KINEMATICS

Scalars are measurements with magnitude but no direction.

 Distance (d) = v x t (m) Km/h  m/s
 Speed (s) - avg. = ∆d/∆t (ms-1) / 3.6
 Time (t) - (s)
 Mass (m) – (kg)
 Energy (E) – (J)

Vectors are measurements that have magnitude and direction.

 Displacement (s) - pos. or neg. direction - (m)
 Velocity ( ) - avg. 𝑣⃗ = s / t - (ms-1)
- Instantaneous: if uniform velocity vi = vavg OR find ‘m’ at point on d-t graph OR if a is
uniform use kinematic equations
 Acceleration ( ) = v-u /∆t - (ms-2) – if given s not t use = (v2-u2)/2s
- Instantaneous: see velocity except use v-t graph
 Force ( ) – (N)
 Momentum ( ) – (kgms-1)

GRAPHS ALWAYS USE PENCIL AND 80% OF SPACE

Position – time
Gradient = velocity ( + forward, - backward, 0 constant,
curve de/acceleration.)
INST = m to tangent AVG = m line between 2 points
Total d = forward + backward paths
Total s = end y-axis value

Velocity – time
Gradient = acceleration (+ acceleration, - deceleration (until x axis then
opposite), 0 constant v no a).
INST = m to tangent AVG = m line between 2 points
Area under = Displacement (s), total s = A above x axis – A under, total
d = A above x axis + A under x

Acceleration – time
Gradient = N/A
Area under = change in Velocity (∆v)

IMPORTANT EQUATIONS VERTICAL APPLICATIONS

v = u + at a = 9.8ms-2 as in downwards directions (g)
s = ut + ½ at2
v2 = u 2 + 2as

RELATIVE VELOCITY
VR = vo – vb e.g. find time over take, find vR, use in t = d/v.
(O>B +, O<B -, opposite direction +)

CENTRIPRAL ACCELERATION: motion in circle is a constant change in direction, hence acceleration.

VECTORS
- Use head to tail rule
- Added and subtracted to find resultant vector
ADDITION: VR = V1 + V2 + V3….
SUBTRACTION: (flip subtracting arrow to give) VR = V1 + (-V2)
COMPONTENTS: resolve diagonal vectors in x and y perpendiculars
Vx = V cosϴ Vy = V sinϴ
Find resultant using Pythagoras (VR2 = Vx2 + VY2)
Direction/Angle can be found: 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ϴ = Vy / VX …… ϴ = tan-1 (Vy / Vx) NOTE: N60W = 300 T
NON- RIGHT ANGLES: a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cosA ALSO sine rule a/sin A = b/sin B = c/sin C

DYNAMICS
Force (F) is vector quantity, measure in Newtons (N)
Contact – acts directly on an object Field – acts on object at a distance
Unbalanced = change in motion (FNET ≠ 0) Equilibrium = all balanced (𝛴𝐹 = 0)
Net Force = final F consideration of all F present (can be found using vector diagram F NET = VR)

NEWTONS LAW’S
1st Law of Inertia: object at rest remains at rest and in motion remains in motions unless acted upon
by external unbalanced force (ΣF = 0 then v = 0)
2nd Law of Acceleration: A net unbalanced force on an object is equal to product of its mass and
acceleration. (F(N) = m (kg) a (ms-2)
3rd Law of Reaction: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction (FAB = -FBA)

WEIGHT (N) = mass (kg) x g (9.81ms-2) NORMAL FORCE: Perpendicular to surface, opp applied

TENSION = ma INCLINED PLANE:

When dealing with two ropes FFriction = mg sin ϴ (stationary) OR 𝛴F = mg sinϴ - FFriction
1. resolve into x and y (BCX = BC cosϴ, BCY = BC sinϴ)
2. Add vectors in each direction = 0 as net force = 0 not moving FFriction
(INCLUDE (-mg) FOR Y COMPONENT)
3. Solve for BC – making BC subject
4. Subst. BC value into AB equation if necessary

FRICTION = μFN FN = mg
Static: maximum force to be overcome to allow movement
Kinetic: keeps object moving at constant speed
μ = friction / FN Friction = F cos ϴ FN = mg-(F sinϴ)

KINETIC ENERGY k = ½ mv2 = work (measured in J)

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY ∆U = mg∆h …h (m)  ENSURE v IS IN ms-1 NOT kmh-1
MECHANICAL ENERGY = KE + PE
WORK W= Fnets = mas (measured in J)……..at angle = Fnets cosϴ
Also note W = ∆k = ½ mv2 - ½ mu2 (cancel 2nd half if u = 0)
POWER (measured in watts (W)) P = W/t
 MOMENTUM p = mv , (kg ms-1)…….greater momentum = greater inertia
IMPULSE = ∆P = mv-mu = Ft…………hence ∆P = Ft = mat

COLLISIONS
Conservation of p: total momentum of two objects before a collision is the
same as after the collision.
VELOCITY: joint after collision m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v
separated/rebounds m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Elastic Inelastic
Separate after Move together as one mass
Total k and p conserved Total k NOT conserved.
p conserved
½ m1u1 + ½ m2u2 = ½ m1v1 + ½ m2v2 ½ m1u1 + ½ m2u2 ≠ ½ m1v1 + ½ m2v2

WAVES
Electromagnetic Mechanical
Transmit energy through vacuum Requires a medium
Produced by vibration of charged electrons Disturbances in the matter
Only transverse Transverse OR longitudinal
Exist in continuous spectrum Travel slower
Propagates Propagates
Not subject to same energy loss, hence travelling further subject to friction, air resistance, so slows down
distances overtime due to loss of energy
UNDERGO: reflection, refraction, polarisation, MEDIUM: more elastic (rigid) = faster, high temp =
interference, diffraction vibration = faster, denser = slower
e.g. light waves, gamma waves, radio waves e.g. sound waves, water waves, rope waves

Transverse Longitudinal
Transfer energy not matter Transfer energy not matter
Particles oscillate ⊥ to Particles oscillate ∥ to direction of
direction of wave wave
Crests & troughs Compressions & rarefractions

(A) AMPLITUDE: Distance from centre to crest or trough (m)

(λ) WAVELENGTH: distance between successive crests or troughs (m)
(T) PERIOD: Time taken to complete one wavelength (s)
(f) FREQUENCY: Number of wavelengths in 1 second (Hz) f = 1/T
(V) VELOCITY: Speed wave travels through medium (ms-1) V =
λf
(k) WAVENUMBER: Number of waves per metre (m-1) k = 2𝜋/λ

REFLECTION: wave bouncing off a material

Angles measured from ray to normal
𝜃i = 𝜃r

Fixed end Free end

MIRRORS

Reflection on planar mirror

REFRACTION
New medium means some wave absorbed, some reflected, and the rest propagate
through new medium.
Change in density = change in velocity = change in direction (bend)
water: deep shallow = slow denser = slowing = bend towards normal (ϴi > ϴr)

DIFFRACTION: outward propagation of waves as passes object or

gap. Significant occurs λ ≥ w Smaller gap or larger wavelength =
greater diffraction
DISPERSION: white light broken up to individual spectral colours
known as chromatic – (ROYGBIV), violet slowest so most bent
SUPERPOSITION: CONSTRUCTIVE: (same f, λ, A, in phase), resultant
= 2x amplitude
DESTRUCTIVE: out of phase waves cancel each other out. Result = less (complete dest inter r amp=0)

PROGRESSIVE WAVES: travel continuously in medium of same direction without amplitude change ^
STANDING WAVES: particles oscillate but the wave itself stays stationary.
Vibrational frequency of the source causes reflected waves from end of the medium to interfere
with incident waves from the source. (see fixed and free end)
NODES – points remain at equilibrium ANTINODES – points remain at max. amplitude
HARMONICS: specific λ standing waves form at (antinodes = n, nth harmonic, (n-1)th overtone)
1st harmonic – fundamental
FREQUENCY: fn = nf1 (nth f = n x fundamental f) WAVELENGTH: λ = 2L / n OR LENGTH (L) = nλn / 2
VELOCITY: v = √ 𝑇 / 𝑚𝑙-1

RESONANCE: natural frequency: rate that objects vibrates naturally when disturbed
driving frequency: the frequency of force applied to the system from an external source
resonance: system being driven at natural frequency, vibrate strongly, response amp = max

SOUNDWAVES mechanical waves as vibrations in the air (AMP = VOL, FREQ = PITCH)
Travel at 343ms-1 (changes w/ temp & air pressure)
Longitudinal waves, compression – higher pressure, rarefaction – lower pressure
Echo – prolonging of original sound (reverberation) OR reflection from hard surface
INTENSITY: β = 10 log(I/I0) dB I = I0 x 10 β/10 (Wm-1) B2 = B1 + 20 log(R1/R2) (dB) I0 = 1 x 10-12
BEAT FREQUENCY 𝑓𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 = |𝑓2 − 𝑓1|
two sound sources have different frequencies, resultant wave alternates between constructive and
destructive interference. The variation in amplitude is called beats.

DOPPLER EFFECT 𝑓’ = 𝑓 (vwave + vobserver ÷ vwave - vsource)

𝑓’- observed, 𝑓 -emitted, vobserver (often 0), vsource (neg if moves away)
As approaches 𝑓 increases, observer interprets wave as compressed

LIGHT RAYS
Speed of light (c) = 3 x 105 ms-1
λ - 400nm (violet) to 700nm (red)
Real Image: intersecting converging rays
Virtual Image: collection of focus points made
by extensions of diverging rays

LAW of REFLECTION ϴi = ϴr
LAW of REFRACTION 𝑛𝑥 = 𝑐 / 𝑣x
𝑛𝑥 – refractive index, vx = speed of light in medium
Hence n1v1 = n2v2, nx in vacuum = 1.00, greater n = more optically dense
SNELL’S LAW n1 sinϴ1 = n2 sinϴ2
INTERNAL REFLECTION: occurs when n2 < n1, ϴc = sin-1(n2 / n1)

LIGHT INTENSITY: I1r12 = I2r22 as I α 1/r2 as I = P / 4πr2

THERMODYNAMICS
TEMPERATURE – measure of avg. kinetic energy of object/system (as temp increases, KE increases)
Heat is a flow of thermal energy from high temp entity to low
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM (Q1 + Q2 = 0) 0th: “If two thermodynamics systems are each in equilibrium
with a third system, then they are also in equilibrium with each other.”
1st: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only change forms
ΔU = Q – W U = internal energy Q = heat W = work done

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (c) q = mcΔT

q = heat energy (J) m = mass (kg) c = spec heat cap (Jkg-1°C-1) ΔT = change in temp (K or °C)
- specific heat capacity is amount needed to increase temp of 1kg by 1°C (water c = 4186 Jkg -1°C-1)
FIND TEMP AT EQULB: q1 + q2 = (m1+m2)cΔT  for same m1c1(Tf1 – Ti1) + m2c2(Tf2 – Ti2) = 0  for diff
LATENT HEAT FUSION: energy required to change state of 1kg of substance from solid to liquid
LATENT HEAT VAPORISATION: heat required to change 1 kg of the substance from liquid to gas
Q = mL Q = heat (J) m = mass (kg) L = specific latent heat (Jkg-1)

CONDUCTION: transfer of heat energy by collision of particles

Solids are best conductors as particles close together. (KE)
Thermal Conductivity 𝑄/ 𝑡 = 𝐾𝐴∆𝑇 / d Q/t = rate heat transfer (W)
K = thermal conductivity constant (big = conductive
A = cross section AREA ∆𝑇 = tempf – tempi d = thickness of material
CONVECTION: heated fluid/gas expands and particles spread over greater distance - less dense
Hence hot rises, cool falls. Cycle as hot particles cool and begin to sink again.
RADIATION: object emitting electromagnetic radiation which transfers thermal energy. (no medium)
Cool -near infrared (people), Hot -visible spectrum (light bulb & fire), Very Hot -Ultra Viol (elec spark)

ELECTRICITY
CHARGE (q) measured in Coulombs (C). Opposite attract, alike repel. μC = 1 millionth of a C.
Q = nqe or p Q = charge (C) n = no. protons or electrons qe = 6.25 x 1018 qp = 6.24 x 1018
Negatively charged = excess electron, Pos = lack of. Ionisation e.g. Na = Na+ + e—
test charge (q) = small magnitude used to test or find field of some other charge (+ve)
point charge (Q) = hypothetical charge located at a single point in space

CHARGING OBJECTS: Friction (electrons transfer from materials), Contact (charged conductor
touches uncharged conductor) and Induction (induces temporary dipole)
Conductor - charge carriers, electricity can flow, Insulators - no charge carriers, hold electricity

ELECTRICAL FIELDS
Direction of the electric field lines, defined as direction in which a
small positive test charge experiences a force.
Magnitude represented by number of lines, defined as force
exerted on placed charged at point E = F/q
E (NC-1) F = force (N) q = charge (C)
E = V/d

FORCE (F)
Ε0 = 8.85×10-12 C2/Nm2 q1 = charge 1 (N) q2 = charge 2 (N) r = distance (m)
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY: (measured in J) 𝑉 = 𝛥𝑈 / q = W/q 𝑈 = potential energy q = charge
charge move in opposite direction to naturally it gain electric potential energy (work by field)
if goes naturally gains speed and kinetic energy, (work done by field)
electric potential energy lost = amount of kinetic energy gained

CURRENT (Amps) I = q/t q = charge t = time (conventional current: positive to negative terminal)
Charge of object: q = nqe qe = 1.6 x 10-19
W=Q/V
SERIES PARALLEL

- Ammeter in series - Voltmeter parallel across a component

I1 = I2 = I3 (same all points) I1 = I2 + I3 = I4 (Kirchhoff’s: current leaving = current entering)
V = V 1 + V2 V1 = V2 = V3
R = R1 + R2 + R3 (reciprocal at the end)

RESISTANCE (OHM’S LAW)  R = V / I

Temp rises, movement increases, likelihood that the electrons and phonons will collide. Thus when
temperature goes up, resistance goes up.
ELECTRICAL ENERGY (E) = VIt (J) E = Pt CIRCUIT COMPONENTS:
2
(Watts) POWER (P) = IV I = V/R P = V /R

HEAT GENERATED H = VIt

MAGNESTISM

They start at the north pole and end at the south ● Direction of the field is indicated by arrows ●
Strength of the field is given by line density (the closer they are, the stronger the field) ● Magnetic
Field lines can never cross ● Magnetic Field lines are always in closed loops (every north pole has a
south pole)

MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH (T): B = μ0I/2πr RIGHT HAND RULE

μ0 = permeability of free space (4π x 10-7 ) I = current (A) r = dist (m)
X = into page O = out of page

SOLENOID A solenoid is a cylindrical coil of wire which when current

passes through it produces a magnetic field.
- The field on the inside is much stronger and more uniform than the
field on the outside of the solenoid.
- When a current flows through the solenoid, this quickly (but
temporarily) magnetises the soft-iron core, producing a magnet that is
much stronger than just the solenoid.
- You can get a rough measurement of the magnetic field around a
current carrying solenoid by holding a bar magnet close to one end of the solenoid.
CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD
If you insert an iron bar inside the solenoid you will notice that the magnetic field increases.
Varying the number of turns also changes the strength of the magnetic field.