SURVEYING-II

(CE-229)

Lecture Notes
Edited By;
Engr. Arshad A. Azeemi
Lecturer, Department of Agricultural Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar, KPK
Email: arshadali@uetpeshawar.edu.pk
 CLASS OUTLINES
FIELD ASTRONOMY

• Astronomical Terms (Terminologies)

• Field Astronomy (Astronomical Terms)
• Solar and Stellar Observations for Position and Azimuth Determination

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 Astronomical Terms
The Celestial Sphere is an imaginary sphere upon the surface of which all the stars in the sky
appear to be studded to an observer stationed at its center. OR An imaginary sphere on which all
stars, moon, sun and planets etc are considered projected for analysis of position are called
Celestial Sphere.
The Zenith (Z) is the intersection of a vertical line through the observer’s station with the upper
portion of the celestial sphere. It is the point on the celestial sphere immediately above the
observer’s station. OR The point on Celestial Sphere vertically above the observer position on
earth is called Zenith. OR point immediately above the observer’s station.

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 Astronomical Terms
The Nadir (Z1 or N) is the intersection of a vertical line through the observer’s station with the
lower portion of the celestial sphere. It is the point on the celestial sphere vertically below the
observer’s station. OR Point on Celestial sphere exactly below the observer’s position is called
Nadir. OR point immediately vertically below the observer’s stations.
Z-N Line: Line passing through Zenith and Nadir is called Zenith-Nadir Line (Z-N Line) just like the axis of the earth.
The Celestial Horizon (True or Rational Horizon) is the great circle in which a plane at right
angle to the Zenith and Nadir line and passing through the center of the earth intersects the
celestial sphere. The Zenith and Nadir are the poles of the celestial horizon. OR Great Circle (or
its cutting plane) perpendicular to the Z-N Line on Celestial Sphere is called Celestial Horizon.

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 Astronomical Terms
The Sensible Horizon is the circle in which a plane tangent to the earth’s surface (or at right
angles to the Zenith and Nadir line) and passing through the point of observation intersects the
celestial sphere. The line of sight of an accurately levelled telescope lies in this plane. OR
Sensible Horizon: Sensible Horizon is a circle parallel to Celestial Horizon that have center as
position of the observer on earth.
The Polar Axis (Polar Diameter) is the diameter about which the earth spins. The extremities of
the axis of rotation (polar axis) of the earth are known as the poles. They are distinguished as the
North Pole and the South Pole.

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 Astronomical Terms
The Terrestrial Equator (Polar Equator) is the great circle of the earth, the plane of which is
perpendicular to the axis of rotation (Polar axis).
Pole Points / Celestial Poles: Axis of rotation of earth meets Celestial Sphere at two points called
Pole Points. OR Points where earth axis of rotation meet with celestial sphere. OR The points of
intersection of the axis of the earth when produced with the celestial sphere.

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 Astronomical Terms
Celestial Equator: The Great Circle whose plane is perpendicular to axis of rotation of earth on
Celestial Sphere is called Celestial Equator. OR Great circle at right angle to the axis of rotation.
OR The great circle in which the plane of the equator cuts the celestial sphere.
Ecliptic: Path traversed by the sun on Celestial Sphere is called Ecliptic. OR The Ecliptic is the
great circle which the sun appears to trace on the celestial sphere with the earth as a center in the
course of a year.

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 Astronomical Terms
The Celestial Meridian is the great circle in which the plane passing through the celestial poles
intersects the celestial sphere.
The Meridian of a place or an observer is the great circle, passing through the zenith, and nadir,
and the poles. OR Vertical circle passing through Zenith, Nadir and Pole Points is called Observer
Meridian (Just like the Prime Meridian and International Date Line).

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 Astronomical Terms
Vertical Circle: All those great circles passing through Zenith and Nadir are called Vertical Circles
(just like meridians (Longitudes) on the surface of the earth running from North Pole to the South
Pole). The meridian of a place is also a vertical circle.
Prime Vertical: Vertical Circle perpendicular to the observer meridian is called Prime Vertical. OR
the vertical circle which passes through the east and west points of the horizon. It is at right angles
to the meridian of the place/observer.

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 Astronomical Terms
Latitude: It’s the angular distance measured from equator to the north pole or south pole along the
meridian. OR The Latitude of a place or station is the angular distance measured from the equator
towards the nearer pole, along the meridian of the plane. The latitude is the declination of the
zenith.
Co-Latitude: of a place is the angular distance from the zenith to the pole. It is the complement of
the latitude, and it therefore equal to 90o – latitude.

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 Astronomical Terms
Longitude: It is the angular distance taken from the prime meridian along the equator to either
side East or West. OR The longitude of a place is the angular measure of the arc of the equator
between some primary meridian and the meridian of the place.
Altitude: of a heavenly body is its angular distance above the horizon, measured on the vertical
circle passing through the body.

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 Astronomical Terms
Co-Altitude: Also called the Zenith Distance, is the angular distance of a heavenly body from the
zenith. It is the complement of the altitude and equals to 90o – Altitude.
Azimuth: Angle between the Observer Meridian and the vertical circle (passing through the body
e.g. Sun, star, moon or planet). OR The Azimuth of a heavenly body is the angle between the
observer’s meridian and the vertical circle passing through the body.

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 Astronomical Terms
Declination: the angular distance of a point north or south of the celestial equator. "the
declination of Arcturus (the 4th brightest star; 36 light-years from Earth) is 19 degrees north". OR
Declination of a heavenly body is the angular distance from the equator, measure along the
meridian generally called the declination circle, i.e. the great circle passing through the body and
the celestial poles.
Co-Declination: also called polar distance, is the angular distance of the heavenly body from the
poles. It is the complement of the declination and is qual to 90o – Declination.

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 Astronomical Terms
Hour Angle: The Hour Angle of a heavenly body is the angle between the observer’s meridian
and the declination circle passing through the body.
Right Ascension: of a heavenly body is its equatorial angular distance measured eastward from
the first point of Aries.

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 Field Astronomy
Spherical Trigonometry

Length of a Great Circle Arc

Length of a Small Circle Arc

Spherical Triangle

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 Field Astronomy
Properties of Spherical Triangle
(Fig: Intersection of Three Great Circles forming the Spherical Triangle ABC)

Formulae in Spherical Trigonometry

Area of a Spherical Triangle

Latitude and Longitude

Parallel of Latitude

Nautical Mile

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 Field Astronomy
Example 1: Find the distance between London (UK) and Baghdad (Iraq).
Let B is London while C is Baghdad.
London has Latitude of 51.30°N and a Longitude of 0.10°W.
Baghdad has Latitude of 33.20°N and a Longitude of 44.26°E.

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