Using SQL, we can interact with the database by writing queries.

Here’s what an example query looks like:

SELECT * FROM customers;

Using this SELECT statement, the query selects all the data from all the
columns in the customer’s table and returns data like so:

Source: Database Guide

The asterisk wildcard character (*) refers to “all” and selects all the rows
and columns. We can replace it with specific column names instead — here
only those columns will be returned by the query
 SELECT FirstName, LastName FROM customers;

Adding a WHERE clause allows you to filter what gets returned:

SELECT * FROM customers WHERE age >= 30 ORDER BY age ASC;

This query returns all data from the products table with an age value of
greater than 30.

The use of ORDER BY keyword just means the results will be ordered using
the age column from the lowest value to the highest

Using the INSERT INTO statement, we can add new data to a table. Here’s a
basic example adding a new user to the customers table:

INSERT INTO customers(FirstName, LastName, address, email)

VALUES ('Jason', 'Dsouza', 'McLaren Vale, South Australia', 'test@fakeGm

Of course, these examples demonstrate only a very small selection of what

the SQL language can do. We'll learn more about it in this guide.

Why Learn SQL?

We live in the age of Big Data, where data is used extensively to find
insights and inform strategy, marketing, advertising and a plethora of other
operations.

Big businesses like Google, Amazon, AirBnb utilize large, relational

databases as a basis of improving customer experience. Understanding SQL
is a great skill to have not only for data scientists and analysts but for
everyone.
How do you think that you suddenly got a Youtube ad on shoes when just a few
minutes ago, you were Googling your favourite shoes? That’s SQL (or a form of
SQL) at work!

SQL vs MySQL
Before we move on, I just want to clarify an often-confused topic — the
difference between SQL and MySQL. As it turns out, they aren’t the same
thing!

SQL is a language, while MySQL is a system to implement SQL.

SQL outlines syntax that allows you to write queries that manage relational
databases.

MySQL is a database system that runs on a server. It allows you to write

queries using SQL syntax to manage MySQL databases.

In addition to MySQL, there are other systems that implement SQL. Some
of the more popular ones include:

SQLite

Oracle Database

PostgreSQL

Microsoft SQL Server

How to Install MySQL

For most cases, MySQL is the preferred choice for a database management
system. Many popular Content Management Systems (like Wordpress) use
MySQL by default, so using MySQL to manage those applications can be a
good idea.

In order to use MySQL, you’ll need to install it on your system:

Install MySQL on Windows
The recommended way to install MySQL on Windows is by using the MSI
installer from the MySQL website.

This resource will guide you with the installation process.

Install MySQL on macOS

On macOS, installing MySQL also involves downloading an installer.

This resource will guide you through the installation process.

How to Use MySQL

With MySQL now installed on your system, I recommend that you use
some sort of SQL management application to make managing your databases
a much easier process.

There are lots of apps to choose from which largely do the same job, so it’s
down to your own personal preference on which one to use:

MySQL Workbench developed by Oracle

phpMyAdmin (operates in the web browser)

HeidiSQL (Recommended for Windows)

Sequel Pro (Recommended for macOS)

When you’re ready to start writing your own SQL queries, consider
importing dummy data rather than creating your own database.

Here are some dummy databases that are available for download free of
charge.

SQL Cheatsheet – The Icing on the

Cake
SQL Keywords
Here you can find a collection of keywords used in SQL statements, a
description, and where appropriate an example. Some of the more
advanced keywords have their own dedicated section.

Where MySQL is mentioned next to an example, this means this example is

only applicable to MySQL databases (as opposed to any other database
system).

ADD -- Adds a new column to an existing table

ADD CONSTRAINT -- Creates a new constraint on an existing table, which i

ALTER TABLE -- Adds, deletes or edits columns in a table. It can also be

ALTER COLUMN -- Changes the data type of a table’s column.

ALL -- Returns true if all of the subquery values meet the passed condit

AND -- Used to join separate conditions within a WHERE clause.

ANY -- Returns true if any of the subquery values meet the given conditi

AS -- Renames a table or column with an alias value which only exists fo

ASC -- Used with ORDER BY to return the data in ascending order.

BETWEEN -- Selects values within the given range.

CASE -- Changes query output depending on conditions.

CHECK -- Adds a constraint that limits the value which can be added to a

CREATE DATABASE -- Creates a new database.

CREATE TABLE -- Creates a new table.

DEFAULT -- Sets a default value for a column

DELETE -- Delete data from a table.

DESC -- Used with ORDER BY to return the data in descending order.

DROP COLUMN -- Deletes a column from a table.

DROP DATABASE -- Deletes the entire database.

DROP DEAFULT -- Removes a default value for a column.

DROP TABLE -- Deletes a table from a database.

EXISTS -- Checks for the existence of any record within the subquery, re

FROM -- Specifies which table to select or delete data from.

IN -- Used alongside a WHERE clause as a shorthand for multiple OR cond

INSERT INTO -- Adds new rows to a table.

IS NULL -- Tests for empty (NULL) values.

IS NOT NULL -- The reverse of NULL. Tests for values that aren’t empty /

LIKE -- Returns true if the operand value matches a pattern.

NOT -- Returns true if a record DOESN’T meet the condition.

OR -- Used alongside WHERE to include data when either condition is true

ORDER BY -- Used to sort the result data in ascending (default) or desce

ROWNUM -- Returns results where the row number meets the passed conditio

SELECT -- Used to select data from a database, which is then returned in

SELECT DISTINCT -- Sames as SELECT, except duplicate values are excluded

SELECT INTO -- Copies data from one table and inserts it into another.

SELECT TOP -- Allows you to return a set number of records to return fro

SET -- Used alongside UPDATE to update existing data in a table.

SOME -- Identical to ANY.

TOP -- Used alongside SELECT to return a set number of records from a ta

TRUNCATE TABLE -- Similar to DROP, but instead of deleting the table and

UNION -- Combines the results from 2 or more SELECT statements and retur

UNION ALL -- The same as UNION, but includes duplicate values.

UNIQUE -- This constraint ensures all values in a column are unique.

UPDATE -- Updates existing data in a table.

VALUES -- Used alongside the INSERT INTO keyword to add new values to a
 WHERE -- Filters results to only include data which meets the given cond

Comments in SQL
Comments allow you to explain sections of your SQL statements, without
being executed directly.

In SQL, there are 2 types of comments, single line and multiline.

Single Line Comments in SQL

Single line comments start with ‘- -’. Any text after these 2 characters to the
end of the line will be ignored.

-- This part is ignored

SELECT * FROM customers;

Multiline Comments in SQL

Multiline comments start with /* and end with */. They stretch across
multiple lines until the closing characters have been found.

/*

This is a multiline comment.

It can span across multiple lines.

*/

SELECT * FROM customers;

/*

This is another comment.

You can even put code within a comment to prevent its execution

SELECT * FROM icecreams;

 */

Data Types in MySQL

When creating a new table or editing an existing one, you must specify the
type of data that each column accepts.

In this example, data passed to the id column must be an int (integer),

while the FirstName column has a VARCHAR data type with a maximum of
255 characters.

CREATE TABLE customers(

id int,
FirstName varchar(255)
);

1. String Data Types

CHAR(size) -- Fixed length string which can contain letters, numbers and

VARCHAR(size) -- Variable length string similar to CHAR(), but with a ma

BINARY(size) -- Similar to CHAR() but stores binary byte strings.

VARBINARY(size) -- Similar to VARCHAR() but for binary byte strings.

TINYBLOB -- Holds Binary Large Objects (BLOBs) with a max length of 255

TINYTEXT -- Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters. Use

TEXT(size) -- Holds a string with a maximum length of 65535 bytes. Again

BLOB(size) -- Holds Binary Large Objects (BLOBs) with a max length of 65

MEDIUMTEXT -- Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215 charact

MEDIUMBLOB -- Holds Binary Large Objects (BLOBs) with a max length of 16

LONGTEXT -- Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295 charac

 LONGBLOB -- Holds Binary Large Objects (BLOBs) with a max length of 4,29

ENUM(a, b, c, etc…) -- A string object that only has one value, which is

SET(a, b, c, etc…) -- A string object that can have 0 or more values, wh

2. Numeric Data Types

BIT(size) -- A bit-value type with a default of 1. The allowed number of

TINYINT(size) -- A very small integer with a signed range of -128 to 127

BOOL -- Essentially a quick way of setting the column to TINYINT with a

BOOLEAN -- Same as BOOL.

SMALLINT(size) -- A small integer with a signed range of -32768 to 32767

MEDIUMINT(size) -- A medium integer with a signed range of -8388608 to 8

INT(size) -- A medium integer with a signed range of -2147483648 to 2147

INTEGER(size) -- Same as INT.

BIGINT(size) -- A medium integer with a signed range of -922337203685477

FLOAT(p) -- A floating point number value. If the precision (p) paramete

DOUBLE(size, d) -- A floating point number value where the total digits

DECIMAL(size, d) -- An exact fixed point number where the total number o

DEC(size, d) -- Same as DECIMAL.

3. Date/Time Data Types

DATE -- A simple date in YYYY-MM–DD format, with a supported range from

DATETIME(fsp) -- A date time in YYYY-MM-DD hh:mm:ss format, with a suppo

TIMESTAMP(fsp) -- A Unix Timestamp, which is a value relative to the num

By adding DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP and ON UPDATE CURRENT TIMESTAMP to t

TIME(fsp) -- A time in hh:mm:ss format, with a supported range from ‘-83

 YEAR -- A year, with a supported range of ‘1901’ to ‘2155’.

SQL Operators
1. Arithmetic Operators in SQL
+ -- Add
– -- Subtract
* -- Multiply
/ -- Divide
% -- Modulus

2. Bitwise Operators in SQL

& -- Bitwise AND
| -- Bitwise OR
^-- Bitwise XOR

3. Comparison Operators in SQL

= -- Equal to
> -- Greater than
< -- Less than
>= -- Greater than or equal to
<= -- Less than or equal to
<> -- Not equal to

4. Compound Operators in SQL

+= -- Add equals
-= -- Subtract equals
*= -- Multiply equals
/= -- Divide equals
%= -- Modulo equals
&= -- Bitwise AND equals
 ^-= -- Bitwise exclusive equals
|*= -- Bitwise OR equals

SQL Functions
1. String Functions in SQL
ASCII -- Returns the equivalent ASCII value for a specific character.

CHAR_LENGTH -- Returns the character length of a string.

CHARACTER_LENGTH -- Same as CHAR_LENGTH.

CONCAT -- Adds expressions together, with a minimum of 2.

CONCAT_WS -- Adds expressions together, but with a separator between eac

FIELD -- Returns an index value relative to the position of a value with

FIND IN SET -- Returns the position of a string in a list of strings.

FORMAT -- When passed a number, returns that number formatted to include

INSERT -- Allows you to insert one string into another at a certain poin

INSTR -- Returns the position of the first time one string appears withi

LCASE -- Converts a string to lowercase.

LEFT -- Starting from the left, extracts the given number of characters

LENGTH -- Returns the length of a string, but in bytes.

LOCATE -- Returns the first occurrence of one string within another,

LOWER -- Same as LCASE.

LPAD -- Left pads one string with another, to a specific length.

LTRIM -- Removes any leading spaces from the given string.

MID -- Extracts one string from another, starting from any position.

POSITION -- Returns the position of the first time one substring appears

REPEAT -- Allows you to repeat a string

REPLACE -- Allows you to replace any instances of a substring within a s

 REVERSE -- Reverses the string.

RIGHT -- Starting from the right, extracts the given number of character

RPAD -- Right pads one string with another, to a specific length.

RTRIM -- Removes any trailing spaces from the given string.

SPACE -- Returns a string full of spaces equal to the amount you pass it

STRCMP -- Compares 2 strings for differences

SUBSTR -- Extracts one substring from another, starting from any positio

SUBSTRING -- Same as SUBSTR

SUBSTRING_INDEX -- Returns a substring from a string before the passed s

TRIM -- Removes trailing and leading spaces from the given string. Same

UCASE -- Converts a string to uppercase.

UPPER -- Same as UCASE.

2. Numeric Functions in SQL

ABS -- Returns the absolute value of the given number.

ACOS -- Returns the arc cosine of the given number.

ASIN -- Returns the arc sine of the given number.

ATAN -- Returns the arc tangent of one or 2 given numbers.

ATAN2 -- Returns the arc tangent of 2 given numbers.

AVG -- Returns the average value of the given expression.

CEIL -- Returns the closest whole number (integer) upwards from a given

CEILING -- Same as CEIL.

COS -- Returns the cosine of a given number.

COT -- Returns the cotangent of a given number.

COUNT -- Returns the amount of records that are returned by a SELECT que
DEGREES -- Converts a radians value to degrees.

DIV -- Allows you to divide integers.

EXP -- Returns e to the power of the given number.

FLOOR -- Returns the closest whole number (integer) downwards from a giv

GREATEST -- Returns the highest value in a list of arguments.

LEAST -- Returns the smallest value in a list of arguments.

LN -- Returns the natural logarithm of the given number.

LOG -- Returns the natural logarithm of the given number, or the logarit

LOG10 -- Does the same as LOG, but to base 10.

LOG2 -- Does the same as LOG, but to base 2.

MAX -- Returns the highest value from a set of values.

MIN -- Returns the lowest value from a set of values.

MOD -- Returns the remainder of the given number divided by the other gi

PI -- Returns PI.

POW -- Returns the value of the given number raised to the power of the

POWER -- Same as POW.

RADIANS -- Converts a degrees value to radians.

RAND -- Returns a random number.

ROUND -- Rounds the given number to the given amount of decimal places.

SIGN -- Returns the sign of the given number.

SIN -- Returns the sine of the given number.

SQRT -- Returns the square root of the given number.

SUM -- Returns the value of the given set of values combined.

TAN -- Returns the tangent of the given number.

TRUNCATE -- Returns a number truncated to the given number of decimal pl

3. Date Functions in SQL
ADDDATE -- Adds a date interval (eg: 10 DAY) to a date (eg: 20/01/20) an

ADDTIME -- Adds a time interval (eg: 02:00) to a time or datetime (05:00

CURDATE -- Gets the current date.

CURRENT_DATE -- Same as CURDATE.

CURRENT_TIME -- Gest the current time.

CURRENT_TIMESTAMP -- Gets the current date and time.

CURTIME -- Same as CURRENT_TIME.

DATE -- Extracts the date from a datetime expression.

DATEDIFF -- Returns the number of days between the 2 given dates.

DATE_ADD -- Same as ADDDATE.

DATE_FORMAT -- Formats the date to the given pattern.

DATE_SUB -- Subtracts a date interval (eg: 10 DAY) to a date (eg: 20/01/

DAY -- Returns the day for the given date.

DAYNAME -- Returns the weekday name for the given date.

DAYOFWEEK -- Returns the index for the weekday for the given date.

DAYOFYEAR -- Returns the day of the year for the given date.

EXTRACT -- Extracts from the date the given part (eg MONTH for 20/01/20

FROM DAYS -- Returns the date from the given numeric date value.

HOUR -- Returns the hour from the given date.

LAST DAY -- Gets the last day of the month for the given date.

LOCALTIME -- Gets the current local date and time.

LOCALTIMESTAMP -- Same as LOCALTIME.

MAKEDATE -- Creates a date and returns it, based on the given year and n

MAKETIME -- Creates a time and returns it, based on the given hour, minu

MICROSECOND -- Returns the microsecond of a given time or datetime.

 MINUTE -- Returns the minute of the given time or datetime.

MONTH -- Returns the month of the given date.

MONTHNAME -- Returns the name of the month of the given date.

NOW -- Same as LOCALTIME.

PERIOD_ADD -- Adds the given number of months to the given period.

PERIOD_DIFF -- Returns the difference between 2 given periods.

QUARTER -- Returns the year quarter for the given date.

SECOND -- Returns the second of a given time or datetime.

SEC_TO_TIME -- Returns a time based on the given seconds.

STR_TO_DATE -- Creates a date and returns it based on the given string a

SUBDATE -- Same as DATE_SUB.

SUBTIME -- Subtracts a time interval (eg: 02:00) to a time or datetime (

SYSDATE -- Same as LOCALTIME.

TIME -- Returns the time from a given time or datetime.

TIME_FORMAT -- Returns the given time in the given format.

TIME_TO_SEC -- Converts and returns a time into seconds.

TIMEDIFF -- Returns the difference between 2 given time/datetime express

TIMESTAMP -- Returns the datetime value of the given date or datetime.

TO_DAYS -- Returns the total number of days that have passed from ‘00-00

WEEK -- Returns the week number for the given date.

WEEKDAY -- Returns the weekday number for the given date.

WEEKOFYEAR -- Returns the week number for the given date.

YEAR -- Returns the year from the given date.

YEARWEEK -- Returns the year and week number for the given date.

4. Miscellaneous Functions in SQL

 BIN -- Returns the given number in binary.

BINARY -- Returns the given value as a binary string.

CAST -- Converst one type into another.

COALESCE -- From a list of values, returns the first non-null value.

CONNECTION_ID -- For the current connection, returns the unique connecti

CONV -- Converts the given number from one numeric base system into anot

CONVERT -- Converts the given value into the given datatype or character

CURRENT_USER -- Returns the user and hostname which was used to authenti

DATABASE -- Gets the name of the current database.

GROUP BY -- Used alongside aggregate functions (COUNT, MAX, MIN, SUM, AV

HAVING -- Used in the place of WHERE with aggregate functions.

IF -- If the condition is true it returns a value, otherwise it returns

IFNULL -- If the given expression equates to null, it returns the given

ISNULL -- If the expression is null, it returns 1, otherwise returns 0.

LAST_INSERT_ID -- For the last row which was added or updated in a table

NULLIF -- Compares the 2 given expressions. If they are equal, NULL is r

SESSION_USER -- Returns the current user and hostnames.

SYSTEM_USER -- Same as SESSION_USER.

USER -- Same as SESSION_USER.

VERSION -- Returns the current version of the MySQL powering the databas

Wildcard Characters in SQL

In SQL, Wildcards are special characters used with the LIKE and NOT LIKE
keywords. This allows us to search for data with sophisticated patterns
rather efficiently.
 % -- Equates to zero or more characters.
-- Example: Find all customers with surnames ending in ‘ory’.
SELECT * FROM customers
WHERE surname LIKE '%ory';

_ -- Equates to any single character.

-- Example: Find all customers living in cities beginning with any 3 cha
SELECT * FROM customers
WHERE city LIKE '_ _ _vale';

[charlist] -- Equates to any single character in the list.

-- Example: Find all customers with first names beginning with J, K or T
SELECT * FROM customers
WHERE first_name LIKE '[jkt]%';

SQL Keys
In relational databases, there is a concept of primary and foreign keys. In
SQL tables, these are included as constraints, where a table can have a
primary key, a foreign key, or both.

1. Primary Keys in SQL

A primary lets each record in a table be uniquely identified. You can only
have one primary key per table, and you can assign this constraint to any
single or combination of columns. However, this means each value within
this column(s) needs to be unique.

Typically in a table, the ID column is a primary key, and is usually paired

with the AUTO_INCREMENT keyword. This means the value increases
automatically as and when new records are created.

Example (MySQL)
Create a new table and set the primary key to the ID column.

CREATE TABLE customers (

id int NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
FirstName varchar(255),
Last Name varchar(255) NOT NULL,
address varchar(255),
 email varchar(255),
PRIMARY KEY (id)
);

2. Foreign Keys in SQL

You can apply a foreign key to one column or many. You use it to link 2
tables together in a relational database.

The table containing the foreign key is called the child key,

The table containing the referenced (or candidate) key is called the parent
table.

This essentially means that the column data is shared between 2 tables,
because a foreign key also prevents invalid data from being inserted which
isn’t also present in the parent table.

Example (MySQL)
Create a new table and turn any column that references IDs in other tables
into foreign keys.

CREATE TABLE orders (

id int NOT NULL,
user_id int,
product_id int,
PRIMARY KEY (id),
FOREIGN KEY (user_id) REFERENCES users(id),
FOREIGN KEY (product_id) REFERENCES products(id)
);

Indexes in SQL
Indexes are attributes that can be assigned to columns that are frequently
searched against to make data retrieval a quicker and more efficient
process.
 CREATE INDEX -- Creates an index named ‘idx_test’ on the first_name and
CREATE INDEX idx_test
ON users (first_name, surname);
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX -- The same as the above, but no duplicate values.
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX idx_test
ON users (first_name, surname);
DROP INDEX -- Removes an index.
ALTER TABLE users
DROP INDEX idx_test;

SQL Joins
In SQL, a JOIN clause is used to return a result which combines data from
multiple tables, based on a common column which is featured in both of
them.

There are a number of different joins available for you to use:

Inner Join (Default): Returns any records which have matching

values in both tables.

Left Join: Returns all of the records from the first table, along with
any matching records from the second table.

Right Join: Returns all of the records from the second table, along
with any matching records from the first.

Full Join: Returns all records from both tables when there is a
match.

A common way of visualising how joins work is like this:

Source: Website Setup

 SELECT orders.id, users.FirstName, users.Surname, products.name as ‘prod
FROM orders
INNER JOIN users on orders.user_id = users.id
INNER JOIN products on orders.product_id = products.id;

Views in SQL
A view is essentially an SQL results set that gets stored in the database
under a label, so you can return to it later without having to rerun the
query.

These are especially useful when you have a costly SQL query which you
might need a number of times. So instead of running it over and over to
generate the same results set, you can just do it once and save it as a view.

How to Create Views in SQL

To create a view, you can do so like this:

CREATE VIEW priority_users AS

SELECT * FROM users
WHERE country = ‘United Kingdom’;

Then in future, if you need to access the stored result set, you can do so like
this:

SELECT * FROM [priority_users];

How to Replace Views in SQL

With the CREATE OR REPLACE command, you can update a view like this:
 CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW [priority_users] AS
SELECT * FROM users
WHERE country = ‘United Kingdom’ OR country=’USA’;

How to Delete Views in SQL

To delete a view, simply use the DROP VIEW command.

DROP VIEW priority_users;