Os

Chapters of This Video
(Chapter-1: Introduction)- Operating system, Goal & functions, System Components,

Operating System services,
Classification of Operating systems- Batch, Interactive, Multiprogramming, Multiuser
Systems, Time sharing,
Multiprocessor Systems, Real Time System.
(Chapter-2: Operating System Structure)- Layered structure, Monolithic and Microkernel
Systems, Interface, System Call.
Chapter-3: Process Basics)- Process Control Block (PCB), Process identification information,
Process States, Process
Transition Diagram, Schedulers, CPU Bound and i/o Bound, Context Switch.
(Chapter-4: CPU Scheduling)- Scheduling Performance Criteria, Scheduling Algorithms.
(Chapter-5: Process Synchronization)- Race Condition, Critical Section Problem, Mutual
Exclusion,, Dekker’s solution,
Peterson’s solution, Process Concept, Principle of Concurrency,
(Chapter-6: Semaphores)- Classical Problem in Concurrency- Producer/Consumer Problem,
Reader-Writer Problem,
Dining Philosopher Problem, Sleeping Barber Problem, Test and Set operation.
(Chapter-7: Deadlock)- System model, Deadlock characterization, Prevention, Avoidance
and detection, Recovery from
deadlock.
(Chapter-8)- Fork Command, Multithreaded Systems, Threads and their management
(Chapter-9: Memory Management)- Memory Hierarchy, Locality of reference,
Multiprogramming with fixed partitions,
Multiprogramming with variable partitions, Protection schemes, Paging, Segmentation,
Paged segmentation.
(Chapter-10: Virtual memory)- Demand paging, Performance of demand paging, Page
replacement algorithms,
Thrashing.
Chapter-11: Disk Management)- Disk Basics, Disk storage and disk scheduling, Total
Transfer time.
(Chapter-12: File System)- File allocation Methods, Free-space Management, File
organization and access mechanism,
File directories, and File sharing, File system implementation issues, File system protection
and security.
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2. Resource Manager/Allocator – Operating system controls and coordinates the
use of system resources among various application programs in an unbiased
fashion.

3. Platform - OS provides platform on which other application programs can be
installed, provides the environment within which programs are executed.

1. Primary goals (Convenience / user friendly)
2. Secondary goals (Efficiency (Using resources in efficient manner) /
Reliability / maintainability)

1. Process Management: Involves handling the creation, scheduling, and termination of
processes, which are executing programs.
2. Memory Management: Manages allocation and deallocation of physical and virtual

memory
spaces to various programs.
3. I/O Device Management: Handles I/O operations of peripheral devices like disks,
keyboards,
etc., including buffering and caching.
4. File Management: Manages files on storage devices, including their information, naming,
permissions, and hierarchy.
5. Network Management: Manages network protocols and functions, enabling the OS to
establish network connections and transfer data.
6. Security & Protection: Ensures system protection against unauthorized access and other
security threats through authentication, authorization, and encryption.

1. Kernel
• Central Component: Manages the system's resources and communication between hardware
and software.
2. Process Management
• Process Scheduler: Determines the execution of processes.
• Process Control Block (PCB): Contains process details such as process ID, priority, status,
etc.
• Concurrency Control: Manages simultaneous execution.
3. Memory Management
• Physical Memory Management: Manages RAM allocation.
• Virtual Memory Management: Simulates additional memory using disk space.
• Memory Allocation: Assigns memory to different processes.
4. File System Management
• File Handling: Manages the creation, deletion, and access of files and directories.
• File Control Block: Stores file attributes and control information.
• Disk Scheduling: Organizes the order of reading or writing to disk.

• Device Drivers: Interface between the hardware and the operating system.
• I/O Controllers: Manage data transfer to and from peripheral devices.
6. Security and Access Control
• Authentication: Verifies user credentials.
• Authorization: Controls access permissions to files and directories.
• Encryption: Ensures data confidentiality and integrity.
7. User Interface
• Command Line Interface (CLI): Text-based user interaction.
• Graphical User Interface (GUI): Visual, user-friendly interaction with the OS.
8. Networking
• Network Protocols: Rules for communication between devices on a network.
• Network Interface: Manages connection between the computer and the network.

1.
Early computers were not interactive device, there user use to prepare a job which consist
three parts
1. Program
2. Control information
3. Input data
2.
Only one job is given input at a time as there was no memory, computer will take the input
then process it and
then generate output.
3.
Common input/output device were punch card or tape drives. So these devices were very
slow, and processor
remain ideal most of the time.

4. To speed up the processing job with similar types (for e.g. FORTRAN jobs, COBOL jobs
etc. )
were batched together and were run through the processor as a group (batch).
5. In some system grouping is done by the operator while in some systems it is performed by
the
'Batch Monitor' resided in the low end of main memory)
6. Then jobs (as a deck of punched cards) are bundled into batches with similar requirement.

Simultaneous peripheral operations online
1. In a computer system input-output devices, such as printers are very slow relative to the
performance of the rest of the system.
2. Spooling is a process in which data is temporarily held in memory or other volatile storage
to
be used by a device or a program.

input/output devices such as the keyboard, mouse and printer. For example, in
printer spooling, the documents/files that are sent to the printer are first stored in
the memory. Once the printer is ready, it fetches the data and prints it.

it's working. When it unfreezes, all those stored clicks execute rapidly due to the
device's spool.

• Multiple Jobs: Keeps several jobs in main
memory simultaneously, allowing more
efficient utilization of the CPU.
• Job Execution: The OS picks and begins to
execute one of the jobs in memory.
• Waiting Jobs: Eventually, a job may need
to wait for a task, such as an I/O operation,
to complete.
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while waiting for a job to complete.
• Multiprogrammed: The OS switches to
and executes another job if the current
job needs to wait, utilizing the CPU
effectively.
Show must go on
• Conclusion
• Efficient Utilization: Ensures that the
CPU is never idle as long as at least one
job needs to execute, leading to better
utilization of resources.

• High CPU Utilization: Enhances processing efficiency.
• Less Waiting Time: Minimizes idle time.
• Multi-Task Handling: Manages concurrent tasks effectively.
• Shared CPU Time: Increases system efficiency.
• Disadvantages:
• Complex Scheduling: Difficult to program.
• Complex Memory Management: Intricate handling of memory is required.

1.
Time sharing (or multitasking) is a logical extension of multiprogramming, it allows many

users to share the
computer simultaneously. the CPU executes multiple jobs (May belong to different user) by
switching among
them, but the switches occur so frequently that, each user is given the impression that the
entire computer
system is dedicated to his/her use, even though it is being shared among many users.
2.
In the modern operating systems, we are able to play MP3 music, edit documents in
Microsoft Word, surf the
Google Chrome all running at the same time. (by context switching, the illusion of
parallelism is achieved)
3.
For multitasking to take place, firstly there should be multiprogramming i.e. presence of
multiple programs
ready for execution. And secondly the concept of time sharing.

1.
Multiprocessor Operating System refers to the use of two or more central processing units
(CPU) within a
single computer system. These multiple CPU’s share system bus, memory and other
peripheral devices.
2.
Multiple concurrent processes each can run on a separate CPU, here we achieve a true
parallel execution of
processes.
3.
Becomes most important in computer system, where the complexity of the job is more, and
CPU divides and
conquers the jobs. Generally used in the fields like artificial intelligence and expert system,
image processing,
weather forecasting etc.

Symmetric Processing
Asymmetric Processing
Definition
All processors are treated equally

and can run any task.
Each processor is assigned a

specific task or role.
Task
Allocation
Any processor can perform any

task.
Tasks are divided according to

processor roles.
Complexity
Generally simpler as all processors

are treated the same.
More complex due to the

dedicated role of each processor.
Scalability
Easily scalable by adding more

processors.
May require reconfiguration as

processors are added.
Performance
Load is evenly distributed,

enhancing performance.
Performance may vary based on

the specialization of tasks.

Multi-Programming
Multi-Processing
Definition
Allows multiple programs to share a single CPU.
Utilizes multiple CPUs to run

multiple processes concurrently.
Concurrency
Simulates concurrent execution by rapidly

switching between tasks.
Achieves true parallel execution of

processes.
Enhances performance by allowing

Maximizes CPU utilization by keeping it busy with
Resource Utilization
tasks to be processed
different tasks.
simultaneously.
Hardware
Requirements
Requires only one CPU and manages multiple

tasks on it.
Requires multiple CPUs, enabling

parallel processing.
Complexity and
Coordination
Less complex, primarily managing task switching More complex, requiring

on one CPU.
coordination among multiple CPUs.

1. A real time operating system is a special purpose operating system which has well defined
fixed time constraints.
Processing must be done within the defined time limit or the system will fail.
2. Valued more for how quickly or how predictably it can respond, without buffer delays than
for the amount of
work it can perform in a given period of time.
3. For example, a petroleum refinery, Airlines reservation system, Air traffic control system,
Systems that provide up
to the minute information on stock prices, Defense application systems like as RADAR.

a deadline. The predicted deadlines will react at a time t = 0. Some examples of
this operating system are air bag control in cars.

may be missed and they will take the action at a time t=0+. The critical time of this operating
system is delayed to some extent. The examples of this operating system are the digital
camera, mobile phones and online data etc.

Hard Real-Time Operating System
Must meet strict deadlines

Deadline Constraints
without fail.
Soft Real-Time Operating System
Can miss deadlines occasionally

without failure.
Response Time
Fixed and guaranteed.
Predictable, but not guaranteed.
Applications
Used in life-critical systems like

medical devices, nuclear
reactors.
Used in multimedia, user

interfaces, etc.
Complexity and Cost
Typically more complex and

costlier.
Less complex and usually less

expensive.
Reliability
Must be highly reliable and

fault-tolerant.
High reliability desired, but some

failures are tolerable.

1. A distributed operating system is a software over a collection of independent, networked,
communicating, loosely coupled nodes and physically separate computational nodes.
2. The nodes communicate with one another through various networks, such as high-speed
buses and
the Internet. They handle jobs which are serviced by multiple CPUs. Each individual node
holds a
specific software subset of the global aggregate operating system.
3. There are four major reasons for building distributed systems: resource sharing,
computation speedup,
reliability, and communication.

• A common approach is to partition the task into small components, or modules, rather than
have one monolithic system. Each of these modules should be a well-defined portion of the
system, with carefully defined inputs, outputs, and functions.
• Simple Structure - Many operating systems do not

have well-defined structures. Frequently, such
systems started as small, simple, and limited
systems and then grew beyond their original scope.
MS-DOS is an example of such a system.
• Not divided into modules. Its interface , levels and
functionality are not well separated

system can then retain much greater control over the computer and over the applications that
make use of that
computer.
1. Implementers have more freedom in changing the inner workings

of the system and in creating modular operating systems.
2. Under a top-down approach, the overall functionality and features
are determined and are separated into components.
3. Information hiding is also important, because it leaves

programmers free to implement the low-level routines as they see
fit.
4. A system can be made modular in many ways. One method is the
layered approach, in which the operating system is broken into a
number of layers (levels). The bottom layer (layer 0) is the
hardware; the highest (layer N) is the user interface.

• In the mid-1980s, researchers at Carnegie Mellon University developed an operating system
called Mach that modularized the kernel using the microkernel approach.
• This method structures the operating system by removing all nonessential components from
the kernel and implementing them as system and user-level programs. The result is a smaller
kernel.

services are added to user space and consequently do not require modification of the kernel.
• When the kernel does have to be modified, the changes tend to be fewer, because the
microkernel is a
smaller kernel.
• The MINIX 3 microkernel, for example, has only approximately 12,000 lines of code.
Developer
Andrew S. Tanenbaum

• There are several ways for users to interface with the operating system. Here, we discuss
two
fundamental approaches.
• Command-line interface, or command interpreter.

• Graphical User Interfaces.
Operating
System

kernel. Others, such as Windows and UNIX, treat the command interpreter as a special
program that is running when a job is initiated or when a user first logs on (on interactive
systems).
• On systems with multiple command interpreters to choose from, the interpreters are known
as
shells. For example, on UNIX and Linux systems, a user may choose among several different
shells, including the Bourne shell, C shell, Bourne-Again shell, Korn shell, and others.

through a user- friendly graphical user interface, or GUI. Here, users employ a mouse-based
window- and-menu system characterized by a desktop.
• The user moves the mouse to position its pointer on images, or icons, on the screen (the
desktop) that represent programs, files, directories, and system functions. Depending on the
mouse pointer’s location, clicking a button on the mouse can invoke a program, select a file
or
directory—known as a folder —or pull down a menu that contains commands.

computers typically use a touchscreen interface.
• Here, users interact by making gestures on the touchscreen—for example, pressing and
swiping fingers across the screen.

• System administrators who manage computers and power users who have deep knowledge
of a system
frequently use the command-line interface. For them, it is more efficient, giving them faster
access to
the activities they need to perform.
• Indeed, on some systems, only a subset of system functions is available via the GUI, leaving
the less
common tasks to those who are command-line knowledgeable.

• System calls provide the means for a user program to ask
the operating system to perform tasks reserved for the
operating system on the user program’s behalf.
• System calls provide an interface to the services made
available by an operating system. These calls are generally
available as routines written in C and C++.
• The API specifies a set of functions that are available to an
application programmer, including the parameters that are
passed to each function and the return values the
programmer can expect.

control, file manipulation, device manipulation, information maintenance, communications,
and protection.
• Process control
1. end, abort
2. load, execute
3. create process, terminate process

4. get process attributes, set process attributes
5. wait for time
6. wait event, signal event
7. allocate and free memory

1. create file, delete file
2. open, close
3. read, write, reposition

4. get file attributes, set file attributes

1. request device, release device
2. read, write, reposition
3. get device attributes, set device attributes

4. logically attach or detach devices

1. get time or date, set time or date
2. get system data, set system data
3. get process, file, or device attributes

4. set process, file, or device attributes

1. create, delete communication connection
2. send, receive messages transfer status information

• We need two separate modes of operation: User mode and Kernel mode (also called
supervisor mode, system
mode, or privileged mode). A bit, called the mode bit, is added to the hardware of the
computer to indicate the
current mode: kernel (0) or user (1).
• When the computer system is executing on behalf of a user application, the system is in user
mode. However,
when a user application requests a service from the operating system (via a system call), the
system must
transition from user to kernel mode to fulfill the request.

In general, a process is a program in execution.
A Program is not a Process by default. A program is a passive entity, i.e. a
file containing a list of instructions stored on disk (secondary memory)
(often called an executable file).
A program becomes a Process when an executable file is loaded into main
memory and when it’s PCB is created.
A process on the other hand is an Active Entity, which require resources
like main memory, CPU time, registers, system buses etc.

separate execution sequences and are totally different process.
For instance, if a user has invoked many copies of web browser program, each copy will be
treated as separate process. even though the text section is same but the data, heap and stack
sections can vary.

• Text section: Also known as Program Code.
• Stack: Which contains the temporary data (Function
Parameters, return addresses and local variables).
• Data Section: Containing global variables.
• Heap: Which is memory dynamically allocated during
process runtime.

Definition
State
Resources
Independence
Interaction
Program
Process
A set of instructions written to perform a

An instance of a program being executed.
specific task.
Static; exists as code on disk or in

storage.
Dynamic; exists in memory and has a state

(e.g., running, waiting).
Does not require system resources when Requires CPU time, memory, and other
not running.
resources during execution.
Exists independently and is not
executing.
Can operate concurrently with other

processes.
Can interact with other processes and the

Does not interact with other programs or
operating system through system calls and
the system.
inter-process communication.

• Each process is represented in the operating system by a process control block
(PCB) — also called a task control block.
• PCB simply serves as the repository for any information that may vary from
process to process. It contains many pieces of information associated with a
specific process, including these:
1. Process state: The state may be new, ready, running, waiting, halted, and
so on.
2. Program counter: The counter indicates the address of the next instruction
to be executed for this process.
3. CPU registers: The registers vary in number and type, depending on the
computer architecture. They include accumulators, index registers, stack
pointers, and general-purpose registers, plus any condition-code information.
Along with the program counter, this state information must be saved when
an interrupt occurs, to allow the process to be continued correctly afterward.

priority, pointers to scheduling queues, and any other scheduling
parameters.
5. Memory-management information: This information may include
such items as the value of the base and limit registers and the page
tables, or the segment tables, depending on the memory system used
by the operating system.
6. Accounting information: This information includes the amount of

CPU and real time used, time limits, account numbers, job or process
numbers, and so on.
7. I/O status information: This information includes the list of I/O
devices allocated to the process, a list of open files, and so on.

• A Process changes states as it executes. The state of a process is defined in parts by the
current activity of that process. A process may be in one of the following states:
• New: The process is being created.
• Running: Instructions are being executed.
• Waiting (Blocked): The process is waiting
for some event to occur (such as an I/O
completion or reception of a signal).
• Ready: The process is waiting to be assigned
to a processor.
• Terminated: The process has finished execution.

• Schedulers: A process migrates among the various scheduling queues throughout its
lifetime.
The operating system must select, for scheduling purposes, processes from these queues in
some fashion. The selection process is carried out by the appropriate scheduler.
• Types of Schedulers
• Long Term Scheduler (LTS)/Spooler: Long-term schedulers determine which processes
enter the ready queue from the job pool. Operating less frequently than short-term
schedulers, they focus on long-term system goals such as maximizing throughput.
• Medium-term scheduler: The medium-term scheduler swaps processes in and out of
memory to optimize CPU usage and manage memory allocation. By doing so, it adjusts the
degree of multiprogramming and frees up memory as needed. Swapping allows the
system to pause and later resume a process, improving overall system efficiency.
• Short Term Scheduler (STS): The short-term scheduler, or CPU scheduler, selects from
among the processes that are ready to execute and allocates the CPU to one of them.

Long-Term Scheduler
Short-Term Scheduler
Middle Scheduler
Function
Adjusts the degree of

Controls the admission of new Selects which ready process multiprogramming, moving
processes into the system.
will execute next.
processes between ready and
waiting queues.
Frequency
Executes infrequently as it
deals with the admission of
new processes.
Executes frequently to
rapidly switch between
processes.
Responsibility
Determines which programs

are admitted to the system
from the job pool.
Controls the mix of CPU-bound

Manages CPU scheduling and
and I/O-bound processes to
the switching of processes.
optimize throughput.
Executes at an intermediate
frequency, balancing long-term
and short-term needs.
Influences overall system

Impact on System
performance and degree of
Performance
multiprogramming.
Directly impacts CPU

utilization and response
time.
Balances system load to

prevent resource bottlenecks
or idle resources.
Makes decisions based on

Decision Making long-term goals like system
throughput.
Makes decisions based on

short-term goals like
minimizing response time.
Makes decisions considering

both short-term and long-term
goals, optimizing resource
allocation.

selected by the short-term scheduler.
• This function involves the following: Switching context, switching to user mode, jumping
to
the proper location in the user program to restart that program.
• The dispatcher should be as fast as possible, since it is invoked during every process switch.
The time it takes for the dispatcher to stop one process and start another running is known as
the dispatch latency.

• A process execution consists of a cycle of CPU execution or wait and i/o execution or wait.
Normally a process
alternates between two states.
• Process execution begin with the CPU burst that may be followed by a i/o burst, then
another CPU and i/o burst
and so on. Eventually in the last will end up on CPU burst. So, process keep switching
between the CPU and i/o
during execution.
•
I/O Bound Processes: An I/O-bound process is one that spends more of its time doing I/O
than it spends doing
computations.
CPU Bound Processes: A CPU-bound process, generates I/O requests infrequently, using
more of its time doing
computations.
It is important that the long-term scheduler select a good process mix of I/O-bound and CPU-
bound processes. If
all processes are I/O bound, the ready queue will almost always be empty, and the short-term
scheduler will
have little to do. Similarly, if all processes are CPU bound, the I/O waiting queue will almost
always be empty,
devices will go unused, and again the system will be unbalanced.

•
Switching the CPU to another process requires

performing a state save of the current process
and a state restore of a different process. This
task is known as a context switch.
When a context switch occurs, the kernel

saves the context of the old process in its PCB
and loads the saved context of the new
process scheduled to run. Context-switch time
is pure overhead, because the system does no
useful work while switching.

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1. CPU scheduling is the process of determining which process in the ready queue
is allocated to the CPU.
2. Various scheduling algorithms can be used to make this decision, such as FirstCome-First-
Served (FCFS), Shortest Job Next (SJN), Priority and Round Robin
(RR).
3. Different algorithm support different class of process and favor different
scheduling criterion.

• Non-Pre-emptive: Under Non-Pre-emptive scheduling, once the CPU has been
allocated to a process, the process keeps the CPU until it releases the CPU
willingly.
• A process will leave the CPU only
1. When a process completes its execution (Termination state)
2. When a process wants to perform some i/o operations(Blocked state)

• Under Pre-emptive scheduling, once the CPU has been allocated to a process, A process
will
leave the CPU willingly or it can be forced out. So it will leave the CPU
1. When a process completes its execution
2. When a process leaves CPU voluntarily to perform some i/o operations
3. If a new process enters in the ready states (new, waiting), in case of high priority
4. When process switches from running to ready state because of time quantum expire.

Non-Pre-emptive Scheduling
Pre-emptive Scheduling
CPU Allocation
Once a process starts, it runs to

A process can be interrupted and
completion or wait for some event. moved to the ready queue.
Response Time
Can be longer, especially for short

tasks.
Generally shorter, as higher-priority

tasks can pre-empt others.
Complexity
Simpler to implement.
More complex, requiring careful

handling of shared resources.
Resource
Utilization
May lead to inefficient CPU

utilization.
Typically more efficient, as it can quickly

switch tasks.
Suitable
Applications
Batch systems and applications that Interactive and real-time systems

require predictable timing.
requiring responsive behavior.

properties, and the choice of a particular algorithm may favour one class of
processes over another. So, in order to efficiently select the scheduling
algorithms following criteria should be taken into consideration:

One measure of work is the number of processes that are completed per time
unit, called throughput.

the ready queue.

time it takes to output the response.

which a process executes or perform I/0; it affects only the amount of time that a
process spends waiting in the ready queue.
• It is desirable to maximize CPU utilization and throughput and to minimize
turnaround time, waiting time, and response time.

• Arrival Time (AT): Time at which process enters a ready state.
• Burst Time (BT): Amount of CPU time required by the process to finish its execution.
• Completion Time (CT): Time at which process finishes its execution.
• Turn Around Time (TAT): Completion Time (CT) – Arrival Time (AT), Waiting Time +
Burst Time (BT)
• Waiting Time: Turn Around Time (TAT) – Burst Time (BT)

•
FCFS is the simplest scheduling algorithm, as the name suggest, the process that requests the
CPU first is allocated the CPU first.
Implementation is managed by FIFO Queue.
It is always non pre-emptive in nature.

Arrival Time
(AT)
Burst Time
(BT)
P0
P1
P2
P3
P4
2
1
0
4
3
4
2
3
2
1
Completion Time
(CT)
Turn Around Time

(TAT) = CT - AT
Average
Waiting Time
(WT) = TAT - BT
• Easy to understand, and can easily be implemented using Queue data structure.
• Can be used for Background processes where execution is not urgent.

AT
BT
P0
100
P1
P. No
AT
BT
P0
100
P1
TAT=CT-AT
WT=TAT -BT
TAT=CT-AT
WT=TAT -BT
Average
Average

• If the smaller process have to wait more for the CPU because of Larger process then this
effect
is called Convoy Effect, it result into more average waiting time.
• Solution, smaller process have to be executed before longer process, to achieve less average
waiting time.

• FCFS suffers from convoy which means smaller process have to wait larger process,
which result into large average waiting time.
• The FCFS algorithm is thus particularly troublesome for time-sharing systems (due to its
non-pre-emptive nature), where it is important that each user get a share of the CPU at
regular intervals.
• Higher average waiting time and TAT compared to other algorithms.

Shortest Remaining Time First (SRTF)/ (Shortest Next CPU Burst) (Pre-emptive)
• Whenever we make a decision of selecting the next process for CPU execution,
out of all available process, CPU is assigned to the process having smallest burst
time requirement. When the CPU is available, it is assigned to the process that
has the smallest next CPU burst. If there is a tie, FCFS is used to break tie.

approach)
• In Shortest Job First (SJF)(non-pre-emptive) once a decision is made and among
the available process, the process with the smallest CPU burst is scheduled on
the CPU, it cannot be pre-empted even if a new process with the smaller CPU
burst requirement then the remaining CPU burst of the running process enter in
the system.

in ready state, again we make a scheduling decision weather, this new process
with the smaller CPU burst requirement then the remaining CPU burst of the
running process and if it is the case then the running process is pre-empted and
new process is scheduled on the CPU.
• This version (SRTF) is also called optimal is it guarantee minimal average waiting
time.

P0
P1
P2
P3
P4
Arrival Time
(AT)
1
Burst Time
(BT)
7
Completion Time
(CT)
Turn Around Time

(TAT) = CT - AT
Average
Waiting Time
(WT) = TAT - BT
Advantage
•
•
Pre-emptive version guarantees minimal average waiting time so some time also referred
as optimal algorithm. Provide a standard for other algo in terms of average waiting time.
Provide better average response time compare to FCFS.
Disadvantage
•
•
Here process with the longer CPU burst requirement goes into starvation and have
response time.
This algo cannot be implemented as there is no way to know the length of the next CPU
burst. As SJF is not implementable, we can use the one technique where we try to predict
the CPU burst of the next coming process.

• Here a priority is associated with each process. At any instance of time out of all available
process,
CPU is allocated to the process which possess highest priority (may be higher or lower
number).
• Tie is broken using FCFS order. No importance to senior or burst time. It supports both
non-preemptive and pre-emptive versions.
• In Priority (non-pre-emptive) once a decision is made and among the available process, the
process with the highest priority is scheduled on the CPU, it cannot be pre-empted even if a
new process with higher priority more than the priority of the running process enter in the
system.
• In Priority (pre-emptive) once a decision is made and among the available process, the
process
with the highest priority is scheduled on the CPU. if it a new process with priority more than
the priority of the running process enter in the system, then we do a context switch and the
processor is provided to the new process with higher priority.
• There is no general agreement on whether 0 is the highest or lowest priority, it can vary
from
systems to systems.

AT
BT
Priority
P0
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
8(H)
6
CT
TAT = CT - AT
Average
WT = TAT - BT
• Gives a facility specially to system process.
• Allow us to run important process even if it is a user process.
• Disadvantage
• Here process with the smaller priority may starve for the CPU
• No idea of response time or waiting time.
• Note: - Specially use to support system process or important user process
• Ageing: - a technique of gradually increasing the priority of processes that wait in
the system for long time. E.g. priority will increase after every 10 mins

• This algo is designed for time sharing systems, where it is not, the idea to complete one
process and then start
another, but to be responsive and divide time of CPU among the process in the ready
state(circular).
• The CPU scheduler goes around the ready queue, allocating the CPU to each process for a
maximum of 1 Time
quantum say q. Up to which a process can hold the CPU in one go, with in which either a
process terminates if
process have a CPU burst of less than given time quantum or context switch will be executed
and process must
release the CPU voluntarily and enter the ready queue and wait for the next chance.
• If there are n processes in the ready queue and the time quantum is q, then each process gets
1/n of the CPU
time in chunks of at most q time units. Each process must wait no longer than (n - 1) x q time
units until its next
time quantum.

Arrival Time
(AT)
Burst Time
(BT)
P0
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
Completion Time
(CT)
Turn Around Time

(TAT) = CT - AT
Average
Waiting Time (WT)

= TAT - BT
• Perform best in terms of average response time
• Works will in case of time-sharing systems, client server architecture and interactive
system
• kind of SJF implementation

• Disadvantage
• Longer process may starve
• Performance depends heavily on time quantum - If value of the time quantum is very less,
then it will give lesser average response time (good but total no of context switches will be
more, so CPU utilization will be less), If time quantum is very large then average response
time will be more bad, but no of context switches will be less, so CPU utilization will be
good.
• No idea of priority

• After studying all important approach to CPU scheduling, we must understand anyone of
them
alone is not good for every process in the system, as different process have different
scheduling needs so, we must have a kind of hybrid scheduling idea, supporting all classes of
processes.
• Here processes are easily classified into different groups.
• System process
• foreground (interactive) processes
• background (batch) processes.
• A multilevel queue scheduling algorithm, partitions the ready queue into several separate
queues. The processes are permanently assigned to one queue, generally based on properties
and requirement of the process.

• System process might need priority algorithm
• Interactive process might be scheduled by an RR algorithm
• Batch processes is scheduled by an FCFS algorithm.
• In addition, there must be scheduling among the queues, which is commonly implemented
as
fixed-priority preemptive scheduling or round robin with different time quantum.

• Problem with multi-level queue scheduling is how to decide number of
ready queue, scheduling algorithm inside the queue and between the
queue and once a process enters a specific queue we can not change and
queue after that.
• The multilevel feedback queue scheduling algorithm, allows a process to
move between queues. The idea is to separate processes according to the

characteristics of their CPU bursts. If a process uses too much CPU time, it
will be moved to a lower-priority queue. In addition, a process that waits
too long in a lower-priority queue may be moved to a higher-priority
queue. This form of aging prevents starvation.
• A process entering the ready queue is put in queue 0. A process in queue 0
is given a time quantum of 8 milliseconds. If it does not finish within this
time, it is moved to the tail of queue 1. If queue 0 is empty, the process at
the head of queue 1 is given a quantum of 16 milliseconds. If it does not
complete, it is preempted and is put into queue 2. Processes in queue 2
are run on an FCFS basis but are run only when queues 0 and 1 are empty.

parameters:
• The number of queues
• The scheduling algorithm for each queue
• The method used to determine when to upgrade a process to a higherpriority queue
• The method used to determine when to demote a process to a lowerpriority queue.
• The definition of a multilevel feedback queue scheduler makes it the most
general CPU-scheduling algorithm. It can be configured to match a specific
system under design. Unfortunately, it is also the most complex algorithm,
since defining the best scheduler requires some means by which to select
values for all the parameters.

•
As we understand in a multiprogramming environment a good number of processes compete

for limited number of resources. Concurrent access to shared data at some time may result in
data inconsistency for e.g.
P ()
{
read ( i );
i = i + 1;
write( i );
}
•
Race condition is a situation in which the output of a process depends on the execution
sequence of process. i.e. if we change the order of execution of different process with
respect to other process the output may change.

• Initial Section: Where process is accessing private
resources.
• Entry Section: Entry Section is that part of code where,
each process request for permission to enter its critical
section.
• Critical Section: Where process is access shared
resources.
• Exit Section: It is the section where a process will exit

from its critical section.
P()
{
While(T)
{
Initial Section
Entry Section
Critical Section
Exit Section
Remainder Section
}
}
• Remainder Section: Remaining Code.

• Mutual Exclusion: No two processes should be present inside the critical section at the
same time, i.e. only one process is allowed in the critical section at an instant of time.
• Progress: If no process is executing in its critical section and some processes wish to
enter their critical sections, then only those processes that are not executing in their
remainder sections can participate in deciding which will enter its critical section
next(means other process will participate which actually wish to enter). there should
be no deadlock.
• Bounded Waiting: There exists a bound or a limit on the number of times a process is
allowed to enter its critical section and no process should wait indefinitely to enter the
CS.

• Mutual Exclusion and Progress are mandatory requirements that needs to be
followed in order to write a valid solution for critical section problem.
• Bounded waiting is optional criteria, if not satisfied then it may lead to
starvation.

We generally have the following solutions to a Critical Section Problems:
1. Two Process Solution
1. Using Boolean variable turn
2. Using Boolean array flag
3. Peterson’s Solution
2. Operating System Solution
1. Counting Semaphore
2. Binary Semaphore
3. Hardware Solution
1. Test and Set Lock
2. Disable interrupt

• In general it will be difficult to write a valid solution in the first go to solve critical
section problem among multiple processes, so it will be better to first attempt
two process solution and then generalize it to N-Process solution.
• There are 3 Different idea to achieve valid solution, in which some are invalid
while some are valid.
• 1- Using Boolean variable turn
• 2- Using Boolean array flag

• 3- Peterson’s Solution

P0
P1
while (1)
while (1)
{
{
while (turn! = 0);
while (turn! = 1);
Critical Section
Critical Section
turn = 1;
turn = 0;
Remainder section
Remainder Section
}
}

enter the CS at the same time.
• The solution does not follow the Progress, as it is suffering from the
strict alternation. Because we never asked the process whether it
wants to enter the CS or not?

P0
P1
while (1)
{
flag [0] = T;
while (flag [1]);
Critical Section
flag [0] = F;
Remainder section
}
while (1)
{
flag [1] = T;
while (flag [0]);
Critical Section
flag [1] = F;
Remainder Section
}

• But in order to achieve the progress the system ended up
being in a deadlock state.

Pi
Pj
do
{
do
{
flag[i] = true;
while (flag[j])
{
if (turn == j)
{
flag[i] = false;
while (turn == j) ;
flag[i] = true;
}
}
/* critical section */
turn = j;
flag[i] = false;
/* remainder section */
}
while (true);
flag[j] = true;
while (flag[i])
{
if (turn == i)
{
flag[j] = false;
while (turn == i) ;
flag[j] = true;
}
}
turn = i;
flag[j] = false;
}
while (true);

process. We will be using both: turn and Boolean flag.
P0
while (1)
{
flag [0] = T;
turn = 1;
while (turn = = 1 && flag [1] = = T);
Critical Section
flag [0] = F;
Remainder section
}
P1
while (1)
{
flag [1] = T;
turn = 0;
while (turn = = 0 && flag [0] = =T);
Critical Section
flag [1] = F;
Remainder Section
}
• This solution ensures Mutual

Exclusion,
Progress
and Bounded Wait.
Knowledge
Gate
Website
1. Semaphores are synchronization tools using which we will attempt n-process solution.
2. A semaphore S is a simple integer variable that, but apart from initialization it can be
accessed only through two standard atomic operations: wait(S) and signal(S).
3. The wait(S) operation was originally termed as P(S) and signal(S) was originally called
V(S).
Wait(S)
Signal(S)
{
while(s<=0);
s++;
s--;
}

processes, and since in a general system can have n
processes, Semaphores provides n-processes solution.
Pi()
{
While(T)
{
Initial Section
wait(s)
Critical Section
signal(s)
Remainder Section
}
• While solving Critical Section Problem only we

initialize semaphore S = 1.
• Semaphores are going to ensure Mutual Exclusion and
Progress but does not ensures bounded waiting.
Wait(S)
{
Signal(S)
{
while(s<=0);
s--;
s++;

• There are number of actual industrial problem we try to solve in order to
improve our understand of Semaphores and their power of solving problems.
• Here in this section we will discuss a number of problems like
• Producer consumer problem/ Bounder Buffer Problem
• Reader-Writer problem
• Dining Philosopher problem
• The Sleeping Barber problem

• Problem Definition – There are two process Producer and Consumers, producer produces
information and put it into a buffer which have n cell, that is consumed by a consumer. Both
Producer and Consumer can produce and consume only one article at a time.
• A producer needs to check whether the buffer is overflowed or not after producing an item,
before accessing the buffer.
• Similarly, a consumer needs to check for an underflow before accessing the buffer and then
consume an item.
• Also, the producer and consumer must be synchronized, so that once a producer and
consumer
it accessing the buffer the other must wait.

• Now to solve the problem we will be using three semaphores:
• Semaphore S = 1 // CS
• Semaphore E = n // Count Empty cells
• Semaphore F = 0 // Count Filled cells

Consumer()
Semaphore S =
Semaphore E =
Semaphore F =

Semaphore S =
Consumer()
Producer()
Consumer()
{
while(T)
while(T)
Semaphore E =
Semaphore F =

Semaphore S =
Consumer()
Producer()
Consumer()
while(T)
while(T)
Semaphore E =
// Produce an item
// Pick item from buffer
Semaphore F =
// Add item to buffer
// Consume item
}

Semaphore S =
Consumer()
Producer()
Consumer()
{
while(T)
while(T)
{
// Produce an item
Semaphore E =
wait(S)
wait(S)
Semaphore F =
signal(S)
signal(S)
// Consume item

Consumer()
are used
{
{
• semaphore E take
while(T)
while(T)
count of empty cells
{
{
and over flow
// Produce an item
wait(F)//UnderFlow
• semaphore F take
wait(E)//OverFlow
wait(S)
count of filled cells
wait(S)
and under flow
• Semaphore S take
signal(S)
care of buffer
signal(S)
wait(E)
wait(F)
Consume item

• Suppose that a database is to be shared among several
concurrent processes. Some of these processes may
want only to read the database (readers), whereas
others may want to update (that is, to read and write)
the database(writers).
• If two readers access the shared data simultaneously,
no adverse effects will result. But, if a writer and some
other process (either a reader or a writer) access the
database simultaneously, chaos may ensue.
• To ensure that these difficulties do not arise, we
require that the writers have exclusive access to the
shared database while writing to the database.

• The solution may allow more than one reader at a time, but should not allow
any writer.
• The solution should strictly not allow any reader or writer, while a writer is
performing a write operation.

• The reader processes share the following data structures:
• semaphore mutex = 1, wrt =1; // Two semaphores
• int readcount = 0; // Variable
Three resources are used

• Semaphore Wrt is used for synchronization between WW, WR, RW
• Semaphore reader is used to synchronize between RR
• Readcount is simple int variable which keep counts of number of readers

Writer()
Reader()
CS //Write
CS //Read
Wrt =
Readcount =

Writer()
Reader()
Wait(wrt)
CS //Write
Signal(wrt)
CS //Read
Wrt =
Readcount =

Writer()
Wrt =
Reader()
Readcount++
Readcount =
Wait(wrt)
CS //Write
Signal(wrt)
CS //Read
Readcount--

Writer()
Wrt =
Reader()
Wait(mutex)
Readcount++
Readcount =
Wait(wrt)
CS //Write
Signal(wrt)
signal(mutex)
CS //Read
Wait(mutex)
Readcount--
signal(mutex)

Writer()
Wrt =
Readcount =
Wait(wrt)
CS //Write
Signal(wrt)
Reader()
Wait(mutex)
Readcount++
If(readcount ==1)
wait(wrt) // first
signal(mutex)
CS //Read
Wait(mutex)
Readcount-If(readcount ==0)
signal(wrt) // last
signal(mutex)

• Consider five philosophers who spend their lives
thinking and eating. The philosophers share a
circular table surrounded by five chairs, each
belonging to one philosopher.
• In the center of the table is a bowl of rice, and
the table is laid with five single chopsticks.
• When a philosopher thinks, she does not interact
with her colleagues.

pick up the two chopsticks that are closest to her (the
chopsticks that are between her and her left and right
neighbors).
• A philosopher may pick up only one chopstick at a time.

Obviously, she can’t pick up a chopstick that is already in
the hand of a neighbor. When a hungry philosopher has
both her chopsticks at the same time, she eats without
releasing her chopsticks. When she is finished eating, she
puts down both of her chopsticks and starts thinking
again.

Void Philosopher (void)
{
while ( T )
{
Thinking ( ) ;
wait(chopstick [i]);
wait(chopstick([(i+1)%5]);
Eat( );
signal(chopstick [i]);
signal(chopstick([(i+1)%5]);
}
}

• Solution is not valid because there is a possibility of deadlock.

• Allow at most four philosophers to be sitting
simultaneously at the table.
• Allow six chopstick to be used simultaneously at the
table.
• Allow a philosopher to pick up her chopsticks only if both
chopsticks are available (to do this, she must pick them
up in a critical section).
• One philosopher picks up her right chopstick first and then
left chop stick, i.e. reverse the sequence of any philosopher.
• Odd philosopher picks up first her left chopstick and then her
right chopstick, whereas an even philosopher picks up her
right chopstick and then her left chopstick.

• Barbershop: A barbershop consists of a waiting room
with n chairs and a barber room with one barber chair.
• Customers: Customers arrive at random intervals. If there
is an available chair in the waiting room, they sit and wait.
If all chairs are taken, they leave.
• Barber: The barber sleeps if there are no customers. If a
customer arrives and the barber is asleep, they wake the
barber up.
• Synchronization: The challenge is to coordinate the
interaction between the barber and the customers using
concurrent programming mechanisms.

semaphore customer = 0; // Counts the waiting customers
semaphore mutex = 1; // Mutex for critical section int
waiting = 0; // Number of waiting customers
Barber
Customer
wait(mutex);
while(true)
if(waiting < n)
{
{
waiting = waiting + 1;
wait(customer);
signal(customer);
wait(mutex);
signal(mutex);
wait(barber);
waiting = waiting - 1;
// Get hair cut
signal(barber);
}
signal(mutex);
else
{
// Cut hair
signal(mutex);
}
}
Knowledge Gate
Website
• Software-based solutions such as Peterson’s are not guaranteed to work on modern
computer
architectures. In the following discussions, we explore several more solutions to the
criticalsection problem using techniques ranging from hardware to software, all these
solutions are
based on the premise of locking —that is, protecting critical regions through the use of locks.
• The critical-section problem could be solved simply in a single-processor environment if we
could prevent interrupts from occurring while a shared variable was being modified.

{
Boolean rv = *target;
*target = true;
return rv;
}
While(1)
{
while (test and set(&lock));
lock = false;
}

that allow us either to test and modify the content of a word atomically —that is,
as one uninterruptible unit. We can use these special instructions to solve the
critical-section problem in a relatively simple manner.
• The important characteristic of this instruction is that it is executed atomically.
Thus, if two test and set() instructions are executed simultaneously (each on a
different CPU), they will be executed sequentially in some arbitrary order.

•
In a multiprogramming environment, several processes may compete for a finite number of

resources.
A process requests resources; if the resources are not available at that time, the process
enters a waiting state. Sometimes, a waiting process is never again able to change state,
because the resources it has requested are held by other waiting processes. This situation is
called a deadlock.
A set of processes is in a deadlocked state when every process in the set is waiting for an
event that can be caused only by another process in the set.
P1
P2
R1
R2

A deadlock can occur if all these 4 conditions occur in the system simultaneously.
• Mutual exclusion
• Hold and wait
• No pre-emption
• Circular wait

that is, only one process at a time can use the resource.
• If another process requests that resource, the requesting process must be
delayed until the resource has been released. And the resource Must be desired
by more than one process.

waiting to acquire additional resources that are currently being held
by other processes. E.g. Plate and spoon

released only voluntarily by the process holding it, after that process has
completed its task.

that P0 is waiting for a resource held by P1, P1 is waiting for a resource
held by P2, ..., Pn−1 is waiting for a resource held by Pn, and Pn is
waiting for a resource held by P0.

1. Prevention: - Design such protocols that there is no possibility of deadlock.
2. Avoidance: - Try to avoid deadlock in run time so ensuring that the system will never enter
a
deadlocked state.
3. Detection: - We can allow the system to enter a deadlocked state, then detect it, and
recover.
4. Ignorance: - We can ignore the problem altogether and pretend that deadlocks never occur
in the system.

• It means designing such systems where there is no possibility of existence of
deadlock. For that we have to remove one of the four necessary condition of
deadlock.
Polio vaccine

exclusion as resource can’t be made sharable as it is a hardware property and
process also can’t be convinced to do some other task.
• In general, however, we cannot prevent deadlocks by denying the mutualexclusion
condition, because some resources are intrinsically non-sharable.

1. Conservative Approach: Process is allowed to run if & only if it has acquired all
the resources.
2. Alternative protocol: A process may request some resources and use them.
Before it can request any additional resources, it must release all the resources
that it is currently allocated.
3. Wait time out: We place a max time outs up to which a process can wait. After
which process must release all the holding resources & exit.
P1
P2
R
R
1
2 Website
Knowledge Gate
• If a process requests some resources
• We first check whether they are available. If they are, we allocate them.
• If they are not,
• We check whether they are allocated to some other process that is waiting for
additional resources. If so, we pre-empt the desired resources from the waiting process
and allocate them to the requesting process (Considering Priority).
• If the resources are neither available nor held by a waiting process, the requesting
process must wait, or may allow to pre-empt resource of a running process Considering
Priority.

•
We can eliminate circular wait problem by giving a natural number mapping to

every resource and then any process can request only in the increasing order
and if a process wants a lower number, then process must first release all the
resource larger than that number and then give a fresh request.

• Different deadlock Prevention approach put different type of restrictions or
conditions on the processes and resources Because of which system becomes
slow and resource utilization and reduced system throughput.

like a banker, whenever someone ask for a loan(resource), it is granted only
when the books allow.

• To avoiding deadlocks we require additional information about how resources are to be
requested. which resources a process will request during its lifetime.
• With this additional knowledge, the operating system can decide for each request
whether process should wait or not.

P1
P2
P3
Max Need
E
F
G
4
3
1
2
1
4
1
3
3
5
4
1
System Max
E
FG
846
P0
P1
P2
P3
Allocation
E
F
G
1
0
1
1
1
2
1
0
3
2
0
0
Available
E
FG
Current Need
E
F
G
P0
P1
P2
P3
satisfies demand of every process without going into
deadlock, if yes, this sequence is called safe sequence.
• Safe Sate: If their exist at least one possible safe
sequence.
• Unsafe Sate: If their exist no possible safe sequence.

Several data structures must be maintained to implement the banker’s algorithm. These data
structures
encode the state of the resource-allocation system. We need the following data structures,
where n is the
number of processes in the system and m is the number of resource types:
Available: A vector of length m indicates the number of available
resources of each type. If Available[j] equals k, then k instances of
resource type Rj are available.
Max: An n*m matrix defines the maximum demand of each process. If
Max[i][j] equals k, then process Pi may request at most k instances of
resource type Rj.
P0
P1
P2
P3
Max Need
E
F
G
4
3
1
2
1
4
1
3
3
5
4
1
Available
E
FG
330
type currently allocated to each process. If Allocation[i][j] equals k, then
process Pi is currently allocated k instances of resource type Rj.
Need/Demand/Requirement: An n*m matrix indicates the remaining

resource need of each process. If Need[i][j] equals k, then process Pi
may need k more instances of resource type Rj to complete its task.
Note that Need[i][j] = Max[i][j] − Allocation[i][j].
These data structures vary over time in both size and value.
P0
P1
P2
P3
Current Need
E
F
G
3
3
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
3
4
1
P0
P1
P2
P3
E
1
1
1
2
Allocation
F
0
1
0
0
G
1
2
3
0
We can now present the algorithm for finding out whether or not a system is in a safe state.
This
algorithm can be described as follows:
1- Let Work and Finish be vectors of length m and n, respectively. Initialize Work =
Available and
Finish[i] = false for i = 0, 1, ..., n − 1.
Need
Work
E
F
G
E
FG
2- Find an index i such that both
P0
3
3
0
Finish[i] == false
330
P1
1
0
2
Needi ≤ Work
P2
0
3
0
If no such i exists, go to step 4.
P3
3
4
1
3- Work = Work + Allocationi
Finish[i] = true
Go to step 2.
Finish[i]
4- If Finish[i] == true for all i, then the system is in a safe state.
This algorithm may require an order of m*n2 operations to
determine whether a state is safe.
E
F
F
F
G
F
• Deadlock can also be described in terms of a directed graph called a system
resourceallocation graph. This graph consists of a set of vertices V and a set of edges E.
• The set of vertices V is partitioned into two different types of nodes: P = {P1, P2, ..., Pn},
the set
consisting of all the active processes in the system, and R = {R1, R2, ..., Rm}, the set
consisting of
all resource types in the system.

edge; it signifies that process Pi has requested an instance of resource type Rj and is currently
waiting for that resource.
• A directed edge from resource type Rj to process Pi is denoted by Rj → Pi is called an
assignment
edge; it signifies that an instance of resource type Rj has been allocated to process Pi.

detection of deadlock.
• If every resource have only one resource in the resource allocation graph than
detection of cycle is necessary and sufficient condition for deadlock detection.

• Once a dead-lock is detected there are two options for recovery from a deadlock
• Process Termination
• Abort all deadlocked processes
• Abort one process at a time until the deadlock is removed
• Recourse pre-emption
• Selecting a victim
• Partial or Complete Rollback

1. Operating System behaves like there is no concept
of deadlock.
2. Ignoring deadlocks can lead to system performance
issues as resources get locked by idle processes.
3. Despite this, many operating systems opt for this approach to save on the cost
of implementing deadlock detection.
4. Deadlocks are often rare, so the trade-off may seem justified. Manual restarts
may be required when a deadlock occurs.

• Requirement of Fork command
• In number of applications specially in those where work is of repetitive nature, like web
server i.e. with every client we have to run similar type of code. Have to create a separate
process every time for serving a new request.
• So it must be a better solution that instead to creating a new process every time from
scratch we must have a short command using which we can do this logic.

• Here fork command is a system command
using which the entire image of the process
can be copied and we create a new process,
this idea help us to complete the creation of
the new process with speed.
• After creating a process, we must have a
mechanism to identify weather in newly
created process which one is child and which
is parent.
• Implementation of fork command
• In general, if fork return 0 then it is child and
if fork return 1 then it is parent, and then

using a programmer level code we can
change the code of child process to behave
as new process.

• Now it is relatively easy to create and manage similar types of process of repetitive nature
with the help of fork command.
• Disadvantage
• To create a new process by fork command we have to do system call as, fork is system
function
• Which is slow and time taking
• Increase the burden over Operating System
• Different image of the similar type of task have same code part which means we have the
multiple copy of the same data waiting the main memory

registers, ( and a thread ID. )
• Traditional (heavyweight) processes have a single thread of control - There is one program
counter, and one sequence of instructions that can be carried out at any given time.
• Multi-threaded applications have multiple threads within a single process, each having their
own program counter, stack and set of registers, but sharing common code, data, and certain
structures such as open files.

•
There are two types of threads to be managed in a modern system: User threads and kernel
threads.
User threads are supported above the kernel, without kernel support. These are the threads
that application programmers would put into their programs.
Kernel threads are supported within the kernel of the OS itself. All modern OS support kernel
level threads, allowing the kernel to perform multiple simultaneous tasks and/or to service
multiple kernel system calls simultaneously

• In the many-to-one model, many user-level threads
are all mapped onto a single kernel thread.
• However, if a blocking system call is made, then the
entire process blocks, even if the other user threads
would otherwise be able to continue.
• Because a single kernel thread can operate only on
a single CPU, the many-to-one model does not allow
individual processes to be split across multiple
CPUs.
• Green threads for Solaris implement the many-toone model in the past, but few systems
continue to
do so today.

• The one-to-one model creates a separate kernel thread to handle each user thread. It
overcomes the problems listed above involving blocking system calls and the splitting of
processes across multiple CPUs.
• However, the overhead of managing the one-to-one model is more significant, involving
more
overhead and slowing down the system. Most implementations of this model place a limit on
how many threads can be created.
• Linux and Windows from 95 to XP implement the one-to-one model for threads.

• The many-to-many model multiplexes any number
of user threads onto an equal or smaller number of

kernel threads, combining the best features of the
one-to-one and many-to-one models.
• Users have no restrictions on the number of threads
created. Blocking kernel system calls do not block

the entire process.
• Processes can be split across multiple processors.
Individual processes may be allocated variable

numbers of kernel threads, depending on the
number of CPUs present and other factors.

• Let first understand what we need from a memory
• Large capacity
• Less per unit cost
• Less access time(fast access)
• The memory hierarchy system consists of all storage devices employed in a computer
system.

Car
Airbus
4 MB
Go down
Factory
32 GB
8 TB

•
The references to memory at any given interval of time tend to be confined within a few
localized areas in memory. This phenomenon is known as the property of locality of
reference. There are two types of locality of reference.
•
Spatial Locality: Use of data elements in the nearby locations.
Temporal Locality: Temporal locality refers to the reuse of specific data or resources,
within a relatively small-time duration, i.e. Most Recently Used.

• Operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with
memory management:
1. Address Translation: Convert logical addresses to physical addresses for data retrieval.
2. Memory Allocation and Deallocation: Decide which processes or data segments to load
or remove from memory as needed.
3. Memory Tracking: Monitor which parts of memory are in use and by which processes.
4. Memory Protection: Implement safeguards to restrict unauthorized access to memory,
ensuring both process isolation and data integrity.

1. Contiguous allocation policy
2. Non-contiguous allocation policy

• We know that when a process is required to be executed it must be loaded to main memory,
by policy has two implications.
• It must be loaded to main memory completely for execution.
• Must be stored in main memory in contiguous fashion.

1. Here we use a Memory Management Unit(OS) which contains a relocation register, which
contains
the base address of the process in the main memory and it is added in the logical address
every time.
2. In order to check whether address generated to CPU is valid(with in range) or invalid, we
compare it
with the value of limit register, which contains the max no of instructions in the process.
3. So, if the value of logical address is less than limit, then it means it’s a valid request and
we can
continue with translation otherwise, it is a illegal request which is immediately trapped by
OS.

• Variable size partitioning: -In this policy, in starting, we treat the memory as a
whole or a single chunk & whenever a process request for some space, exactly
same space is allocated if possible and the remaining space can be reused again.

may be of different sizes, but here if a process request for some space, then a
partition is allocated entirely if possible, and the remaining space will be waisted
internally.
xcvxc

which is capable enough.
• Advantage: - simple, easy to use, easy to understand
• Disadvantage: -poor performance, both in terms of time and space

capable enough.
• Advantage: - perform best in fix size partitioning scheme.
• Disadvantage: - difficult to implement, perform worst in variable size partitioning as the

remaining spaces which are of very small size.

possible.
• Advantage: - perform best in variable size partitioning
• Disadvantage: - perform worst in fix size partitioning, resulting into large internal
fragmentation.

refers to kilobyte. These partitions need to be allotted to four processes of sizes 212 KB, 417
KB,
112 KB and 426 KB in that order?

start satisfying next request from the current position.

allocation policy. The space requested by the process is available in memory but,
as it is not being contiguous, cannot be allocated this wastage is called external
fragmentation.
The Big Cason Family want to celebrate a party

partition which means, when a partition is allocated to a process. Which is either
the same size or larger than the request then, the unused space by the process in
the partition Is called as internal fragmentation

• We can also swap processes in the main memory after fixed intervals of time
& they can be swapped in one part of the memory and the other part become
empty(Compaction, defragmentation). This solution is very costly in respect
to time as it will take a lot of time to swap process when system is in running
state.
• Either we should go for non-contiguous allocation, which means process can
be divided into parts and different parts can be allocated in different areas.

• Paging is a memory-management scheme that permits the physical address
space of a process to be non-contiguous.
• Paging avoids external fragmentation

of same size called pages(easy swapping and no external fragmentation).
• Main memory is divided into fix size partitions (because management is easy), each of them
having same size called frames(easy swapping and no external fragmentation).
• Size of frame = size of page

• In general number of pages are much more than number of frames (approx. 128 time)

1.
CPU generate a logical address is divided into two parts - p and d

1. where p stands for page no and d stands for instruction offset.
2.
The page number(p) is used as an index into a Page table
3.
Page table base register(PTBR) provides the base of the page table and then the
corresponding page no is
accessed using p.
4.
Here we will finds the corresponding frame no (the base address of that frame in main
memory in which the
page is stored)
5.
Combine corresponding frame no with the instruction offset and get the physical address.
Which is used to
access main memory.

1. Page table is a data structure not hardware.
2. Every process have a separate page table.
3. Number of entries a process have in the page table is the number of pages a process have in
the secondary memory.
4. Size of each entry in the page table is same it is corresponding frame number.
5. Page table is a data structure which is it self stored in main memory.

• Removal of External Fragmentation
• Disadvantage
• Translation process is slow as Main Memory is accessed two times(one for page table and
other for actual access).
• A considerable amount of space a waisted in storing page table(meta data).
• System suffers from internal fragmentation(as paging is an example of fixed size partition).
• Translation process is difficult and complex to understand and implement.

106
109
1012
1 Thousand
1 Million
1 Billion
1 Trillion
103
106
109
1012
1015
1018
1021
1024
1 kilo
1 Mega
1 Giga
1 Tera
1 Peta
1 Exa
1 Zetta
1 Yotta
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
1 kilo
1 Mega
1 Giga
1 Tera
1 Peta
1 Exa
1 Zetta
1 Yotta
No of Locations
n
2n

No of Locations
n
2n
Memory Size = Number of Location * Size of each Location

No of Locations
Upper Bound(Log2n)
n

No of Locations
Upper Bound(Log2n)
n
Memory Size/ Size of each Location = Number of Location

• Process Size = No of Pages * Size of each page

SM
1
2
3
4
5
32 GB
LA
MM
128 MB
42
512GB
128GB
PA
33
31
32GB
11
30
28
14
addressable
Page Size
1B
1B
1B
1B
1KB
512B
4096B
(one for page table and other for actual access).
• To solve the problems in paging we take the help of TLB. The TLB is associative, high-
speed
memory.

associative memory is search for page no, the page no is compared with all page no
simultaneously. If the item is found, the corresponding frame no field is returned.
• The search is fast; the hardware, however, is expensive, TLB Contains the frequently
referred
page numbers and corresponding frame number.

table entries. When a logical address is generated by the CPU, its page number is presented to
the TLB. If the page number is found, its frame number is immediately available and is used
to
access memory.
• If the page number is not in the TLB (known as a TLB Miss), then a memory reference to
the
page table must be made.

on the next reference.
• If the TLB is already full of entries, the operating system must select one for replacement
i.e.
Page replacement policies.

• The percentage of times that a particular page number is found in the TLB is called the Hit
Ratio.

• Hit [TLB + Main Memory] + 1-Hit [TLB + 2 Main Memory]
• TLB removes the problem of slow access.

• TLB can hold the data of one process at a
time and in case of multiple context
switches TLB will be required to flush
frequently.
• Solution:
• Use multiple TLB’s but it will be costly.
• Some TLBs allow certain entries to be
wired down, meaning that they cannot be
removed from the TLB. Typically, TLB
entries for kernel code are wired down.

• If we increase the size of page table then internal fragmentation increase but size of page
table decreases.
• If we decrease the size of page then internal fragmentation decrease but size of page table
increases.
• So we have to find what should be the size of the page, where both cost are minimal.

•
•
•
Multilevel Paging / Hierarchical Paging

Modern systems support a large logical address space (2^32 to 2^64).
In such cases, the page table itself becomes excessively large and can contain millions of
entries and can take a
lot of space in memory, so cannot be accommodated into a single frame.
A simple solution to this is to divide page table into smaller pieces.
One way is to use a two-level paging algorithm, in which the page table itself is also paged.

• Paging is unable to separate the user's view of memory from the
actual physical memory. Segmentation is a memory-management
scheme that supports this user view of memory.
• A logical address space is a collection of segments. Each segment

has a name and a length. The addresses specify both the
segment name and the offset within the segment. The user
therefore specifies each address by two quantities: a segment
name and an offset.
• Segments can be of variable lengths unlike pages and are stored
in main memory.

a segment base and a segment limit. The segment
base contains the starting physical address where
the segment resides in memory, and the segment
limit specifies the length of the segment.
• The segment number is used as an index to the

segment table. The offset d of the logical address
must be between 0 and the segment limit. If it is
not, we trap to the operating system.
• When an offset is legal, it is added to the segment
base to produce the address in physical memory of
the desired byte.Segmentation suffers from
External Fragmentation.

• Since segmentation also suffers from external fragmentation, it is better to divide the
segments into pages.
• In segmentation with paging a process is divided into segments and further the segments are
divided into pages.
• One can argue it is segmentation with paging is quite similar to multilevel paging, but
actually it is better,
because here when page table is divided, the size of partition can be different (as actually the
size of different
chapters can be different). All properties of segmentation with paging is same as multilevel
paging.

● The drawback of paging is that each page table may consist of millions of entries. These
tables may consume
large amounts of physical memory just to keep track of how other physical memory is being
used. To solve this
problem, we can use an Inverted Page Table.
● An inverted page table has one entry for each real page (or frame) of memory. Each entry
consists of the virtual
address of the page stored in that real memory location, with information about the process
that owns the page.
Thus, only one page table is in the system, and it has only one entry for each page of physical
memory.
● Thus number of entries in the page table is equal to the number of frames in the physical
memory.

1. To enable multiprogramming and optimize memory, modern computing often uses pure
demand paging to keep multiple processes in memory.
2. Pure Demand Paging: A memory management scheme where a process starts with no
pages
in memory. Pages are only loaded when explicitly required during execution.
1. Process starts with zero pages in memory. Immediate page fault occurs.
2. Load the needed page into memory. Execution resumes after the required page is loaded
into memory.
3. Additional page faults occur as the process continues and requires new pages.
4. Execution proceeds without further faults once all necessary pages are in memory. The
key principle is to only load pages when absolutely necessary.

Advantage
• A program would no longer be constrained by the amount of physical memory that is
available, Allows the execution of processes that are not completely in main memory, i.e.
process can be larger than main memory.
• More programs could be run at the same time as use of main memory is less.
Disadvantages
• Virtual memory is not easy to implement.
• It may substantially decrease performance if it is used carelessly (Thrashing)

• We add a new column in page table, which have
binary value 0 or Invalid which means page is not
currently in main memory, 1 or valid which means
page is currently in main memory.
• Page Fault: - When a process tries to access a page
that is not in main memory then a Page Fault
Occurs.

1. If the reference was invalid, it means there is a page fault and page is not currently in
main-memory, now we have to load this required page in main-memory.
2. We find a free frame if available we can brought in desired page, but if not we have to
select a page as a victim and swap it out from main memory to secondary memory and then
swap in the desired page(situation effectively doubles the page-fault service time ).

3.1. The modify bit for a page is set whenever the page has been modified. In this case, we
must write the page to the disk.
3.2. If the modify bit is not set: It means the page has not been modified since it was read
into the main memory. We need not write the memory page to the disk: it is already there.

that the page is now in memory. We restart the instruction that was interrupted by the trap.
The
process can now access the page as though it had always been in memory.

• Effective Access time for Demand Paging:
• (1 - p) x ma + p x page fault service time.
• Here, p: Page fault rate or probability of a page fault.
• ma is memory access time.

• Now, we must solve a major problems to implement demand paging i.e. a page
replacement algorithm. Page Replacement will decide which page to replace next.

• First In First Out Page Replacement Algorithm: - A FIFO replacement algorithm associates
with each page, the time when that page was brought into memory. When a page must be
replaced, the oldest page is chosen. i.e. the first page that came into the memory will be
replaced first.
• In the above example the number of page fault is 15.

performance is not always good.
• Belady’s Anomaly: for some page-replacement algorithms, the page-fault rate may increase
as the number of allocated frames increases.

• Replace the page that will not be used for the longest period of time.
• It has the lowest page-fault rate of all algorithms.
• Guarantees the lowest possible page fault rate for a fixed number of frames and will
never suffer from Belady's anomaly.
• Unfortunately, the optimal page-replacement algorithm is difficult to implement, because it
requires future knowledge of the reference string. It is mainly used for comparison studies.

• We can think of this strategy as the optimal page-replacement algorithm looking backward
in
time, rather than forward. Replace the page that has not been used for the longest period of
time.
• LRU is much better than FIFO replacement in term of page-fault. The LRU policy is often
used
in industry. LRU also does not suffer from Belady’s Anomaly.

1. When a process spends more time swapping pages than executing, it's called Thrashing.
Low
CPU utilization prompts adding more processes to increase multiprogramming.
2. If a process needs more frames, it starts taking them from others, causing those processes
to
also fault and swap pages. This empties the ready queue and lowers CPU utilization.
3. Responding to decreased CPU activity, the scheduler adds more processes, worsening the
issue. This leads to Thrashing: a cycle of increasing page faults, plummeting system
throughput, and rising memory-access times, ultimately resulting in no productive work.

• This model uses a parameter Δ, to define the working set window. The set of pages in the
most recent Δ page references is the working set.
• If a page is in active use, it will be in the working set. If it is no longer being used, it will
drop
from the working set.
• The working set is an approximation of the program's locality. The accuracy of the working
set
depends on the selection of Δ . If Δ is too small, it will not encompass the entire locality; if Δ
is too large, it may overlap several localities.

track t
spindle
• Magnetic disks serve as the main
secondary storage in computers. Each disk

has a flat, circular platter with magnetic
surfaces for data storage.
sector s
read-write head
cylinder c
• A read-write head hovers over these
surfaces, moving in unison on a disk arm.

Platters have tracks divided into sectors for
logical data storage.
platter
• Disks spin at speeds ranging from 60 to 250
rotations per second, commonly noted in

RPM like 5,400 or 15,000.
arm
• Seek Time: - It is a time taken by Read/Write header to reach the correct track. (Always
given in
question)
• Rotational Latency: - It is the time taken by read/Write header during the wait for the
correct sector. In
general, it’s a random value, so far average analysis, we consider the time taken by disk to
complete
half rotation.
• Transfer Time: - it is the time taken by read/write header either to read or write on a disk. In
general,
we assume that in 1 complete rotation, header can read/write the either track, so
• total time will be = (File Size/Track Size) *time taken to complete one revolution.

1. One of the responsibilities of the operating system is to use the hardware efficiently. For
the disk drives, efficiency means
having less seek time, less waiting time and high data transfer rate. We can improve all of
these by managing the order in
which disk I/O requests are serviced.
2. Whenever a process needs I/O to or from the disk, it issues a system call to the operating
system. The request may specifies
several pieces of information: Whether this operation is input or output, disk address,
Memory address, number of sectors to
be transferred.
3. If the desired disk drive and controller are available, the request can be serviced
immediately. If the drive or controller is busy,
any new requests for service will be placed in the queue of pending requests for that drive.
4. When one request is completed, the operating system chooses which pending request to
service next. How does the
operating system make this choice? Any one of several disk-scheduling algorithms can be
used.

The simplest form of disk scheduling is, of course, the first-come, first-served (FCFS)
algorithm. In FCFS,
the requests are addressed in the order they arrive in the disk queue. This algorithm is
intrinsically fair,
but it generally does not provide the fastest service.
Advantages:
• Easy to understand easy to use
• Every request gets a fair chance
• No starvation (may suffer from convoy effect)
Disadvantages:
• Does not try to optimize seek time, or waiting time.

• Major component in total transfer time is seek time, in order to reduce seek time if we
service
all the requests close to the current head position, this idea is the basis for the SSTF
algorithm.
• In SSTF, the request nearest to the disk arm will get executed first i.e. requests having
shortest
seek time are executed first. Although the SSTF algorithm is a substantial improvement over
the FCFS algorithm, it is not optimal.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Advantages:
Seek movements decreases
Throughput increases
Disadvantages:
Overhead to calculate the closest request.
Can cause Starvation for a request which is far from the current location of the header
High variance of response time and waiting time as SSTF favors only closest requests

• The disk arm starts at one end of the disk and moves towards the other end, servicing
requests as
it reaches each track, until it gets to the other end of the disk.
• At the other end, the direction of head movement is reversed, and servicing continues. The
head
continuously scans back and forth across the disk.
Advantages:
• Simple easy to understand and use
• No starvation but more wait for some random process
• Low variance and Average response time
Disadvantages:
• Long waiting time for requests for locations just visited by disk arm.
• Unnecessary move to the end of the disk, even if there is no request.

• When the disk head reaches one end and changes direction, fewer requests are nearby since
those cylinders were just serviced. Most pending requests are at the opposite end, having
waited the longest.
• Circular-scan is a variant of SCAN designed to provide a more uniform wait time. Like
SCAN, CSCAN moves the head from one end of the disk to the other, servicing requests
along the way.
When the head reaches the other end, however, it immediately returns to the beginning of
the disk without servicing any requests on the return trip.
Advantages:
• Provides more uniform wait time compared to SCAN
• Better response time compared to scan
Disadvantage:
• More seeks movements in order to reach starting position

• It is similar to the SCAN disk scheduling algorithm except the difference that the disk arm
inspite of going to the end of the disk goes only to the last request to be serviced in front of
the head and then reverses its direction from there only. Thus, it prevents the extra delay
which occurred due to unnecessary traversal to the end of the disk.
Advantage: • Better performance compared to SCAN
• Should be used in case to less load
Disadvantage: • Overhead to find the last request
• Should not be used in case of more load.

• As LOOK is similar to SCAN algorithm, in similar way, C-LOOK is similar to C-SCAN
disk
scheduling algorithm. In C-LOOK, the disk arm in spite of going to the end goes only to the
last
request to be serviced in front of the head and then from there goes to the other end’s last
request. Thus, it also prevents the extra delay which occurred due to unnecessary traversal to
the end of the disk.
Advantage: • Provides more uniform wait time compared to LOOK
• Better response time compared to LOOK
Disadvantage: • Overhead to find the last request and go to initial position is more
• Should not be used in case of more load.

spindle
sector s
read-write head
cylinder c
platter
arm

• Seek Time: - It is a time taken by Read/Write header to reach the correct track. (Always
given in
question)
• Rotational Latency: - It is the time taken by read/Write header during the wait for the
correct
sector. In general, it’s a random value, so far average analysis, we consider the time taken by
disk to
complete half rotation.
• Transfer Time: - it is the time taken by read/write header either to read or write on a disk. In
general, we assume that in 1 complete rotation, header can read/write the either track, so
• total time will be = (File Size/Track Size) *time taken to complete one revolution.

sector and each sector holds 256 bytes, find the capacity of the track and disk and
number of bits required to reach correct track, sector and disk.

per track and 1000 tracks on the disk. If disk is rotating at speed of 1500 RPM, find
the total time required to transfer file of size 1 MB. Suppose seek time is 4ms?

disk rotates at 3000 rpm and average seek time is 15ms standard. Find total time
required to transfer a file which requires 8 sectors to be stored.
a) Assume contiguous allocation

b) Assume Non- contiguous allocation

The main aim of file allocation problem is how disk space is utilized effectively and files can
be
accessed quickly. Three major methods of allocating disk space are in wide use:
• Contiguous
• Linked
• Indexed
Each method has advantages and disadvantages. Although some systems support all three, it
is
more common for a system to use one method for all files.

• Contiguous allocation requires that each file occupy a set of contiguous blocks
on the disk.
• In directory usually we store three column file name, start dba and length of file
in number of blocks.

• Accessing a file that has been allocated contiguously is easy. Thus, both
sequential and direct access can be supported by contiguous allocation.
• Disadvantage
• Suffer from huge amount of external fragmentation.
• Another problem with contiguous allocation is file modification

• With linked allocation, each file is a linked list of disk blocks; the disk blocks may be
scattered anywhere on the disk. The directory contains a pointer to the first and last
blocks of the file.

file is created. A file can continue to grow as long as free blocks are available.
• There is no external fragmentation with linked allocation, and any free block on the free-
space
list can be used to satisfy a request.
• Disadvantage: • Only sequential access is possible, To find the ith block of a file, we must
start at the beginning
and follow the pointers until we get to the ith block.
• Another disadvantage is the space required for the pointers, so each file requires slightly
more
space than it would otherwise.

• Indexed allocation solves problems of contiguous and linked allocation, by bringing all the
pointers together into one location: the index block.

directory entry points to this index block.
• When a file is created, all index block pointers are null. Writing to the ith block
updates the corresponding index-block entry with a block address from the freespace
manager.
• The size of the index block is a trade-off: it should be small to save space but
large enough to accommodate pointers for big files.

an index block might contain a small header giving the name of the file and a set of the first
100 disk-block addresses. The next address (the last word in the index block) is null (for a
small
file) or is a pointer to another index block (for a large file).

set of second-level index blocks, which in turn point to the file blocks.
• To access a block, the operating system uses the first-level index to find a second-level
index
block and then uses that block to find the desired data block. This approach could be
continued to a third or fourth level, depending on the desired maximum file size.

index block. The first 12 point directly to data blocks, eliminating the need for a separate
index
block for small files.
• The next three pointers are for indirect blocks: the first for a single indirect block, the
second
for a double indirect block, and the last for a triple indirect block, each increasingly
indirecting
to the actual data blocks.

• Indexed allocation supports direct access, without suffering from external fragmentation,
because any free block on the disk can satisfy a request for more space.
• Disadvantage
• Indexed allocation does suffer from wasted space. The pointer overhead of the index block
is generally greater than the pointer overhead of linked allocation.

• Since disk space is limited, we need to reuse the space from deleted files for new files, if
possible. To keep track
of free disk space, the system maintains a free-space list. The free-space list records all free
disk blocks—those
not allocated to some file or directory.
• To create a file, we search the free-space list for the required amount of space and allocate
that space to the new
file. This space is then removed from the free-space list. When a file is deleted, its disk space
is added to the
free-space list.

• A approach to free-space management is to link
together all the free disk blocks, keeping a pointer
to the first free block in a special location on the
disk and caching it in memory.
• This first block contains a pointer to the next free
disk block, and so on.
• This scheme is not efficient; to traverse the list, we

must read each block, which requires substantial
I/O time. However, operating system simply needs a
free block so that it can allocate that block to a file,
so the first block in the free list is used.

• Frequently, the free-space list is implemented as a bit map or bit vector. Each block is
represented by 1
bit. If the block is free, the bit is 1; if the block is allocated, the bit is 0.
• For example, consider a disk where blocks 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 17, 18, 25, 26, and
27 are free
and the rest of the blocks are allocated. The free-space bit map would be
001111001111110001100000011100000 ...
• The main advantage of this approach is its relative simplicity and its efficiency in finding
the first free
block or n consecutive free blocks on the disk.

main memory is possible for smaller disks but not necessarily for larger ones.
• A 1.3-GB disk with 512-byte blocks would need a bit map of over 332 KB to track its free
blocks.
• A 1-TB disk with 4-KB blocks requires 256 MB to store its bit map. Given that disk size
constantly
increases, the problem with bit vectors will continue to escalate as well.

•
•
File organization refers to the way data is stored in a file. File organization is very important
because it determines the methods of access, efficiency, flexibility and storage devices to use.
Four methods of organizing files:
• 1. Sequential file organization:
• a. Records are stored and accessed in a particular sorted order using a key field.
• b. Retrieval requires searching sequentially through the entire file record by record to
the end.
• 2. Random or direct file organization:
• a. Records are stored randomly but accessed directly.
• b. To access a file which is stored randomly, a record key is used to determine where a
record is stored on the storage media.
• c. Magnetic and optical disks allow data to be stored and accessed randomly.

• a. Records in a file are stored and accessed one after another.
• b. This type of organization is mainly used on magnetic tapes.
• 4. Indexed-sequential file organization method:
• Almost similar to sequential method only that, an index is used to enable
the computer to locate individual records on the stage media
• For example, on a magnetic drum, records are stored sequentially on the
tracks. However, each record is assigned an index that can be used to
access it directly.

• Sequential access:
• it is the simplest access mechanism in which information is stored in a file are exist in an
order such that one record is
process after the other
• for example editors and compilers usually access file in this manner. next line
• Direct Access:
• It is an alternative method for accessing a file, which is based on the disk model of a file,
since disk allow random access
to any block or a record of a file
• for this method, a file is viewed as a numbered sequence of blocks or records which are
read/written in an arbitrary
manner that is there is no restriction on the order of recording or writing
• it is well suited for database management system.
• Index access
• In this method and alternate index is created which contain key field and a pointer to the
various blocks.
• To find and entry in the file for a key value we first search the index and then use the
pointer to directly excess of file and
find the desired entry

• A directory is similar to a "folder" in everyday terminology, and it exists within a
file system.
• It's a virtual container where multiple files and other directories (often called
subdirectories) can reside.
• It organizes the file system in a hierarchical manner, meaning directories can
contain subdirectories, which may contain further subdirectories, and so on.

1. Create Directory: Make a new directory to store files and subdirectories.
2. Delete Directory: Remove an existing directory, usually only if it's empty.
3. Rename Directory: Change the name of a directory.
4. List Contents: View the files and subdirectories within a directory.
5. Move Directory: Relocate a directory to a different path in the file system.
6. Copy Directory: Make a duplicate of a directory, including its files and
subdirectories.
7. Change Directory: Switch the working directory to a different one.
8. Search Directory: Find specific files or subdirectories based on certain criteria
like name or file type.
9. Sort Files: Arrange the files in a directory by name, date, size, or other
attributes.
10. Set Permissions: Change the access controls for a directory (read, write,
execute).

Single-Level Directory
User Isolation
No user-specific directories. All users

share the same directory space.
Each user has their own private

directory.
Organization
All files are stored in one directory,

making it less organized.
Files can be organized under userspecific directories, allowing for better

file management.
Two-Level Directory
Search Efficiency
Can be less efficient as all files are in a

More efficient due to fewer files in
single directory, requiring more time
each user-specific directory.
to find a specific file.
Access Control
Hard to implement user-specific

Easier to implement user-specific
access controls because all files reside
access controls, enhancing security.
in the same directory.
Complexity
Simpler to implement but can become Slightly more complex due to the need
cluttered and difficult to manage with for user management, but offers
many files.
better organization.

• Organization: It helps in sorting and locating files more efficiently.
• User-Friendliness: Directories make it easier for users to categorize their files by
project, file type, or other attributes.
• Access Control: Using directories, different levels of access permission can be
applied, providing an extra layer of security.
Features of Directories
• Metadata: Directories also store metadata about the files and subdirectories
they contain, such as permissions, ownership, and timestamps.
• Dynamic Nature: As files are added or removed, the directory dynamically
updates its list of contents.
• Links and Shortcuts: Some systems support the creation of pointers or links
within directories to other files or directories.

Sequential File
Indexed File
Access Method
Records accessed one after another in

order
Records can be accessed directly using an

index
Speed of Access
Slower, especially for large files
Faster for random access, thanks to index
Storage Efficiency
Generally more efficient as no space is

used for index
Less efficient due to storage needed for

index
Update Complexity
Simpler, usually involves appending
More complex; updating index needed for

record change
Use Case
Suitable for batch processing, backups
Suitable for databases, directories with quick

lookup

• Reliability:
• Reliability in a file protection system ensures that files are accessible and retrievable
whenever needed,
without loss of data. Techniques such as backup, mirroring, and RAID configurations
contribute to high
reliability.
• Security:
• Security mechanisms protect files from unauthorized access, modification, or deletion.
Encryption, firewall
settings, and secure file transfer protocols like SFTP can be employed to safeguard files.
• Controlled Access:
• Controlled access specifies who can do what with a file. Users are given permissions like
read, write, and
execute (r-w-x), often categorized into roles for easy management. Controlled access is
crucial for
maintaining the integrity and confidentiality of files.
• Access Control:
• Access control mechanisms like Access Control Lists (ACLs) or Role-Based Access
Control (RBAC) define rules
specifying which users or system processes are granted access to files and directories. They
can also specify
the type of operations (read, write, execute) permitted.
• In summary, a robust file protection system is multi-layered, incorporating reliability
measures, strong security
protocols, and detailed access control mechanisms to ensure the safe and efficient
management of files.

• The Access Matrix is a conceptual framework used in computer security to describe the
permissions that different subjects (such as users or processes) have when accessing different
objects (such as files, directories, or resources).
• In this matrix, each row represents a subject and each column represents an object. The
entry
at the intersection of a row and column defines the type of access that the subject has to the
object.

Matrix is a table where the cell at the intersection of row i and
column j contains the set of operations that subject i can perform on
object j.
File A
File B
File C
User 1
r-w
User 2
r-w
User 3
• Here, 'r' indicates read permission, 'w' indicates write permission, and
'-' indicates no permission.

converted to an Access Control List, which lists all subjects and their
corresponding permissions for that object.
• File A:
• User 1: r-w
• User 2: r
• File B:
• User 1: r
• User 2: w
• User 3: r

Capability List, which lists all objects and the operations the subject can
perform on them.
• User 1:
• File A: r-w
• File B: r
• User 2:
• File A: r
• File B: w
• File C: r-w

Special data structures can be used to represent only the non-empty
cells to save space.

1.
Global Table: A global table is essentially the raw access matrix itself, where each cell
denotes the permissions
a subject has on an object. While straightforward, this method is not practical for large
systems due to the
sparsity of the matrix and the associated storage overhead.
2.
Access Lists for Objects: Here, the focus is on objects like files or directories. Each object
maintains an Access
Control List (ACL) that records what operations are permissible by which subjects. ACLs are
object-centric and
make it easy to determine all access rights to a particular object. However, this approach
makes it cumbersome
to list all capabilities of a particular subject across multiple objects.
3.
Capability Lists for Domains: In this subject-centric approach, each subject or domain
maintains a list of
objects along with the operations it can perform on them, known as a Capability List. This
makes it
straightforward to manage and review the permissions granted to each subject. On the
downside, revoking or
changing permissions across all subjects for a specific object can be more challenging.
4.
Lock-Key Mechanism: In a lock-key mechanism, each object is assigned a unique "lock," and
subjects are
granted "keys" to unlock these locks. When a subject attempts to access an object, the system
matches the key
with the lock to determine if the operation is permissible. This approach can be seen as an
abstraction over the
access matrix and can be used to dynamically change permissions with minimal overhead.

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Chapters of This Video

(Chapter-1: Introduction)- Operating system, Goal & functions, System Components,

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2. Memory Management: Manages allocation and deallocation of physical and virtual

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Time sharing (or multitasking) is a logical extension of multiprogramming, it allows many

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All processors are treated equally

Each processor is assigned a

Any processor can perform any

Tasks are divided according to

Generally simpler as all processors

More complex due to the

Easily scalable by adding more

May require reconfiguration as

Load is evenly distributed,

Performance may vary based on

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Allows multiple programs to share a single CPU.

Utilizes multiple CPUs to run

Simulates concurrent execution by rapidly

Achieves true parallel execution of

Enhances performance by allowing

Requires only one CPU and manages multiple

Requires multiple CPUs, enabling

Less complex, primarily managing task switching More complex, requiring

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Must meet strict deadlines

Soft Real-Time Operating System

Can miss deadlines occasionally

Fixed and guaranteed.

Predictable, but not guaranteed.

Used in life-critical systems like

Used in multimedia, user

Complexity and Cost

Typically more complex and

Less complex and usually less

Must be highly reliable and

High reliability desired, but some

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• Simple Structure - Many operating systems do not

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1. Implementers have more freedom in changing the inner workings

3. Information hiding is also important, because it leaves

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• Command-line interface, or command interpreter.

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3. create process, terminate process

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3. read, write, reposition

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3. get device attributes, set device attributes