Chapter 1& 2

Bahir Dar University
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Fundamental of Electricity and Electronics Device

2nd Year Compute Science
Section B
June 14, 2021
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Outline
1 Fundamental Electrical Concepts

Atoms and their structure
Electric Charges
Nature of electricity
Electric circuit and its elements
Ohms Law
Power and Energy
Electrical circuits and introductory DC circuit analysis
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law(KVL)
Circuits Simplifications(Series and Parallel Connections of R
and Sources)
Methods of Circuit Analysis
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Fundamental Electrical Concepts
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the

characteristics of that element.
It consists of a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by
a group of orbiting electrons.
As you learned in physics, the electrons are negatively
charged, while the protons are positively charged.
The nucleus, however, has a net positive charge, since it
consists of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons.
The force of attraction between the electrons and the protons
in the nucleus keeps them in orbit.
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The basic structure of an atom in Figure 1.a(shown as below)

applies to all elements, but each element has its own unique
combination of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
For example, the hydrogen atom, the simplest of all atoms,
has one proton and one electron, while the copper atom has
29 electrons, 29 protons, and 35 neutrons.
The orbits in which the electrons revolve are called SHELLS,
which are designated by letters K,L,M,N,..... at increasing
outward from nucleus.
Figure 1: Simplified representation of the atom. Electrons travel in

spherical orbits called ’Shells’
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Different atoms will have various numbers of electrons in each

shells about the nucleus
Each shells can contain a Maximum number of electrons for
stability depending on the formula of 2n2 , where n is the shell
number (n =1,2,3,4 )
For example, there can be up to 2 electrons in the K shell, up
to 8 in the L shell, up to 18 in the M shell, and up to 32 in
the N shell.
The number in any shell depends on the element.
For instance, the copper atom, which has 29 electrons, has all
three of its inner shells completely filled but its outer shell
(shell N) has only 1 electron. See the following fig.
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Figure 2: Copper atom:
This outermost shell is called its valence shell, and the

electron in it is called its valence electron.
No element can have more than eight valence electrons; when
a valence shell has eight electrons, it is filled.
As we shall see, the number of valence electrons that an
element has directly affects its electrical properties.
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Cont.
The valence shell of atom can contain up to eight electrons.

The conductivity of the atom depends on the number of
electrons that are in the valence shell.
When an atom has only one electron in valence shell, it is
almost a perfect conductor.
When an atom has eight valence electrons the valence shell is
said to be complete and the atom is an insulator.
Therefore, conductivity decreases with an increase in the
number of valence electrons
The best conductors are Silver , Copper Gold. All have one
valence electron.
Electricity is the flow of free electrons that provides electric
current in the metal conductor
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Electric Charges
Electric Charges
Electrical charge is an electrical property of matter that exists

because of an excess or deficiency of electrons, is symbolized
by Q.
Atoms are composed of charge carrying particles: electrons
and protons, and neutral particles, neutrons.
Charge in an electron: q =−1.602x10−19 C
Charge in a proton: q = 1.602x10−19 C
One coulomb is the total charge possessed by 6.25 X 1018 e −
1C=6.24X 1018 electrons
The total charge Q, expressed in coulombs, for a given
number of electrons is stated in the following formula:
number of electrons
Q=
6.24X 1018 electrons/C
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Electric Charges
When a valence electron is pulled away from the atom by the

application of energy, the atom is left with a net positive
charge (more protons than electrons) and becomes a positive
ion.
If an atom acquires an extra electron in its outer shell, it has a
net negative charge and becomes a negative ion.
The amount of energy required to free a valence electron is
related to the number of electrons in the outer shell.
The more complete the outer shell, the more stable the atom
and thus the more energy is required to release an electron.
The charged atom is referred to as an ion.
If the atom loses an electron, it is called a positive ion; if it
gains an electron, it is called a negative ion.
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Electric Charges
Example:- the formation of +ve ion and ve ions can be

illustrated on Na and Cl elements as the following
Neutrally, Na has 11 electrons and 11 protons, while Cl has 17
electrons and 17 protons.
So that, Na has 1 valance electrons and Cl has 7 valance
electrons.
At this state both are at unstable state
The stability of an atom will be formed by sharing the valance
electrons
Here, Na become stable by donating the 1e- to Cl and Cl
become stable by accepting 1e- from Na.
Now, Na become +ve ion and Cl become ve ion.
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Electric Charges
Examples
1 An initially neutral body has 1.7µC of negative charge
removed. Later, 18.7x1011 electrons are added. What is the
body’s final charge?
Figure 3: Copper atom:
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Electric Charges
Exercise
1 How many coulombs of charge do 93.8X 1016 electrons
represent?
2 How many electrons does it take to have 3µC of charge?
3 After 10.61x1013 electrons are added to a metal plate, it has
a negative charge of 3µC . What was its initial charge in
coulombs?
Answer
1 0.15C
2 18.75X 1018 electrons
3 +14C
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Electricity is the movement of free electrons that provides
electric current in the metal conductor.
Some practical applications of the effects of an electric
current include:
Magnetic effect: bells, relays, motors, generators,
transformers, telephones, car-ignition and lifting magnets
Chemical effect: primary and secondary cells and
electroplating
Heating effect: cookers, water heaters, electric fires, irons,
furnaces, kettles and soldering irons.Light bulbs also works
due to the heating effect. Once the filament is heated by
electricity, it starts glowing.
Depending on the conductivity, electrical engineering materials
can be divided into three: 1- Conductors, 2- Semiconductors
and 3- Insulators. 13 / 96
Voltage
Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to
move a unit charge through an element, measured in volts
(V).
A certain amount of energy must be exerted, in the form of
work, to overcome the force and move the charges a given
distance apart.
By definition, the voltage between two points is one volt if it
requires one joule of energy to move one coulomb of charge
from one point to the other. In equation form.
W
[Volts, V ]
V = (1)
Q
where W is energy in joules, Q is charge in coulombs, and V is the
resulting voltage in volts. 14 / 96
Example
1 If it takes 35 J of energy to move a charge of 5 C from one
point to another, what is the voltage between the two points?
2 The voltage between two points is 19 V. How much energy is
required to move 67x1020 electrons from one point to the
other?
Answer
1)7V
2)204J
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CURRENT
Earlier, you learned that there are large numbers of free
electrons in metals like copper.
These electrons move randomly throughout the material
(Figure-2a), but their net movement in any given direction is
zero.
Assume now that a battery is connected as in Figure 2b.

Since electrons are attracted by the positive pole of the
battery and repelled by the negative pole, they move around
the circuit, passing through the wire, the lamp, and the
battery.
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The more electrons per second that pass through the circuit,
the greater is the current.
Thus, current is the rate of flow (or rate of movement) of
charge and the symbol for current is I.
Expressed mathematically,
I = Qt where Q is the charge and t is the time interval over
which it is measured. Through algebraic manipulations, we
Q
have Q = It [coulombs] and t = [seconds,S]
I
The SI unit of current is ampere(A), and
From this, we get that , One ampere (1 A) is the amount of
current that exists when a number of electrons having a total
charge of one coulomb (1 C) move through a given
cross-sectional area in one second (1 s).
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Example
1 If 840 coulombs of charge pass through the give point during
a time interval of 2 minutes, what is the current?
2 If 12.48x1020 electrons pass a certain point in a circuit in 2.5
s, what is the current in amperes?
3 If there are 8 A of current through the filament of a lamp,
how many electrons are move through the filament in 1.5 s?
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RESISTANCE (R)
When there is current through a material, the free electrons
move through the material and occasionally collide with
atoms.
These collisions cause the electrons to lose some of their
energy, thus restricting their movement.
The more collisions, the more the flow of electrons is
restricted.
The property of a material to restrict or oppose the flow of
electrons is called resistance, R.
Resistance is expressed in ohms, symbolized by the Greek
letter omega ( ).
The resistance of any material with uniform cross-sectional
area depends on the following factors:
Type of material
Length of material
Cross- sectional area
Temperature 19 / 96
For example, silver has more free electrons than copper, and
so the resistance of a silver wire will be less than the
resistance of a copper wire having the identical dimensions.We
may summarize this effect as follows:
The resistance of a conductor is dependent upon the type of
material
If we were to double the length of the wire, we can expect
that the number of collisions over the length of the wire would
double, thereby causing the resistance to also double.We may
summarize this effect as follows:
The resistance of a metallic conductor is directly proportional
to the length of the conductor.
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As the cross-sectional area is increased, the moving electrons

are able to move more freely through the conductor, just as
water moves more freely through a large-diameter pipe than a
small-diameter pipe.We may summarize this effect as follows:
The resistance of a metallic conductor is inversely proportional
to the cross-sectional area of the conductor
The factors governing the resistance of a conductor at a fixed
temperature of 20C (room temperature) may be summarized
mathematically as follows:
ρl
R= [Ohms,Ω]
A
(2)
where:
ρ = the resistivity of the material in ohm metres, (Ω-m)
l = the length of the material, in m
A = the cross-sectional area of the material, in seq. meter.
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Ohms Law
Ohms Law
Relates the three basic electrical quantities( i.e. Voltage,
current and resistance) mathematically.
Ohm’s law states that current is directly proportional to
voltage and inversely proportional to resistance, which is given
in the following formula:
V
I = (3)
R
For a constant value of R, if the value of V is increased, the
value of I increases; if V is decreased, I decreases. If V is
constant and R is increased, I decreases. Similarly, if V is
constant and R is decreased, I increases.
By rearranging Equation 3, you can obtain expressions for
V
voltage and resistance. V = IR , R =
I
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Power and Energy
Power and Energy

Energy is the ability to do work, and Power is the rate at
which energy is used.
Power (P) is a certain amount of energy (W) used in a certain
length of time (t), expressed as follows:
W
P= [Watt] (4)
t
The SI unit of power is the watt(W) and that of Energy is
joules(J)
N.B:- you can see that one watt equals one joule per second.
POWER IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
In electrical power, we need expressions for P in terms of
electrical quantities.
We know that, voltage is defined as work per unit charge and
current as the rate of transfer of charge,
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Power and Energy
From Equation 1, W = QV and Substituting this into

Equation 4 yields P = W/t = (QV)/t = V(Q/t). Replacing
Q/t with I, we get
P = VI
Additional relationships are obtained by direct substituting of
ohms law (V= IR and I=V/R) into Equation 2.7:
P = I 2R
V2
P=
R
where: P = is Power delivered to the load.
V = is the voltage across the load
I = is the current through the load
R = is the resistance value of the load.
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An electrical Ckt is an interconnection of electrical

components. A simple and basic electrical circuit consists of:
Voltage source(E)
The load; is a device that dissipate/ converts
electrical energy.
The connecting wires
The voltage source pressures charges to flow through the
circuit.
All electric circuits obtain their energy either from a direct
current (DC) or from an alternating current (AC) source.
In this chapter, we examine the operation of circuits supplied
by dc sources.
Although AC circuits have fundamental differences when
compared with DC circuits, the laws, theorems, and rules that
you learn in DC circuits apply directly to ac circuits as well. 25 / 96
Consider the following Circuit
Defining the direction of conventional flow for

single-source dc circuits
Figure 5 Defining the polarity resulting from a conventional

current I through a resistive element
By convention, the direction of conventional current flow is

opposite to that of electron flow.
Conventional current flow always passes from a high(+ve) to
a low(-ve) potential when passing through a resistor for any
number of voltage sources in the same circuit.
By following the direction of conventional current flow, we
notice that there is a rise in potential across the battery ( -ve
to +ve ), and a drop in potential across the resistor ( +ve to
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Depending on how the components are connected, electrical

circuits can be grouped in to four types:
1 Series Circuit
2 Parallel Circuit
3 Series-Parallel Circuit
4 Complex Circuit
SERIES CIRCUIT
Two elements are in series if:
They have only one terminal in common (i.e., one lead of one
is connected to only one lead of the other).
The common point between the two elements is not connected
to another current-carrying element.
The circuit of Fig. (a) has three elements joined at three
terminal points (a, b, and c) to provide a closed path for the
current I.
Since all the elements are in series, the network is called a
series circuit.
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Current will leave the positive terminal of the voltage source,

move through the resistors, and return to the negative
terminal of the source.
If the above circuit is modified such that a current-carrying
resistor R3 is introduced, as shown in Fig.(b) below, the
resistors R1 and R2 are no longer in series due to a violation
of number 2 of the above definition of series elements.
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TOTAL CURRENT IN SERIES CKT(IT )

A series ckt provides only one path for current between two
points in a circuit, so that the current is the same through
series elements.i.e.
Is = I1 = I2 = I3 = ...... = IN
TOTAL RESISTANCE IN SERIES CKT(RT )
The total resistance of a series circuit is the sum of the
resistance levels.
In general, to find the total resistance of N resistors in series,
the following equation is applied:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...... + RN (Ohms,Ω)
Once RT is known, the current drawn from the source can be
determined using Ohms law, as follows:
E
Is = (amperes,A)
RT
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VOLTAGE DROP ACROSS EACH RESISTOR

The fact that the current is the same through each element of
series circuit, the voltage across each resistor can be
calculated using Ohms law:
V1 = IR1 , V2 = IR2 , V3 = IR3 ........VN = IRN
From this, the total sum of each voltage drops across each
resistor is equal to the source voltage( E ).
E = V1 + V2 + V3 ...... + VN
The power delivered to each resistor can then be determined
using any one of three equations as listed below for R1:
(V1 )2
P1 = V1 I1 = (I1 )2 R1 =
R1
Generally, delivered power at each resistor can be calculated:
(Vn )2
Pn = Vn I = I 2 Rn ==
Rn
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The power delivered by the source is:

Pdel = EI
The total power delivered to a resistive circuit is equal to the
total power dissipated by the resistive elements. That is:
Pdel = P1 + P2 + P3 + ..... + PN
Exercise
1 Find the total resistance for the following series circuit
2 Calculate the source current Is.
3 Determine the voltages V1, V2, and V3.
4 Calculate the power dissipated by R1, R2, and R3.
5 Determine the power delivered by the source, and compare it
to the sum of the power levels of part (d).
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VOLTAGE SOURCES IN SERIES

Voltage sources can be connected in series, as shown in
following Fig. (a) and Fig. (b) , to increase or decrease the
total voltage applied to a system.
The total Voltage is equal to the algebraic sum of the
individual Voltages, which are connected in series.
The net Polarity is the polarity of the larger sum and when
summing Voltages, take care of their polarities, Example :-
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Provides an important relationship among voltage levels

around any closed loop of a network.
KVL states that the algebraic sum of the potential rises and
drops around a closed loop (or path) is zero. That is:
N.B: A closed loop is any continuous path that leaves a point

in one direction and returns to that same point from another
direction without leaving the circuit, Consider the following
series ckt:
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To apply KVL:
Use either CW or CCW direction,( CW direction is chosen for
uniformity)
A plus sign is assigned to a potential rise ( - to + ), and a
minus sign to a potential drop (+ to -).
Applying KVL, to the circuit above, we have:
+E − V1 − V2 = 0
E = V1 + V2
Implies, the applied voltage of a series circuit equals the sum
of the voltage drops across the series elements.
KVL can be stated in another form as:
Which in words states that the sum of the rises around a

closed loop must equal the sum of the drops in potential. 22
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Exercise
1) For the following circuit:
a. Find RT
b. Find I
c. Find V1 and V2
d. Find the power to the 4Ω and 6Ω
e. Find the power delivered by the battery and compare it to that
dissipated by 4Ω and 6Ω resistors combined.
f. Verify Kirchoff’s voltage law (clockwise direction)
Figure 6 35 / 96
Example
2) For the following circuit:
a) Determine V2 using Kirchhoffs voltage law.
b) Determine I.
c) Find R1 and R3.
Figure 7
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VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE

The voltage dropped across any series resistor is proportional
to the magnitude of the resistor. The total voltage dropped
across all resistors must equal the applied voltage source(s) by
KVL.
The voltage divider rule allows us to determine the voltage
across any series resistance in a single step, without first
calculating the current.
Consider the following circuit:
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To derive the voltage divider formula, consider the following

circuit;
RT = R1 + R2
E
I = , where I = I1 = I2
RT
Applying ohm’s law
E R1 E
V1 = I1 R1 = R1 =
RT RT
E R2 E
V2 = I2 R2 = R2 =
RT RT
In general, to find the voltage across Rx in series circuit is:
Rx E
Vx =
RT
Where: Vx : the voltage across Rx, E : source voltage, RT :
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Example
1) Use the voltage divider rule to determine the voltage across each
of the resistors in the following circuit. Show that the summation
of voltage drops is equal to the applied voltage rise in the circuit.
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Example
2) Using the voltage divider rule, determine the voltages V1 and V3
for the following series circuit.
Figure 8
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2. PARALLEL CIRCUIT
We will now examine the parallel circuit and all the methods
and laws associated with this important configuration.
Two elements, branches, or networks are in parallel if they
have exactly two points in common.
This points of connection are often referred to as nodes. For
instance, elements A and B are in parallel b/c they have
terminals a and b in common.
Figure 9
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In Figure below, all the elements are in parallel because they

satisfy the above criterion.
Three configurations are provided to demonstrate how the
parallel networks can be drawn.
In the illustrations of the following Figure, notice that every
element has two terminals and that each of the terminals is
connected to one of the two nodes.
Figure 10
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Very often, circuits contain a combination of series and

parallel components. Consider the networks shown in Figure
below.
In the circuit of Figure (a), we see that element B is in
parallel with element C since they each have common nodes.
This parallel combination is now seen to be in series with
element A.
In the circuit of Figure (b), element B is in series with element
C since these elements have a single common node. The
branch consisting of the series combination of elements B and
C is then determined to be in parallel with element A.
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KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW (KCL)

Kirchhoffs current law states that the summation of currents
entering a node is equal to the summation of currents leaving
the node.
In mathematical form, Kirchhoffs current law is stated as
follows:
Figure 11
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Example : Verify that Kirchhoffs current law applies at the node

shown in figure below.
3mA+6mA+1mA=2mA+4mA+4mA 10mA=10mA
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Example : Find the magnitudes of the unknown currents for the

circuit of the following Figure (a) and (b) through applications of
Kirchhoffs current law.
Figure 12
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Let consider is the following simplest of parallel circuits. All

the elements have terminals a and b in common.
Since the terminals of the battery are connected directly

across the resistors R1 and R2, the voltage across parallel
elements is the same. E = V1 = V3 = = Vn
If we were to apply Kirchhoffs voltage law around each closed
loop in the parallel circuit of the above Figure, we would find
that the voltage across all parallel resistors is exactly equal,
(E=V1=V2)
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TOTAL RESISTANCE,RT
Applying Kirchhoffs current law to the above circuit , we have
the expression: Is = I1 + I2
In general, for single-source parallel networks, the source
current (Is ) is equal to the sum of the individual branch
currents. Is = I1 + I2 + ..... + IN
Since E is the voltage across each of the parallel resistors, by
Ohm’s law, I1 = V1/R1, I2 = V2/R2 and so on.
By substitution into the equation (eq. 2.2.3), for current,
E E E E E
= + + + ........ +
RT R1 R2 R3 RN
Simplifying the above expression gives us the general
expression for total resistance of a parallel circuit as
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ........ +
RT R1 R2 R3 RN
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Since conductance was defined as the reciprocal of resistance,

we ma write the above equation in terms of conductance,
namely,
GT = G1 + G2 + ....... + Gn (S)
An important effect of combining parallel resistors is that the
resultant resistance will always be smaller than the smallest
resistor in the combination.
For two resistors in parallel,
R1 R2
RT =
R1 + R2
For three resistors in parallel,
R1 R2 R3
RT =
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
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The power delivered by the source and that dissipated by the

resistors is:
V12
P1 = I1 V1 = I12 R1 =
R1
V22
P2 = I2 V2 = I22 R2 =
R2
E2
Ps = Is Vs = Is2 Rs =
RT
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EXAMPLE
1. For the parallel network of the following circuit,
a. Calculate RT .
b. Determine Is.
c. Calculate I1 and I2 , and demonstrate that Is = I1 + I2
d. Determine the power to each resistive load.
e. Determine the power delivered by the source, and compare it to
the total power dissipated by the resistive elements.
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2. For the parallel network of the following circuit,

a. Determine R3.
b. Calculate E.
c. Find Is.
d. Find I2.
e. Determine P2.
Figure 14
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CURRENT DIVIDER RULE

In parallel networks, the voltage across all parallel elements is
the same. However, the currents through the various elements
are typically different.
The current divider rule (CDR) is used to determine how
current entering a node is split between the various parallel
resistors connected to the node.
To drive the CDR, let Consider the network of parallel
resistors shown in Figure below.
Figure 15
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If this network of resistors is supplied by a voltage source, the

total current in the circuit is
E
IT = ....................(*)
RT
Since each of the n parallel resistors has the same voltage, E,
across its terminals, the current through any resistor in the
network is given as,
E
Ix = .......................(**)
Rx
By rewriting Equation (*) as E = IT RT and then substituting
this into Equation (**), we obtain the general form for the
current divider rule as follows:
RT
Ix = IT .......................(***)
Rx
where Ix is refers to the current through a parallel branch of
resistance, Rx
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The CDR in words, the current through any parallel branch is

equal to the product of the total resistance of the parallel
branches and the input current divided by the resistance of
the branch through which the current is to be determined.
If the network consists of only two parallel resistors, then the
current through each resistor may be found as below.
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Recall that for two resistors in parallel, the total parallel

R1 R2
resistance is given as RT =
R1 + R2

R1 R2
IT
IT RT R1 + R2
I1 = =
R1 R1
R2
which simplify I1 = IT
R1 + R2
R1
Similarly, I2 = IT
R1 + R2
In words, for two parallel branches, the current through either
branch is equal to the product of the other parallel resistor
and the input current divided by the sum (not the total
parallel resistance) of the two parallel resistances.
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Several other important characteristics of parallel networks

become evident.
If current enters a parallel network consisting of any number of
equal resistors, then the current entering the network will split
equally between all of the resistors.
If current enters a parallel network consisting of several values
of resistance, then the smallest value of resistor in the network
will have the largest amount of current.
Inversely, the largest value of resistance will have the smallest
amount of current.
This characteristic may be simplified by saying that most of
the current will follow the path of least resistance.
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EXAMPLE
1 For the network of Figure below, determine currents I1 , I2 , and
I3 .
Figure 16
2 Use the current divider rule to calculate the unknown currents

for the networks of Figure below.
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3) SERIES-PARALLEL NETWORKS
In general, series-parallel networks are networks that contain

both series and parallel circuit configurations
By practicing (not memorizing) the techniques outlined in this

section, you will find that most circuits can be reduced to
groupings of series and parallel combinations.
In analyzing such circuits, it is imperative to remember that

the rules for analyzing series and parallel elements still apply.
The same current occurs through all series elements.
The same voltage occurs across all parallel elements.
In addition, remember that Kirchhoffs voltage law and

Kirchhoffs current law apply for all circuits regardless of
whether the circuits are series, parallel, or series-parallel.
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Example:-
1) Consider the circuit of Figure below
a) Find RT.
b) Calculate I1 , I2 ,andI3 .
c) Determine the voltages V1 and V2 .
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Example:-
2) Find the indicated currents and voltages for the network of Figure
below.
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COMPLEX CIRCUITS
Complex circuits are circuits that contains none of the three
types so that it is impossible to say parallel, series, or
series-parallel.
Such kind of circuits arrangement is analyzed using the
following two Kirchhoff’s laws:
Kirchhoffs Voltage law(KVL)
Kirchhoffs Current law(KCL)
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Example
1) Find the magnitude and direction of the currents I3, I4, I6, and
I7 for the network of Figure below. Even though the elements are
not in series or parallel, Kirchhoffs current law can be applied to
determine all the unknown currents.
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Example
2) This example demonstrates the power of Kirchhoffs voltage law by
determining the voltages V1, V2, and V3 for the network of Figure
below.
Figure 17
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OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUITS

Anopen circuit is simply two isolated terminals not connected
by an element of any kind, as shown in fig. below
Since a path for conduction does not exist, the current
associated with an open circuit must always be zero.
an open circuit can have a potential difference (voltage)

across its terminals, but the current is always zero amperes.
A short circuit is a very low resistance, direct connection
between two terminals of a network, as shown in Fig.below
64 / 96
The current through the short circuit can be any value, as

determined by the system it is connected to, but the voltage
across the short circuit will always be zero volts because the
resistance of the short circuit is assumed to be essentially zero
ohms and V = IR = I (00Ω) = 0V
As shown in Fig.above the current through the 2 Ω resistor is

5 A.If a short circuit should develop across the 2 Ω resistor,
the total resistance of the parallel combination of the 2 Ω
resistor and the short (of essentially zero ohms) will be 2 Ω//
0 Ω=0 2 Ω and the current will rise to very high levels, as
E 10V
determined by Ohms law: I = = =⇒ ∞
R 0Ω
65 / 96
Determine the voltage Vab for the network
Solution: The open circuit requires that I be zero amperes.

The voltage drop across both resistors is therefore zero volts
since V = IR = I (00Ω) = 0V Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law
around the closed loop,Vab = 20V
66 / 96
Determine the voltages Vab and Vcd for the network of shown below
Calculate the current I and the voltage V for the network of
67 / 96
Circuits Simplifications(Series and Parallel Connections of R and Sources)
Circuits simplifications(series and parallel connections of

resistor and sources)
Complicated resistor networks can be simplified by identifying
series and parallel resistors within the larger context of the
circuit. This article describes a systematic way to simplify a
circuit. find total resistance of fig. below
Calculate the indicated currents and voltage of Fig.below
68 / 96

The circuits described in the previous chapters had only one
source or two or more sources in series or parallel present. The
step-by-step procedure outlined in those chapters cannot be
applied if the sources are not in series or parallel.
Having understood the fundamental laws of circuit theory
(Ohms lawand Kirchhoffs laws), we are now prepared to apply
these laws to develop two powerful techniques for circuit
analysis:nodal analysis, which is based on a systematic
application of Kirchhoffs current law (KCL), and mesh
analysis, which is based on a systematic application of
Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL).
With the two techniques to be developed in this chapter, we
can analyze almost any circuit by obtaining a set of
simultaneous equations or one method of solving simultaneous
equations involves Cramers rule. 69 / 96
Source Conversion
Source Transformation simply means replacing one source by an
equivalent source. A practical voltage source can be transformed
into an equivalent practical current source and similarly a practical
current source into voltage source.
70 / 96
let consider the following network
solve for load current for fig. above

E
IL =
Rs + RL
Rs
If we multiply this by a factor of 1, which we can choose to be
Rs
we obtain
Rs E
( )E Rs ( )
(1)E Rs Rs Rs I
IL = = = =
Rs + RL Rs + RL Rs + RL Rs + RL
The above equation is the same as that obtained by applying the
current divider rule to the network of Fig. at the right side.
71 / 96
Example
1) Convert the current source of Fig. below to a voltage source, and
find the load current for each source.
Current source in parallel

If two or more current sources are in parallel, they may all be
replaced by one current source having the magnitude and
direction of the resultant, which can be found by summing the
currents in one direction and subtracting the sum of the
currents in the opposite direction
72 / 96
Reduce the parallel current sources of Figs a to a single current

source fig. b.
Reduce the network of Fig. below to a single current source, and

calculate the current through RL .
73 / 96
Nodal analysis
Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing
circuits using node voltages as the circuit variables. Choosing
node voltages instead of element voltages as circuit variables
is convenient and reduces the number of equations one must
solve simultaneously.
A node is defined as a junction of two or more branches.If we
now define one node of any network as a reference (that is, a
point of zero potential or ground),the remaining nodes of the
network will all have a fixed potential relative to this reference.
For a network of N nodes, therefore, there will exist (N − 1)
nodes with a fixed potential relative to the assigned reference
node.
Equations relating these nodal voltages can be written by
applying Kirchhoffs current law at each of the (N − 1) nodes.
74 / 96
Steps to Determine Node Voltages:

1 Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages
V1 , V2 , V3 , .........Vn−1 to the remaining n − 1 nodes.
2 Apply KCL to each of the n − 1 nonreference nodes. Use
Ohms law to express the branch currents in terms of node
voltages.
3 Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the
unknown node voltages.
Apply nodal analysis to the network of fig 18
Figure 18
75 / 96
Steps 1 and 2: The network has two nodes, as shown in fig 19.
The lower node is defined as the reference node at ground potential
(zero volts), and the other node as V1 , the voltage from node 1 to
ground.
Figure 19 Figure 20
Step 3: I1 and I2 are defined as leaving the node in Fig. 20, and
Kirchhoffs current law is applied as follows:
I = I1 + I2 76 / 96
The current I2 is related to the nodal voltage V1 by Ohms law:

VR2 V1 − 0
= I2 =
R2 R2
The current I1 is also determined by Ohms law as follows:
VR1
, where −→ VR1 = V1 − E
I1 =
R1
Substituting into the Kirchhoffs current law equation:
V1 − E V1 − 0
I = +
R1 R2
and rearranging, we have
V1 E V1 1 1 E
I = − + = V1 + −
R1 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1
Or 1 1 E
V1 + = +I
R1 R2 R1
77 / 96
Substituting numerical values, we obtain

1 1 24V
V1 + = + 1A
6Ω 12Ω 6
1
V1 = 5A
4Ω
V1 = 20V
The currents I1 and I2 can then be determined using the preceding
equations:
V1 − E 20V − 24V
I1 = = = -0.667 A
R1 6Ω
The minus sign indicates simply that the currentI1 has a direction
opposite to that appearing in Fig. 20
V1 20V
I2 = = = 1.667 A
R2 12Ω
78 / 96
Example
Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 21 .
Figure 21 Figure 22
Consider Fig. 22, where the circuit in Fig. 21 has been prepared
for nodal analysis. Notice how the currents are selected for the
application of KCL. Except for the branches with current sources,
the labeling of the currents is arbitrary but consistent.
79 / 96
The reference node is selected, and the node voltages v1 and v2 are
now to be determined in Fig. 22. At node 1, applying KCL and
Ohms law gives
v1 − v2 v1 − 0
i1 = i2 + i3 =⇒ 5 = +
4 2
Multiplying each term in the last equation by 4, we obtain
20 = v1 − v2 + 2v1
3v1 − v2 = 20 ........ eq(*)
At node 2, we do the same thing and get
v1 − v2 v2 − 0
i2 + i4 = i1 + i5 =⇒ + 10 = 5 +
4 6
Multiplying each term by 12 results in
3v1 − 3v2 + 120 = 60 + 2v2
−3v1 + 5v2 = 60 ........ eq(**)
80 / 96
Now we have two simultaneous Eqs (*) and (**).We can solve the
equations using any method and obtain the values of v1 and v2 .
Method 1: Using the elimination technique, we add Eqs (*) and
(**). (
3v1 − v2 = 20
(5)
−3v1 + 5v2 = 60
4v2 = 80 =⇒ v2 = 20V
Substituting v2 in equation (−3v1 + 5v2 = 60 )
40
3v1 − 20 = 20 =⇒ v1 = = 13.33V
3
Method 2: To use Cramers rule, we need to put eq.(*) and (**) in
matrix form as
3 −1 v1 20
=
−3 5 v2 60
3 −1
The determinant of the matrix is ∆ = = 15 − 3 = 12
−3 5
81 / 96
We now obtain v1 and v2 as
20 −1
∆1 60 5 100 + 60
v1 = = = = 13.33V
∆ ∆ 12
3 20
∆2 −3 60 180 + 60
v2 = = = = 20V
∆ ∆ 12
giving us the same result as did the elimination method.
If we need the currents, we can easily calculate them from the values
of the nodal voltages.
v1 − v2
i1 = 5A i2 = = −1.6667A
4
v1
i3 = = −6.666A
2
v2
i4 = 10A i5 = = 3.333A
6 82 / 96
Exercise
Obtain the node voltages in the circuit in Fig. 23.
Figure 23
Answer: v1 = −2V and v2 = −14V
83 / 96
Nodal Analysis With Voltage Source

We now consider how voltage sources affect nodal analysis.Consider
the following two possibilities.
case 1: If a voltage source is connected between the reference node
and a nonreference node, we simply set the voltage at the nonrefer-
ence node equal to the voltage of the voltage source.
In Fig.below, for example,V1 = 10V
Figure 24 84 / 96
Case 2: If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is con-

nected between two nonreference nodes, the two nonreference nodes
form a generalized node or supernode; we apply both KCL and KVL
to determine the node voltages. In Fig. 24, nodes 2 and 3 form
a supernode. KCL must be satisfied at a supernode like any other
node. Hence, at the supernode in Fig.24,
i1 + i4 = i2 + i3
To apply Kirchhoffs voltage law to the supernode in fig.24.
we redraw the circuit as shown in Fig. 25.
−v2 + 5 + v3 = 0 =⇒ v2 − v3 = 5
Figure 25
85 / 96
For the circuit shown in Fig.below, find the node voltages.
The supernode contains the 2-V source, nodes 1 and 2, and the 10Ω
resistor. Applying KCL to the supernode as shown in Fig.26(a) gives
2 = i1 + i2 + 7
86 / 96
Expressing i1 and i2 in terms of the node voltages

v1 − 0 v2 − 0
2= + + 7 =⇒ v2 = −20 − 2v1 (∗)
2Ω 4Ω
To get the relationship between v1 and v2 , we apply KVL to the
circuit in Fig. 26(b). Going around the loop, we obtain
−v1 − 2 + v2 = 0 =⇒ v2 = v1 + 2 (∗∗)
From Eqs. (*) and (**), we write
v2 = v1 + 2 = −20 − 2v1
Or
3v1 = −22 =⇒ v1 = −7.3333V
and v2 = v1 + 2 = −5.333V Note that the 10Ω resistor does not
make any difference because it is connected across the supernode.
87 / 96
Exersice
Find v and i in the circuit in Fig.27 .
Figure 27
Answer: v = −0.2V and i = 1.4A
88 / 96
Mesh analysis
Mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents.
A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops
within it.
Steps to Determine Mesh Current:
1 Assign mesh currents i1 , i2 , ..., in to the n meshes.
2 Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohms law to express
the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
3 Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh
currents.
Example 1:For the circuit in

Fig.28, find the branch currents
i1 , i2 and i3 using mesh analysis.
Figure 28 89 / 96
We first obtain the mesh currents using KVL. For mesh(loop) 1,
−15 + 5i1 + 10(i1 − i2 ) + 10 = 0
=⇒ 3i1 − 2i2 = 1 (∗)

For mesh(loop) 2,
−10 + 6i2 + 10(i2 − i1 ) + 4i2 = 0
=⇒ i1 = 2i2 − 1 (∗∗)
Method 1: Using the substitution method,we substitute Eqs.(**)
in to (*), and write
6i2 − 3 − 2i2 = 1 =⇒ i2 = 1A
from Eqs. (**) i1 = 2i2 − 1 = 2 − 1 = 1A.

90 / 96
Method 2: To use Cramers rule, we need to put eq.(*) and (**) in

matrix form as
3 −2 i1 1
=
−1 2 i2 1
3 −2
The determinant of the matrix is ∆ = =6−2=4
−1 2
We now obtain i1 and i2 as
1 −2
∆1 1 2 2+2
i1 = = = = 1A
∆ ∆ 4
3 1
∆2 −1 1 3+1
i2 = = = = 1A
∆ ∆ 4
giving us the same result as did the elimination method.
91 / 96
Example 2: Use mesh analysis to find the current i0 in the circuit

in Fig. below.
We apply KVL to the three meshes in turn. For mesh 1,
−24 + 10(i1 − i2 ) + 12(i1 − i3 ) = 0
=⇒ 11i1 − 5i2 − 6i3 = 12

92 / 96
For mesh 2,
24i2 + 4(i2 − i3 ) + 10(i2 − i1 ) = 0
=⇒ −5i1 + 19i2 − 2i3 = 0
For mesh 3,
4i0 + 12(i3 − i1 ) + 4(i3 − i2 ) = 0

But at node A, i0 = i1 − i2 , so that
4(i1 − i2 ) + 12(i3 − i1 ) + 4(i3 − i2 ) = 0
=⇒ −i1 − i2 + 2i3 = 0
In matrix form Eqs. (1), (2) and (3) become
    
11 −5 −6 i1 12
−5 19 −2 i2  =  0 
−1 −1 2 i3 0
93 / 96
94 / 96
We calculate the mesh currents using Cramers rule as
12 −5 −6
0 19 −2
∆1 0 −1 2 432
i1 = = = = 2.25A
∆ ∆ 192
11 12 −6
−5 0 −2
∆2 −1 0 2 144
i2 = = = = 0.75A
∆ ∆ 192
11 −5 12
−5 19 −0
∆2 −1 −1 0 288
i3 = = = = 1.5A
∆ ∆ 192
95 / 96
Thus, i0 = i1 − i2 = 2.25 − 0.75 = 1.5 A.

Exercise
Calculate the mesh currents i1 and i2 in the circuit of Fig. 29.
Figure 29
2
Answer: i1 = A and i2 = 0A
3
End of chapter 1 and 2
96 / 96

Chapter 1& 2

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Bahir Dar University

Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Fundamental of Electricity and Electronics Device

June 14, 2021

1 Fundamental Electrical Concepts

Atoms and their structure

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the

The basic structure of an atom in Figure 1.a(shown as below)

Figure 1: Simplified representation of the atom. Electrons travel in

Different atoms will have various numbers of electrons in each

Figure 2: Copper atom:

This outermost shell is called its valence shell, and the

The valence shell of atom can contain up to eight electrons.

Electrical charge is an electrical property of matter that exists

When a valence electron is pulled away from the atom by the

Example:- the formation of +ve ion and ve ions can be

Figure 3: Copper atom:

Electric circuit and its elements

Assume now that a battery is connected as in Figure 2b.

As the cross-sectional area is increased, the moving electrons

Power and Energy

From Equation 1, W = QV and Substituting this into

Electrical circuits and introductory DC circuit analysis

An electrical Ckt is an interconnection of electrical

Consider the following Circuit

Defining the direction of conventional flow for

Figure 5 Defining the polarity resulting from a conventional

By convention, the direction of conventional current flow is

Depending on how the components are connected, electrical

Current will leave the positive terminal of the voltage source,

TOTAL CURRENT IN SERIES CKT(IT )

VOLTAGE DROP ACROSS EACH RESISTOR

The power delivered by the source is:

VOLTAGE SOURCES IN SERIES

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law(KVL)

Provides an important relationship among voltage levels

N.B: A closed loop is any continuous path that leaves a point

Which in words states that the sum of the rises around a

VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE

To derive the voltage divider formula, consider the following

In Figure below, all the elements are in parallel because they

Very often, circuits contain a combination of series and

KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW (KCL)

Example : Verify that Kirchhoffs current law applies at the node

Example : Find the magnitudes of the unknown currents for the

Let consider is the following simplest of parallel circuits. All

Since the terminals of the battery are connected directly

Since conductance was defined as the reciprocal of resistance,

The power delivered by the source and that dissipated by the

2. For the parallel network of the following circuit,

CURRENT DIVIDER RULE

If this network of resistors is supplied by a voltage source, the

The CDR in words, the current through any parallel branch is

Recall that for two resistors in parallel, the total parallel

Several other important characteristics of parallel networks

2 Use the current divider rule to calculate the unknown currents

In general, series-parallel networks are networks that contain

By practicing (not memorizing) the techniques outlined in this

In analyzing such circuits, it is imperative to remember that

The same current occurs through all series elements.

The same voltage occurs across all parallel elements.

In addition, remember that Kirchhoffs voltage law and

Kirchhoffs Current law(KCL)

OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUITS

an open circuit can have a potential difference (voltage)

The current through the short circuit can be any value, as

As shown in Fig.above the current through the 2 Ω resistor is

Determine the voltage Vab for the network

Solution: The open circuit requires that I be zero amperes.

Calculate the current I and the voltage V for the network of

Circuits simplifications(series and parallel connections of

Calculate the indicated currents and voltage of Fig.below

Methods of Circuit Analysis

let consider the following network

solve for load current for fig. above

Current source in parallel