content/Subject Matter (with references)
learning experiences is recommended. Online
learning and similar modes are increasingly 3. Methods/Strategies (with needed resources)
important in many curricula, but these need to be
planned carefully to be effective. 4. Evaluation (means of assessment)

V. Assessment/Evaluation All other additional components are trimmings that

each designer may place. This additional part may be
Learning occurs most effectively when students an institutional template, suggested by other
receive feedback, i.e. when they receive information curriculum experts and as required by educational
on what they have already (and have not) learned. agencies like the Department of Education,
The process by which this information is generated Commission on Higher Education, Accrediting
is assessment. It has three main forms: Agencies, Professional Organizations that would
serve the purposes they intend to achieve.
• Self assessment, through which students
learn to monitor and evaluate their own
learning. This should be a significant element
in the curriculum because we aim to produce
graduates who are appropriately reflective
and self-critical.
• Peer assessment, in which students provide
feedback on each other's learning. This can
be viewed as an extension of self-assessment
and presupposes trust and mutual respect.
Research suggests that students can learn to
judge each other's work as reliably as staff.
• Teacher assessment, in which the teacher
prepares and administers tests and gives
feedback on the student's performance.

Assessment may be formative (providing feedback

to help the student learn more)
or summative (expressing a judgment on the
student's achievement by reference to stated criteria).
Many assessment tasks involve an element of both,
e.g. an assignment that is marked and returned to the
student with detailed comments.
Summative assessment usually involves the
allocation of marks or grades. This helps the teacher
make decisions about the progress or performance of
the students.
Students usually learn more by understanding the
strengths and weaknesses of their work than by
knowing the mark or grade given to it. For this
reason, summative assessment tasks (including
unseen examinations) should include an element of
formative feedback, if possible.
Lesson 2: Approaches to Curriculum history should learn the subject matter like
Designing historians, students in biology should learn how the
biologists learn, and so with students in mathematics,
Types of Curriculum Design Models who should learn how mathematicians learn. In the
same manner, teachers should teach how the scholars
There are many ways of looking at curriculum and in the discipline will convey the particular
designing one. For our own purposes, let us focus on knowledge.
the most widely used examples.
Discipline design model of curriculum is often used
1. Subject-Centered Design in college, but not in the elementary or secondary
This is a curriculum design that focuses on the levels. So, from the subject centered curriculum,
content of the curriculum. The subject-centered curriculum moves higher to a discipline when the
design corresponds mostly to the textbook because students are more mature and are already moving
textbooks are usually written based on the specific towards their career path or disciplines as science,
subject or course. Henry Morrison and William mathematics, psychology, humanities, history and
Harris are the few curricularists who firmly believed others.
in this design. As practiced, school hours are * Correlation design. Coming from a core,
allocated to different school subjects such as Science, correlated curriculum design links separate subject
Mathematics, Language, Social Studies, Physical designs in order to reduce fragmentation. Subjects
Education, and others. This is also practiced in the are related to one another and still maintain their
Philippines, because a school day is divided into identity. For example, English literature and social
class period, a schoolyear into quarters or semester. studies correlate well in the elementary level. In the
Most of the schools using this kind of structure and two subjects, while history is being studied, different
curriculum design aim for excellence in the specific literary pieces during the historical period are also
subject discipline content. being studied. The same is true when science
Subject-centered curriculum design has also some becomes the core, mathematics is related to it, as they
variation which are focused on the individual are taken in chemistry, physics and biology. Another
subject, specific discipline and a combination of example is literature as the core with art, music,
subjects or disciplines which are a broad field or history, geography will be related to it. To use
interdisciplinary. correlated design, teachers should come together and
plan their lessons cooperatively.
* Subject design. What subject are you teaching?
What subject are you taking? These are two simple * Broad field design/interdisciplinary. Broad field
questions that the teacher and the learner can easily design or interdisciplinary is a variation of the
answer. It is because they are familiar with the subject-centered design This design was made to
subject design curriculum. cure the compartmentalization of the separate subject
and integrate the contents that are related to one
Subject design curriculum is the oldest and so far the another. Thus, subjects such as geography,
most familiar design for teachers, parents and other economics, political science, anthropology,
laymen. According to the advocates, subject design sociology and history are fused into one subject
has an advantage because it is easy to deliver. called social studies. Language arts will include
Textbooks are written and support instructional grammar, literature, linguistics, spelling, and
materials are commercially available. Teachers are composition.
familiar with the format, because they were educated
using also the design. In the Philippine educational Sometimes called holistic curriculum, broad fields
system, the number of subjects in the elementary draw around themes and integration.
education is fewer than in the secondary level. In Interdisciplinary design is similar to thematic design,
college, the number of subjects also differs according where a specific theme is identified, and all other
to the degree programs being pursued. For each subject areas revolve around the theme.
subject, a curriculum is being designed. 2. Learner-Centered Design
However, the drawback of this design is that Among the progressive educational psychologists,
sometimes, learning is so compartmentalized. It the learner is the center of the educative process. This
stresses so much the content and forgets about emphasis is very strong in the elementary level,
students' natural tendencies, interests and however; more concern has been placed on the
experiences. The teacher becomes the dispenser of secondary and even the tertiary levels. Although in
knowledge and the learners are simply the empty high school, the subject or content has become the
vessel to receive the information or content from the focus and in the college level, the discipline is the
teacher. This is a traditional approach to teaching center, both levels still recognize the importance of
and learning. the learner in the curriculum.
* Discipline design. This curriculum design model
is related to the subject design. However, while
subject design centers only on the cluster of content,
discipline design focuses on academic
disciplines. Discipline refers to specific knowledge
learned through a method which the scholars use to
study a specific content of their fields. Students in
Here are some examples of curriculum designs curriculum, content cuts across subject boundaries
which are learner centered. and must be based on the needs, concerns and
abilities of the students. Two examples are given for
* Child-centered design. This design is often the problem- centered design curriculum.
attributed to the influence of John Dewey, Rousseau,
Pestallozi and Froebel. This curriculum design is * Life-situations design. What makes the design
anchored on the needs and interests of the child. The unique is that the contents are organized in ways that
learner is not considered a passive individual but one allow students to clearly view problem areas. It uses
who engages with his/her environment. One learns the past and the present experiences of learners as a
by doing. Learners actively create, construct means to analyze the basic areas of living. As a
meanings and understanding as viewed by the starting point, the pressing immediate problems of
constructivists. In the child-centered design, learners the society and the students existing concerns are
interact with the teachers and the environment, thus utilized. Based on Herbert Spencer's curriculum
there is a collaborative effort on both sides to plan writing, his emphases were activities that sustain life,
lessons, select content and do activities together. enhance life, aid in rearing children, maintain the
Learning is a product of the child's interaction with individual 's social and political relations and
the environment. enhance leisure, tasks and feelings. The connections
of subject matter to real situations increases the
* Experience-centered design. This design is relevance of the of the curriculum.
similar to the child-centered design. Although the
focus remains to be the child, experience-centered * Core problem design. It centers on general
design believes that the interests and need of learners education and the problems are based on the common
cannot be pre-planned. Instead, experiences of the human activities. The central focus of the core
learners become the starting point of the curriculum, design includes common needs, problems, and
thus the school environment is left open and free. concerns of the learners. Popularized by Faunce and
Learners are mad to choose from various activities Bossing in 1959, it presented ways on how to
that the teacher provides. The learners are proceed using core design of a curriculum. These are
empowered to shape their own learning from the the steps:
different opportunities given by the teacher. In a
school where experience-centered curriculum is Step 1. Make group consensus on important
provided, different learning centers are found, time problems.
is flexible and children are free to make options. Step 2. Develop criteria for selection of important
Activities revolve around different emphasis such as problem.
touching. feeling, imagining, constructing, relating
and others. The emergence of multiple intelligence Step 3. State and define the problem.
theory blends well with experience-centered design
curriculum. Step 4. Decide on areas of study, including class
grouping.
* Humanistic design. The key influence in this
curriculum design is Abraham Maslow and Carl Step 5. List the needed information for resources.
Rogers. Maslow's theory of self-actualization Step 6. Obtain and organize information.
explains that a person who achieves this level is
accepting of self, others and nature; is simple, Step 7. Analyze and interpret the information.
spontaneous and natural; is open to different
Step 8. State the tentative conclusions.
experiences; possesses empathy and sympathy
towards the less fortunate among the many others. Step 9. Present a report to the class individually or by
The person can achieve this state of self-actualization group.
later in life but has to start the process while still in
school. Carl Rogers, on the other hand, believed that Step 10. Evaluate the conclusions.
a person can enhance self-directed learning by
Step 11. Explore other avenues for further problem
improving self-understanding, the basic attitude to
solving.
guide behavior.
These are some examples of curriculum designs.
In humanistic curriculum design, the development of
There are many more which are emerging and those
self is the ultimate objective of learning. It stresses
that have evolved in the past. The example given may
the whole person and the integration of thinking,
be limited, however, for our purposes, they can very
feeling and doing. It considers the cognitive,
well represent curriculum designs.
affective and psychomotor domains to be
interconnected and must be addressed in the Approaches to Curriculum Design
curriculum. It stresses the development of positive
self-concept and interpersonal skills. How will a particular design be approached by the
teacher? After writing a curriculum based on the
3. Problem-Centered Design specific design, let us see how a teacher will
approach this. We will find out the utilization of the
Generally, problem-centered design draws on social
example design.
problems, needs, interest and abilities of the learners.
Various problems are given emphasis. There are
those that center on life situations, contemporary life
problems, areas of living and many others. In this
Child or Learner-Centered Approach. Example of subject-centered approach is given
below.
This approach to curriculum design is based on the
underlying philosophy that the child or the learner is
the center of the educational process. It means that In another setting, School Y aims to produce
the curriculum is constructed based on the needs, the best graduates in the school district. Every
interest, purposes and abilities of the learners. The learner must excel in all academic subjects to
curriculum is also built upon the learners’ be on top of every academic competition. The
knowledge, skills, previous learnings and potentials. higher the level of cognitive intelligence, the
better the learner. Hence the focus of learning
From its design, how should a child-centered is mastery of the subject matter in terms of
curriculum be approached? Let us consider these content. Every student is expected to be always
principles. on top in terms of mastery of
discipline, Memorization, and drill are
Principles of Child-Centered Curriculum
important learning skills. The school gives
Approach
emphasis to intellectual development, and sets
1. Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights aside emotional, psychomotor and even value
of the child. development, Success means mastery of the
content.
2. Make all activities revolve around the overall
development of the learner.
Problem-Centered Approach. This approach is
3. Consider the uniqueness of every learner in a based on a design which assumes that in the process
multicultural classroom. of living, children experience problems. Thus,
problem solving enables the learners to become
4. Consider using differentiated instruction or increasingly able to achieve complete or total
teaching. development as individuals.
5. Provide a motivating supportive learning This approach is characterized by the following
environment for all the learners. views and beliefs:
The child - centered approach is illustrated in the 1. The learners are capable of directing and guiding
example below: themselves in resolving problems, thus developing
every learner to be independent.
School X is anchored on the theory of multiple
2. The learners are prepared to assume their civic
intelligences in all its curricular and co-
responsibilities through direct participation in
curricular activities. Every classroom provides
different activities.
activity centers where children can learn on
their own with the different learning resource 3. The curriculum leads the learners in the
materials. Learners can just choose which recognition of concerns and problems in seeking
learning center to engage in with different solutions. Learners are problem solvers themselves.
resources. This arrangement allows for the
capacity of every learner to be honed. It also Example of the problem-centered approach is
allows learning how to learn, hence will presented below.
develop independence. The teacher acts as
guide for every learner. The learner sets the School Z believes that a learner should be
goal that can be done within the frame of time. trained to solve real life problems that come
about because of the needs, interests and
Subject-Centered Approach. This is anchored on a abilities of the learners. Problems persistent in
curriculum design which prescribes separate distinct life and society that affect daily living are also
subjects for every educational level: basic education, considered. Most of the school activities
higher education or vocational-technical education. revolve around finding solutions to problems
This approach considers the following principles: like poverty, drug problems, climate change,
natural calamities and many more. Since the
1. The primary focus is the subject matter. school is using a problem-based design, the
same approach is used. Case study and
2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information
practical work are the teaching strategies that
which may be detached from life.
are utilized. Problem-centered approach has
3. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying become popular in many schools.
problems of living.
1. Learning means accumulation of content, or We have given examples of curriculum design and
knowledge. the corresponding approaches. Again, the choice of
the design is influenced by philosophical and
2. Teacher's role is to dispense the content. psychological beliefs of the designer. It is very
important that as a curricularist, you will be able to
understand the different design models and how to
approach each one.
Lesson 3: Curriculum Mapping 1. Enter the teaching-learning methods to be used to
achieve the outcomes.
Curriculum Mapping
2. Align and enter the assessment procedure and
Curriculum mapping is a process or procedure that tools to the intended learning outcomes, content
follows curriculum designing. It is done before areas, and resources.
curriculum implementation or the operationalization
of the written curriculum. This process was 3. Circulate the map among all involved personnel
introduced by Heidi Hayes Jacobs in 2004 in her for their inputs.
book Getting Results with Curriculum Mapping
(ASCD, 2004). This approach is an ongoing process 4. Revise and refine map based on suggestions and
or "work- in- progress. It is not a one time initiative distribute to all concerned.
but continuing action, which involves the teacher and You will find Example A as a component of an OBE-
other stakeholder who have common concerns. Inspired syllabus for the higher education. However,
Curriculum mapping can be done by the teachers this can be modified for basic education to serve the
alone, a group of teachers teaching the same subject, specific purpose as you will see in some maps.
the department, the whole school or district or the
whole educational system. Example B (For a degree program in
college) (Based on CHED OBE Handbook, 2014)
Some curricularists would describe curriculum
mapping as making a map to success. There are 1. Make a matrix or a spreadsheet.
common questions that are asked by different
stakeholders, like teachers, colleagues, parents, 2. Identify the degree or program outcomes (ex.
school officials and the community as well. These BEEd, or BSED).
questions may include: 3. Identify the subjects or courses under the degree
1. What do my students learn? (GenEd, Prof Ed, and Major for BSEd).

2. What do they study in the first quarter? 4. List the subjects along the vertical cells of the
matrix in a logical or chronological order.
3. What are they studying in the school throughout
the year? 5. List the degree program outcomes along the
horizontal cell (use code as PO1, PO2...if outcomes
4. Do my co-teachers who handle the same subject, are too long to fit in the cell) PO means Program
cover the same content? Achieve the same Outcomes.
outcomes? Use similar strategies?
6. Cross the Subject and the Outcome, and determine
5. How do I help my students understand the if such subject accomplishes the outcomes as either
connections between my subjects and other subjects Learned (L), Performed (P) or given Opportunity
within the year? Next year? (O). Place the code in the corresponding cell.
Curriculum mapping, may be able to answer these 1. All cells should be filled up.
questions above. Furthermore, mapping will produce
a curriculum map, which is a very functional tool in 2. After accomplishing the map, use it as a guide for
curriculum development. all teachers teaching the course for students to
complete the degree in four years.
Curriculum Mapping Process
The Curriculum Map
There are many ways of doing things, according to
what outcome one needs to produce. This is also true Curriculum maps are visual timelines that outline
with curriculum mapping. However, whatever desired learning outcomes to be achieved, contents,
outcome (map) will be made, there are suggested skills and values taught, instructional time,
steps to follow. assessment to be used, and the overall student
movement towards the attainment of the intended
Example A. outcomes. Curricular maps may be simple or
elaborate that can be used by individual teacher, a
1. Make a matrix or a spread sheet. department, the whole school or educational system.
2. Place a timeline that you need to cover. (one A map is geared to a school calendar.
quarter, one semester, one year) This should be Curriculum maps provide quality control of what are
dependent on time frame of a particular curriculum taught in schools to maintain excellence, efficiency
that was written. and effectiveness. It is intended to improve
3. Enter the intended learning outcomes, skills instruction and maintain quality of education that all
needed to be taught or achieved at the end of the stakeholders need to be assured.
teaching. Sometimes, parents and teachers would ask
4. Enter in the same matrix the content areas/subject questions like: "Why is my friend's son studying
areas to be covered. decimals in Mr. Bernardo's class and my own son
is not studying the same in Miss Julia's class when
5. Align and name each resource available such as they are of the same grade level?" or "Why do some
textbooks, workbooks, module next to subject areas. of my students recognize the parts of speech while
others are totally lost?"
Parents, teachers and the whole educational Ornstein and Hunkins in 1998 defined curriculum
community can look at the curriculum map to see implementation as the interaction between the
that intended outcomes and content are covered. A curriculum that has been written and planned and the
map can reassure stakeholders specific information persons (teachers) who are in charge to deliver it. To
for pacing, and alignment of the subject horizontally them, curriculum implementation implies the
or vertically. It will also avoid redundancy, following:
inconsistencies and misalignment. Courses that are
not correctly aligned will allow teachers to quickly * Shift from what is current to a new or enhanced
assess the mastery of the skills in the previous grade, curriculum.
to avoid unnecessary reteaching. * Change in knowledge, actions, attitudes of the
For horizontal alignment, called sometimes as persons involved.
"pacing guide", will make all teachers, teaching the * Change in behavior using new strategies and
same subject in a grade level follow the same resources.
timeline and accomplishing the same learning
outcomes. This is necessary for state-mandated, * Change which requires efforts hence goals should
standard-based assessment that we have in schools. be achievable.
Vertical alignment, will see to it that concept
development which may be in hierarchy or in spiral Loucks and Lieberman (1983) define curriculum
form does not overlap but building from a simple to implementation as the trying out of a new practice
more complicated concepts and skills. Alignment, and what it looks like when actually used in a school
either vertical or horizontal, will also develop system. It simply means that implementation should
interdisciplinary connections among teachers and bring the desired change and improvement.
students, between and among courses, teachers can In the classroom context, curriculum
verify that skills and content are addressed in other implementation means "teaching" what has been
courses or to higher levels, thus making learning written in the lesson plan. Implementing means using
more relevant. the plan as a guide to engage with the learners in the
A curriculum map is always a work in progress, that teacher-learning process with the end in view that
enables the teacher or the curriculum review team to learning has occurred and learning outcomes have
create and recreate the curriculum. It provides a good been achieved. It involves the different strategies of
information for modification of curriculum, teaching with the support instructional materials to
changing of standards and competencies in order to go with the strategy.
find ways to build connections in the elements of the In a larger scale, curriculum
curricula. implementation means putting the curriculum into
operation with the different implementing agents.
Curriculum implementation takes place in a class, a
MODULE 4 school, a district a division, or the whole educational
system. In higher education, curriculum
Lesson 1: Implementing the Designed implementation happens for the course, a degree
Curriculum as a Change Process program, the institution, or the whole higher
education system. It requires time, money, personal
As we mentioned earlier, change is inevitable in interaction, personal contacts, and support.
curriculum development. To be relevant, we need to
change - a change for the better and it can be Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process
obviously seen through implementation. Kurt Levin's Force Field Theory and Curriculum
Curriculum Implementation Defined Change

Following the curriculum models of Tyler, Taba, Kurt Levin (1951), the father of social psychology
Saylor and Alexander or Lewis, is the next step to explains the process of change. The model can be
curriculum designing which is curriculum used to explain curriculum change and
implementing. This is the phase where teacher action implementation.
takes place. It is one of the most crucial process in In the education landscape, there are always two
curriculum development although many education forces that oppose each other. These are the driving
planners would say: "A good plan is work half done." force and the restraining force. When these two
If this is so, then the other half of the success of forces are equal, the state is in equilibrium, or
curriculum development rests in the hands of the balance. There will be a status quo, hence there will
implementor who is the teacher. be no change. The situation or condition will stay the
Curriculum implementation means putting into same. However, when the driving force overpowers
practice the written curriculum that has been the restraining force, then change will occur. If the
designed in syllabi, course of study, curricular opposite happens that is when the restraining force is
guides, and subjects. It is a process wherein the stronger than the driving force, change is prevented.
learners acquire the planned or intended knowledge, This is the idea of Kurt Levin in his Force Field
skills, and attitudes that are aimed at enabling the Theory.
same learners to function effectively in society.
(SADC MoE Africa, 2000)
We shall use this theory to explain curriculum implementation should be
change. In illustration below shows that there are developmental, participatory and supportive.
driving forces on the left and the resisting forces on
the right. If you look at the illustration there is It should be developmental in the sense that it
equilibrium. If the driving force is equal to the should develop multiple perspectives, increase
restraining force will change happen? Do you think, integration and make learning autonomous, create a
there will be curriculum change in this situation? climate of openness and trust, and appreciate and
Why? affirm strengths of the teacher. There should be
teacher support in trying new tasks, reflection on the
Based on Kevin’s Force Field Model new experiences and challenge.
According to Levin, change will be better if the There are simple stages in the developmental change
restraining forces shall be decreased, rather than process for the teachers. First, is orientation and
increasing the driving force. As a curricularist, how preparation. The initial use is very mechanical or
would you do this? routinary. However, as the skills are honed and
mastery of the routine is
Let us look first at the different changes that occur in established, refinement follows. This means
the curriculum. It is important to identify these as adjustments are made to better meet the needs of the
part of our understanding or curriculum learners and achieve the learning outcomes. In this
implementation. step, there will be continuous reflection, feedback
Categories of Curriculum Change and refinement.

McNeil in 1990 categorized curriculum change as Participatory. For curriculum implementation to

follows: succeed, it should be participatory, especially
because other stakeholders like peers, school leaders,
1. The current curriculum will be replaced or parents and curriculum specialists are necessary.
substituted by a new one. Sometimes, we call this a Characteristics of teacher styles, commitment,
complete overhaul. Example, changing an old book willingness to change, skills, and readiness are
to entirely new one, not merely a revision. critical to implementation. This should be coupled
with organizational structure, principal style, student
2. In alteration, there is a minor change to the current population characteristics and other factors. Trust
or existing curriculum. For example, instead of using among key players should also be sought as this is a
graphing paper for mathematics teaching, this can be positive starting point. Involvement and participation
altered by using a graphing calculator. encourage sense of ownership and accountability.
Restructuring. Building a new structure would Participation builds a learning community which is
mean major change or modification in the school very necessary in curriculum implementation.
system, degree program or educational system. Supportive curriculum implementation is required
Using an integrated curriculum for the whole school in the process of change. Material support like
for K to 12 requires the primary and secondary levels supplies, equipment and conductive learning
to work as a team. Another example is a curriculum environment like classrooms and laboratory should
that will be restructured when there is a significant be made available. Likewise, human support is very
involvement of parents in the child's instead of much needed. The school leader or head should
leaving everything to the teacher. Using the "In- provide full school or institutional support to the
school Off-school" or a blended curriculum is an implementation of the new curriculum. They too
example of restructuring. have to train to understand how to address
1. These are changes that are disruptive, but teachers curriculum change as part of their instructional as
have to adjust to them within a fairly short time. For well as management functions.
example, if the principal changes the time schedule Time is an important commodity for a successful
because there is a need to catch up with the national change process. For any innovation to be fully
testing time or the dean, the teacher has to shorten implemented, period of three to five years to
schedule to accommodate unplanned extracurricular institutionalize a curriculum is suggested. Time is
activities. needed by the teachers to plan, adapt, train or
2. Value orientation. To McNeil, this is a type of practice, provide the necessary requirements and get
curriculum change. Perhaps this classification will support. Time is also needed to determine when the
respond to shift in the emphasis that the teacher implementation starts and when it will conclude,
provides which are not within the mission or vision since curriculum implementation is time bound.
of the school or vice versa. For example, when new Support from peers, principals, external stakeholders
teachers who are recruited in religiousschools give will add to the success of implementation. When
emphasis on academics and forget the formation of teachers share ideas, work together, solve problems,
values or faith, they need a curriculum value create new materials, and celebrate success, more
orientation. Likewise, all teachers in the public likely that curriculum implementation will be
schools, undergo teacher induction program which is welcomed.
a special curriculum for newly hired teachers.
Regardless of the kind of change in curriculum and
implementation, the process of change may contain
three important elements. As a process, curriculum