| Introduction

Student Centered Learning (SCL) is an approach of learning. Students play their

role during teaching and learning sessions in the classroom by actively participating in each
learning activity, while the lecturer acts as a facilitator. According to Michaelson and Black
(1994), SCL is an approach where students take control of content, activities, materials, and
pace of learning. Lately, SCL has been defined with a wider context and a comprehensive
definition includes active learning, choice of learning, and shift of power in the teacher-
students relationship (O’Neill, Moore & McMullin, 2005). In a typical classroom setting, a
facilitator allocates a specific period of time for students to explore learning issues and
solve problems as a part of learning process (Salleh et al., 2009). Previous studies
highlighted several methods of implementing the SCL approach in the classroom setting,
for small groups or large classes. This includes collaborative learning, problem-based
learning, peer instruction, team-based learning, and projectbased learning (Michaelson &
Black, 1994; Michaelson, Knight & Fink, 2004; O’Neill, Moore & McMullin, 2005). The
most important aspects to be considered for SCL approach implementation are suitability of
activities and the size of classes. In order to match SCL activities and the size of classes,
several previous authors had proposed methods such as think-pair-share, quick-thinks,
round table, minute papers, immediate feedback, bookend lectures, and student project
presentation (Johnston & Cooper, 1997; Stead, 2005; Smith et al., 2005).

| Abstraction
Viewing learning as something accomplished by learners, rather than caused by
teachers is often referred to as learner-centered teaching. Maryellen Weimer, who has
written several books and articles about this topic, defines learner-centered teaching as
teaching that makes learners responsible for learning (2013). Learnercentered education
makes sense from our new understandings based on neuroscience of how learners learn
(NEA, 2008). As this approach is a paradigm shift from traditional teacher-centered
instruction, this article overviews some of the mental shifts necessary for thinking from a
learner-centered perspective. Becoming learner-centered leads us to focus our teaching
directly on learning. It does not mean placing the students in charge! We need to avoid the
mistaken viewpoint that teachers are here to serve our customers, the students, and to
deliver education to them. Weimer (2013) states that learner-centered teaching involves
students in:
 Practicing, working with difficult problems, and developing learning skills. Weimer calls
this work the “messy work of learning.”
 Learning how to learn. Teachers teach students how to learn while they are teaching
content.
 Reflecting and assessing their own learning and taking responsibility for modifying
approaches to strengthen their skills.
 Having control over some of their learning processes such as making choices about
assignments and helping to develop course policies.
 Learning collaboratively from one another and from their teachers.

Dimensions of Learner-Centered Teaching

Blumberg (2009) and Weimer (2013) describe dimensions of learner-centered teaching and
contrast them with dimensions of instructor-centered teaching. We have outlined these
dimensions in the following sections.

The Function of the Content.

Per Blumberg (2009): “Instructor-centered approaches focus on building a large
knowledge base, perhaps at the expense of the learners’ ability to use it or to engage in a
meaningful way with the content” (p. 73). In other words, instructors “cover” the content
and construct tests to measure students’ retention (Weimer, 2013). In a learner-centered
environment, learners are aware of the reasons for learning the content, develop ways to
learn about the content that are appropriate for the discipline, and practice solving real
world problems based upon the content.
The Role of the Instructor.
In an instructor-centered approach, instructors often focus on delivering content
through lectures and demonstration. In a learnercentered approach, the instructor assists the
students with accessing and working with content. There is a shift from instructors
allocating time for lecture preparation to time planning ways to help learners achieve
learning goals and outcomes for the course. The instructor is planning what the learners are
going to do in the class | Abstraction rather than preparing slides to deliver content
(Blumberg, 2009).
The Responsibility for Learning. In an instructor-centered classroom, “instructors take
responsibility for their students’ learning, they define what will be learned, direct how it
will be learned, and determine how well it is learned” (Blumberg, 2009, p. 127). On the
other hand, in a learner-centered approach, the instructor assists the learners to develop and
practice learning skills that they can carry into their future as lifelong learners. Learners
develop the skills to assess their own learning and apply the learning to their lives and
interests. The Purposes and Processes of Assessment. In an instructor-centered course,
one might see course requirements such as readings, four tests, and a final. Assessment is
generally summative, providing end of course grades. In a learnercentered course, along
with summative assessments, one might also see multiple projects with self-assessment and
reflection, self-tests, clickers for feedback about student understanding of concepts, etc.
Assessment continuously provides feedback to learners. The Balance of Power. Learner-
centered teaching does not remove the power or authority of the teacher. Rather, learners
share some of the power in the classroom. Unlike an instructor-driven course, learners have
the option to explore content outside the boundaries of what instructors have provided.
They have opportunities to express alternative opinions and choose different ways to apply
content. Learners even have some power to assist in making policies for the course.
Learner-centered teaching can reframe how we think about teaching, but it does not erase
the significance of the teacher to impact learning, nor does it entirely eradicate traditional
methods of teaching. For example, sometimes lecturing is the best method of transferring
content to learner. As novice learners, students often need help to access content and
determine what is important. Incorporating Learner-Centered Teaching into Your
Teaching
From a review of the literature and our experiences, there are multiple strategies that
instructors can employ to cultivate a more learner-centered environment. You can:
 Prompt learners to reflect and describe what they learned from or after a given activity.
 Give learners the opportunity to practice different learning skills.
 Help novice learners understand concepts by engaging in concept linking activities such
as concept mapping.
 Develop learning outcomes tied to assessments and make learning outcomes clear to
learners.
 Offer learners options such as selecting project topics.

Principles of Learner-centered Teaching

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

The following 14 psychological principles pertain to all learners and the learning process.
These principles are adapted from the principles developed by the American Psychological
Association.
The 14 principles have the following aspects:
 They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the
control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or physiological factors.
However, the principles also attempt to acknowledge external environment or
contextual factors that interact with these internal factors.
 The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of
real-world learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set
of principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation.
 The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) Cognitive and
Metacognitive Factors, (2) Motivational and Affective Factors, (3)
Developmental and Social Factors, and (4) Individual Difference Factors
influencing learners and learning.
 Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners – from children, to
teachers, to administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in
our educational system.
 Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process.
 The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an
intentional process of constructing meaning from information and
experience. 
 There are different types of learning process, for example, habit
formation in motor learning; and learning that involves the generation
of knowledge, or cognitive skills and learning strategies. 
 Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that
students can use to construct meaning from information, experiences,
and their own thoughts and beliefs. 
 Successful learners are active, goal-oriented, self-regulating, and
assume personal responsibility for contributing to their own learning.
Message for Teachers: Use techniques that aid students in constructing meaning from
information, experiences, and their own thought and beliefs.
2. Goals of the learning process.
 The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional
guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of
knowledge. 
 The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed.
Students must generate and pursue personally relevant goals. 
 To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the
thinking and learning strategies necessary for continued learning
success across the lifespan, students must generate and pursue
personally relevant goals. Initially, students’ short-term goals and
learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding
can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and deepening
their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-
term goals. 
 Educators can assist learner in creating meaningful learning goals that
are consistent with both personal and educational aspirations and
interests.
Message for Teachers: Create meaningful student learning goals consistent with their
personal and educational aspirations and interests.
3. Construction of knowledge. 
  The successful learner can link new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways. 
 Knowledge widens and deepens as student continue to build links
between new information and experiences and their existing knowledge
base. Unless new knowledge become integrated with the learner’s prior
knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated,
cannot be used most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer
readily to new situations.
Message for Teachers: Assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by using
such strategies as concept mapping and thematic organization or categorizing.
4. Strategic thinking. 
 The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals. 
 Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning,
reasoning, problem solving, and concept learning. 
 They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach
learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel
situations.  T
 hey also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting
on the methods they use to see which work well for them, by receiving
guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or interacting with
appropriate models.
Message for Teachers: Assist learners in developing, applying, and assessing their
strategic learning skills.
5. Thinking about thinking. 
 Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations
facilitate creative and critical thinking. 
 Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set
reasonable learning or performance goals, select potentially appropriate
learning strategies or methods, and monitor their progress towards
these goals. 
 Successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are
not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can
generate alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the
appropriateness and utility of the goal).
Message for Teachers: Use instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop
these higher order strategies to enhance learning and personal responsibility for
learning.
 6. Context of Learning.
 Learning is influenced by environmental factor, including culture,
technology, and instructional practices. 
 Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Cultural or group influences on
students impact many educationally relevant variables: motivation,
orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking. Technologies and
instructional practices must be appropriate for learners’ level of prior
knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking
strategies.
Message for Teachers: Make the classroom environment nurturing to have significant
impacts on student learning.
Motivational and Affective Factors.
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning. 
 What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s
motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the
individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of
thinking. 
 Students’ belief about themselves as learners and the nature of learning
have a marked influence on motivation. Positive emotions generally
enhance motivation and facilitate learning and performance. Mid
anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by focusing the
learner’s attention on a particular task.
Message for Teachers: Help students avoid intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety,
panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g., worrying about competence,
ruminating about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing labels.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn. 
 The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all
contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by
tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests,
and providing for personal choice and control. 
 Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major
indicators of the learners’ intrinsic motivation to learn.
Message for Teachers: Encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity and
motivation to learn by attending to individual differences in learners’ perceptions of
optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort. 
  Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner
effort and guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn, the
willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion. 
 Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills demands the investment
of considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along with
persistence over time.
Message for Teachers: Facilitate motivation by using strategies that enhance learner
effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension
and understanding.
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences on learning. 
 As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints
for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development
within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains
is taken into account. 
 Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their
developmental level and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting
way.
Message for Teachers: Be aware of and understand developmental differences among
students with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, to facilitate
the creation of optimal learning contexts.
11. Social influences on learning.
 Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations,
and communication with others. 
 Setting that allow for social interactions, and that respect diversity,
encourage flexible thinking, and social competence can enhance
learning.
Message for Teachers: Allow for interactive and collaborative instructional contexts to
provide individuals an opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that
may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social and moral development, as well as
selfesteem. Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning. 
 Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for
learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity. 
 Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and
talents.
Message for Teachers: Help student examine their learning preferences and expand or
modify them, if necessary.
 13. Learning and diversity 
 Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic,
cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account. 
 Language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all
influence learning.
Message for Teachers: Paying careful attention to these factors in the instructional
setting enhances the possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate learning
environments.
14. Standards and assessment 
 Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the
learner as well as learning progress – including diagnostic, process, and
outcome assessment – are integral parts of the learning process. 
 Ongoing assessment of the learner’s understanding of curricular
material can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers
about progress towards the learning goals.
Message for Teachers: Use of varied types of assessment will provide a clearer picture of
student learning.

Applying the 14 principles above, Eggen and Chauchak give us three Characteristics
of Learner-centered Instruction:
1. Learners are at the center of the learning process. The criticisms of direct instruction
have led educators to put more emphasis on the role of the student in the learning process.
Many opted for a more student-centered environment as opposed to the traditional teacher-
centered set-up. Learners are given more choices. Learning activities are designed with the
needs, interests and developmental levels of the learners in the foremost consideration.
2. Teacher guides students’ construction of understanding. The 14 principles were put
together because of the growing implications of research in cognitive psychology. Teachers
in learner-centered classrooms provide a lot of opportunity for the learners to actively think,
figure out things and learn on their own. The teacher serves more as a facilitator, a “guide
on the side” rather than a “sage on stage”.
3. Teachers teach for understanding. Students are placed at the center of the learning
process. The teachers help them to take responsibility for their learning. As a result,
students, through their own active search and experimentation, experience a movement
from confusion to searching for answers, to discovery, and finally do understanding.
Learner-centered Instructional Methods and Strategies Student-centered teaching or
Learner-centered teaching is teaching designed for the student. This means that planning
often begins with the student in mind as opposed to a school policy or curriculum artifact,
for example. Done well, it can disarm some of the more intimidating parts of academia,
while also shortening the distance between the student and understanding.