Geophysical Engineering and Geomatics

Lecture 1

Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering

Al-Balqa Applied University, Al-Salt, Jordan

1
1 Dr. AbdEl-Rahman Abueladas
Geomatics Engineering is developing the science and creating new uses
for the technology developed
 Geomatics Engineering is a rapidly developing discipline that
focuses on spatial information
 Geomatics Engineering includes the disciplines of:
a) Geodesy and geodetic science.
b) Photogrammetry.
c) Remote sensing.
d) Mapping.
e) Land and geographic information systems.
f) Spatial computing, computer vision.
g) All types of surveying. 2
1
 2 Geophysical Engineering
►Geophysics: is the application of physics to investigate the Earth, the
Moon and Plants.
1-Sold Earth Geophysics: use of physics to study the interior of the Earth
from lands surface to inner core.
2-Global Geophysics: which is the study of the whole or part of plants.
3-Applied Geophysics: investigation the earth’s crust and near- surface for
economic aim (ground water, minerals, structures,..), for engineering and
environmental issues.
 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS:
1-Passive:
• Use natural fields (potential fields) like Gravity and Magnetic.
• The expression potential field refers to a mathematical property of these types
of force fields.
• Both gravitational and the magnetic forces are known as conservative forces.
This property relates to work being path independent. 3
• That is, it takes the same amount of work to move a mass, in some external
gravitational field, from one point to another regardless of the path taken
between the two points.
• Conservative forces can be represented mathematically by simple scalar
expressions known as potentials. Hence, the expression potential field.
2-Active: use artificial fields like seismic and resistivity.
 How we will conduct the geophysical Survey?
1-Problem identification.
2-Site investigation (depth, dimension, location, geology).
3-Selection the geophysical method.
4-Survey design: targeting (positioning) survey lines and station interval
(more stations and less spacing get more information and resolution.
5-Data acquisition.
6-Data analysis (processing).
7-Interpretation.

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o Geophysical methods, dependent physical properties and there applications:
Geophysical Method Dependent Physical properties Applications
Gravity Density 1-2
Magnetic Susceptibility 1-2-3-4-5
Seismic reflection Elastic module, density 1-2
Seismic refraction Elastic module, density 1-2-4
Resistivity Resistivity 3-4-5-6-7-9
Self potential Potential difference 3-5
Induced polarization Resistivity 3
Electromagnetic (EM) Conductance, inductance 2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9
Ground penetrating radar Permittivity, conductivity 4-6-8-9-10
(GPR)
Magneto-telluric Resistivity 2-3
1-Hydrocarbon exploration. 6-Dections subsurface caves.
2-Regional geological studies. 7- Mapping of leachate and contaminant plumes.
3-Menirals exploration. 8-Buried metallic objects.
4-Engineering site investigations. 9-Archeology investigation
5-Hydrocarbon exploration 1. 10-Forensic Geophysics.
3
 Geophysical Instruments: 4

I- Passive methods: detect the variation

within the natural earth fields.
1-Gravity method : LaCoste- Romberg gravimeter
1-Hydrocarbon exploration
2-Regoinal geological studies.
3-Detection subsurface cavities (microgravity)
4-Archaeology (microgravity)
5-Shape of the earth (geodesy) LaCoste- Romberg gravimeter,
USA
2- Magnetic method: Geometrics magnetometer:
1- G856 proton.
2- G858 cesium gradiometer.

Locating pipes, cables and metal objects

Geological boundaries
Archaeological remains

Geometrics magnetometer, USA. 6

3- Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)

The method measures the electromagnetic

radiation (EMR) emitted from cracks

which dimensions in micro-scales (mm–cm)

EMR CERESKOP, Germany
within rocks and estimates the active faults

and cracks along the surveyed profiles.

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5
II- Active methods: Use artificial fields 6

1- RESISTIVITY METHODS
•The resistivity methods are used for:
1-Detection the aquifers depths, thicknesses .
2-Salinity control.
•Syscal pro resistivity meter can measure different
resistivity arrays and continuous measurements
using 48 electrodes cables (tomography). Syscal -Pro resistivity meter
IRIS Instruments, France
2- TIME DOMAIN ELECTROMAGNETIC :
•Time domain systems are routinely employed for :
1-Detection freshwater aquifers.
2-Delineation the boundaries between fresh and saline water
3-Mapping groundwater contamination.
PROTEM RECEIVER

TDEM-PROTEM instrument, 8
Geonics, Canada
TEM47 TRANSMITTER
3-THE MAGNETIC RESONANCE SOUNDING (MRS)
• Ground water detection from the surface.
• Estimation the water content of saturated
and unsaturated zones of the earth’s subsurface.
• Estimates aquifer properties:
(porosity, permeability, Transmissivity).

100 meter
PC

Tuning Main unit

Unit NUMIS
DC -DC Plus
CONVERTOR 100 meter

Antenna

24 volt battery NUMIS Plus instrument from IRIS instruments, France 9

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4- Applied Seismology: 8

Seismic reflection and refraction can be used for different applications:

1-Hydrocarbon exploration.
2-Geological studies (stratigraphy, faults and fractures, lithology determination).
3-Engineering site investigations.
4-Enviromental studies.
5-Hydrogeology and ground water exploration.
6-Pertophysical information( density, Elastic moduli, attenuation, Elastic waves
velocities, anisotropy.

24 channels GEODE seismic instrument S -waves geophone P- waves geophone

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5-GROUND PENETRATING RADAR (GPR) 9

 GPR is a high-resolution method used for:

1-Imaging soil and geological structures (active faults, buried wadis).
2-Detection the shallow aquifers depths.
3-Enviroment (Mapping ground water contamination, Landfill investigations, location
of water and oil leak).
4-Minerals explorations.
5-Enginerring and constructions (void detection, testing materials integrity, location
reinforcement ( rebar's) in concrete, concrete testing.
6-Forsentic science.
7-Archaeology: location graves, buried walls, antiquities.

900 MHz antenna

100 MHz antenna

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SIR-20 GPR from GSSI. USA 400 MHz antenna
40 MHz antenna
 10
6-Nanoseismic Monitoring: Datalogger
Seismic Navigation System (SNS)
Used to determine the sources of seismic
energy radiation in (slant) distances of 10
m to 10 km, and magnitude ranges down
to ML –3.0. Power cable

 Applications
GPS
1- Small-scale seismic hazard assessment,
structure or engineering surveying
2- Forensic seismology,
3- Monitoring impact events generated by
collapse of sinkholes
N
4- Active fault mapping
 What does SNS give ??????
1- Distance of the event Break out Box
N
W
2- Direction by array beam
3- Approx. depth
N
4-Focus --point of the initial movement and the
epicenter which is the geographic point on the E
earth's surface above the focus. LE 3D North direction
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5- Magnitude (ML)
1-Types of survey depend on the Location:
a) Land Survey
b) Marine Survey
c) Air Survey
► Survey Design:
1- Target identification: Shape, extension and properties of the target.
2- Optimum Line configuration: Profile length, extension, direction.
3- Selection the station intervals: more spacing more covering area and less
resolution.
4- Noise: man made noise, natural noise.

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 Passive Methods

Lecture 2

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 1

1- Magnetic Method
 Introduction to Magnetic Exploration - Historical Overview
 Man has been systematically observing the earth's magnetic field for
almost 500 years.
 Sir William Gilbert published the first scientific treatise on the
earth's magnetic field entitled De magnete.
 In this work, Gilbert showed that the reason compass needles point
toward the earth's north pole is because the earth itself appears to
behave as a large magnet.
Gilbert also showed that the earth's magnetic field is roughly equivalent
to that which would be generated by a
Bar magnet located at the center of the
Earth and oriented along the earth's
Rotational axis.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 2

 Now magnetic methods are one of the most commonly used
geophysical prospecting because:
a) They can be detected easily.
b) It is a cheap method.
c) Needs few corrections must be applied to the observations.
 Despite these obvious advantages, like the gravitational methods,
interpretations of magnetic observations suffer from a lack of
uniqueness.

 Similarities Between Gravity and Magnetics

1. Geophysical exploration techniques that employ both gravity and
magnetics are passive.
2. The two methods measure a naturally occurring field of the earth.
3. The acquisition, reduction, and interpretation of gravity and
magnetic observations are very similar

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 3

 Similarities Between Gravity and Magnetics
4. Identical physical and mathematical representations can be used to
understand magnetic and gravitational forces. For example, the
fundamental element used to define the gravitational force is the
point mass. An equivalent representation is used to define the force
derived from the fundamental magnetic element. Instead of being
called a point mass, however, the fundamental magnetic element is
called a magnetic monopole. Mathematical representations for the
point mass and the magnetic monopole are identical.
 Differences between Gravity and Magnetics
1. The fundamental parameter that controls gravity variations of
interest to us as exploration geophysicists is rock density.
2. The densities of rocks and soils vary little from place to place near
the surface of the earth. The highest densities we typically observe
are about 3.0 g/cm3 , and the lowest densities are about 1.0 g/cm3.
3. The fundamental parameter controlling the magnetic field
variations of interest to us, magnetic susceptibility.
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 4
4. Magnetic susceptibility can vary as much as four to five orders of
magnitude
5. Unlike the gravitational force, which is always attractive, the
magnetic force can be either attractive or repulsive. That is,
mathematically, monopoles can assume either positive or negative
values.
6-Unlike the gravitational case, single magnetic point sources
(monopoles) can never be found alone in the magnetic case. Rather,
monopoles always occur in pairs. A properly reduced gravitational field
is always generated by subsurface variations in rock density. A properly
reduced magnetic field, however, can have as its origin at least two
possible sources. It can be produced via an induced magnetization, or
it can be produced via a remanent magnetization.
7.Unlike the gravitational field, which does not change significantly
with time, the magnetic field is highly time dependent.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 5

 Gravity and Magnetic Monopoles
 Gravitational force exerted between two point masses of mass m1
and m2 separated by a distance r is given by Newton's law of
gravitation, which is written as

• G is the gravitational constant

 The mathematical expression for the magnetic force experienced
between two magnetic monopoles is given by:

where μ is a constant of proportionality known as the magnetic

permeability, p1 and p2 are the strengths of the two magnetic
monopoles, and r is the distance between the two poles.
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Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas
 Unlike the gravitational constant, G, the magnetic permeability, μ, is a
property of the material in which the two monopoles, p1 and p2, are
located. If they are in a vacuum, μ is called the magnetic permeability of
free space.
 Unlike m1 and m2, p1 and p2 can be either positive or negative in sign.
 If p1 and p2 have the same sign, the force between the two monopoles is
repulsive.
 If p1 and p2 have opposite signs, the force between the two monopoles is
attractive.

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Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas
 Magnetic Method

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 8

•As described by Coulomb's equation,
the size of the arrows should decrease as
one over the square of the distance
between the two magnetic poles and the
direction of the force acting on p2 is
always in the direction toward p1
(the force is attractive).

•If instead p1 is a positive pole located at

x=1, the plot of the magnetic force acting
on p2 is the same as that shown above
except that the force is always directed
away from p1 (the force is repulsive).

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 9

 Field Lines for a Magnetic Dipole
 Another way to visualize the magnetic force field associated with a magnetic
dipole is to plot the field lines for the force.
 Field lines are nothing more than a set of lines drawn such that
they are everywhere parallel to the direction of the force you are trying to
describe, in this case the magnetic force.
 Notice that the lines representing
the field lines are always parallel to
the force directions shown by the
arrows. The number and spacing
of the lines that we have chosen to
show is arbitrary except for one factor
The position of the lines shown has been
Chosen to qualitatively indicate the
relative strength of the magnetic field.
Where adjacent lines are closely spaced,
such as near the two monopoles (circles)
comprising the dipole, the magnetic force
is large. The greater the distance between
adjacent red lines, the smaller the magnitude of the magnetic force.
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 10
 Field Lines for a Magnetic Dipole
The units associated with magnetic poles and the magnetic field are a bit
more obscure than those associated with the gravitational field.
From Coulomb's expression, we know that force must be given in Newtons,
N, where a Newton is a kg . m /s2.
We also know that distance has the units of meters (m).
Permeability, μ, is defined to be a unitless constant.
The units of pole strength are defined such that if the force, F, is 1 N and the
two magnetic poles are separated by 1 m, each of the poles has a strength of 1
Amp . m (Ampere - meters).
In this case, the poles are referred to as unit poles.

The magnetic field strength (H) is defined as the force per unit pole strength
exerted by a magnetic monopole, p1.
H is nothing more than Coulomb's expression divided by p2. The
magnetic field strength H is the magnetic analog to the gravitational
acceleration (g) 11
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas
 Given the units associated with force, N, and magnetic monopoles (Amp –
m), the units associated with magnetic field strength are Newtons per
Amperemeter,
N / (Amp - m).
A N / (Amp - m) is referred to as a Tesla (T), named after the renowned
inventor Nikola Tesla,. (Serb /Croatia/American)
The average strength of the Earth's magnetic field is about 50,000 nt.
A nanotesla was also commonly referred to as a gamma.
 Magnetization of Materials
 Magnetic Induction
When a magnetic material, say iron, is placed within a magnetic field (H) the
magnetic material will produce its own magnetization. This phenomenon is
called induced magnetization.
In practice, the induced magnetic field (that is, the one produced by the
magnetic material) will look like it is being created by a series of magnetic
dipoles located within the magnetic material and oriented parallel to the
direction of the inducing field, H.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 12

The strength of the magnetic field induced by the magnetic material due to the
inducing field is called the intensity of magnetization (I).

 Magnetic Susceptibility
The intensity of magnetization )I ( is related to the strength of the inducing
magnetic field (H( through a constant of proportionality (k) known as the
magnetic susceptibility.
The magnetic susceptibility is a unitless constant that is determined by the
physical properties of the magnetic material. It can take on either positive or
negative values.
Positive values imply that the induced magnetic field (I) is in the same
direction as the inducing field (H). Negative values imply that the induced
magnetic field is in the opposite direction as the inducing field.
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 13
 Magnetic Susceptibility
In magnetic prospecting, the susceptibility is
the fundamental material property whose
spatial distribution we are attempting to
determine. In this sense, magnetic
susceptibility is analogous to density in
gravity surveying.
Rocks that have significant concentration of
ferro-and/of ferri – magnetic materials tends
to have highest susceptibilities.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 14

 Mechanisms for Induced Magnetization
•The nature of material magnetization is in general complex, governed by
atomic properties, and well beyond the scope of this series of notes. Suffice it to
say, there are three types of magnetic materials: paramagnetic, diamagnetic, and
ferromagnetic.
a)Diamagnetism: Discovered by Michael Faraday in 1846. This form of
magnetism is a fundamental property of all materials and is caused by the
alignment of magnetic moments associated with orbital electrons in the
presence of an external magnetic field. For those elements with no unpaired
electrons in their outer electron shells, this is the only form of magnetism
observed. The susceptibilities of diamagnetic materials are relatively small and
negative. Quartz and salt are two common diamagnetic earth materials.
b)Paramagnetism: This is a form of magnetism associated with elements that
have an odd number of electrons in their outer electron shells. Paramagnetism
is associated with the alignment of electron spin directions in the presence of an
external magnetic field. It can only be observed at relatively low temperatures.
The temperature above which paramagnetism is no longer observed is called
the Curie Temperature. The susceptibilities of paramagnetic substances are
small and positive.
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 15
 c- Ferromagnetism: This is a special case of paramagnetism in which there is
an almost perfect alignment of electron spin directions within large portions
of the material referred to as domains. Like paramagnetism, ferromagnetism
is observed only at temperatures below the Curie temperature. There are three
varieties of ferromagnetism.
o Pure Ferromagnetism:
- The directions of electron spin alignment within each
domain are almost all parallel to the direction of the external inducing field.
- Pure ferromagnetic substances have large positive susceptibilities.
- Ferromagnetic minerals do not exist, but iron, cobalt, and nickel are
examples of common ferromagnetic elements.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 16

o Antiferromagnetism:
- The directions of electron alignment within adjacent
domains are opposite and the relative abundance of domains with each spin
direction is approximately equal.
- The observed magnetic intensity for the material is almost zero. Thus, the
susceptibilities of antiferromagnetic materials are almost zero. Hematite is an
antiferromagnetic material.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 17

o Ferromagnetism:
- Like antiferromagnetic materials, adjacent domains
produce magnetic intensities in opposite directions.
- The intensities associated with domains polarized in a direction opposite that
of the external field, however, are weaker. The observed magnetic intensity for
the entire material is in the direction of the inducing field but is much weaker
than that observed for pure ferromagnetic materials.
- Thus, the susceptibilities for ferromagnetic materials are small and positive.
The most important magnetic minerals are ferromagnetic and include
magnetite, titanomagnetite, ilmenite, and pyrrhotite.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 18

 Remanent Magnetization
 If we have a magnetic material and place it in an external magnetic field
(one that we've called the inducing field), we can make the magnetic material
produce its own magnetic field.
 If we were to measure the total magnetic field near the material, that
field would be the sum of the external, or inducing field, and the induced field
produced in the material.
 By measuring spatial variations in the total magnetic field and by knowing
what the inducing field looks like, we can, in principle, map spatial variations
in the induced field and from this determine spatial variations in the magnetic
susceptibility of the subsurface.
 If the magnetic material has relatively large susceptibilities, or if the
inducing field is strong, the magnetic material will retain a portion of its
induced magnetization even after the induced field disappears.
 As a volcanic rock cools, its temperature decreases past the Curie
Temperature (about 570 °C (1,060 °F) . At the Curie Temperature, the rock,
being magnetic, begins to produce an induced magnetic field.
 As the Earth's magnetic field changes with time, a portion of the induced
field in the rock does not change but remains fixed in a direction and strength
reflective of the Earth's magnetic field at the time the rock cooled.
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 19
 The Earth's Magnetic Field
 Magnetic Field Nomenclature:
At any point on the Earth's surface, the magnetic field (F) has some strength
and points in some direction. The following terms are used to describe the
direction of the magnetic field:
• Declination: The angle between
north and the horizontal
projection of F. This value is
measured positive through east
and varies from 0 to 360 degrees.
• Inclination: The angle between
the surface of the earth and F.
Positive declinations indicate F is pointed downward, negative declinations
indicate F is pointed upward. Declination varies from -90 to 90
degrees.
• Magnetic Equator: The location around the surface of the Earth where the
Earth's magnetic field has an inclination of zero (the magnetic field vector F is
horizontal).
This location does not correspond to the Earth's rotational equator.
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 20
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 21
• Magnetic Poles: The locations on the surface of the Earth where the Earth's
magnetic field has an inclination of either plus or minus 90 degrees (the
magnetic field vector F is vertical). These locations do not correspond to the
Earth's north and south poles.
 The Earth's Magnetic Field
Ninety percent of the Earth's magnetic
field looks like a magnetic field that
would be generated from a dipolar
magnetic source located at the center
of the Earth and aligned with the
Earth's rotational axis.

 The magnetic field can be broken into three separate components:

1) Main Field: This is the largest component of the magnetic field and is
believed to be caused by electrical currents in the Earth's fluid outer core. For
exploration work, this field acts as the inducing magnetic field.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 22

2) External Magnetic Field : This is a relatively small portion of the observed
magnetic field that is generated from magnetic sources external to the earth.
This field is believed to be produced by interactions of the Earth's ionosphere
with the solar wind. Hence, some temporal variations associated with the
external magnetic field are correlated to solar activity.
3) Crustal Field: This is the portion of the magnetic field associated with the
magnetism of crustal rocks. This portion of the field contains both magnetism
caused by induction from the Earth's main magnetic field and from remanent
magnetization.
•The portion of the magnetic field that we have described as the main magnetic
field is believed to be generated in the Earth's core.
•In addition to these core sources of magnetism, rocks exist near the Earth's
surface that are below their Curie temperature and as such can exhibit induced
as well as remanent magnetization.
•The induced field is the one of interest to us because it relates to the proximity
of our measure to rocks high or low magnetic susceptibility.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 23

 Field example:
o Suppose we have a buried dyke with
a susceptibility of 0.001 surrounded by
sedimentary rocks with no magnetic
susceptibility. The dyke in this example
is 3 meters wide, is buried 5 meters deep
and trends to the northeast.
o To find the dyke, we could measure
the strength of the magnetic field
(in this case along an east-west trending
line).
o As we approach the dyke, we would
begin to observe the induced magnetic
field associated with the dyke in addition
to the Earth's main field.
o Thus, we could determine the location
of the dyke and possibly its dimensions by measuring the spatial variation in
the strength of the magnetic field.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 24

There are several things to notice about the magnetic anomaly produced
by this dyke:
a)The magnetic anomaly associated with the dyke is localized to the region near
the dyke.
b)The size of the anomaly rapidly decays with distance away from the dyke.
c)The magnetic anomaly is not symmetric about the dyke's midpoint which is at
a distance of zero in the above example.
d)Not only is the anomaly shaped differently to the left and to the right of the
dyke, but the maximum anomaly is not centered at the center of the dyke.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 25

 Temporal Variations of the Earth's Magnetic Field
• There are three temporal variations:
1- Secular Variations:
- These are long-term (changes in the field that occur over years) variations
in the main magnetic field that are presumably caused by fluid motion in the
Earth's Outer Core.
- Because these variations occur slowly with respect to the time of
completion of a typical exploration magnetic survey, these variations will
not complicate data reduction efforts.
2- Diurnal Variations:
- These are variations in the magnetic field that occur over the course of a
day and are related to variations in the Earth's external magnetic field.
- This variation can be on the order of 20 to 30 nT per day and should be
accounted for when conducting exploration magnetic surveys.
3- Magnetic Storms:
- The occurrence of such storms correlates with enhanced sunspot activity.
- The magnetic field observed during such times is highly irregular and
unpredictable, having amplitude changes as large as 1000 nt. Exploration
magnetic surveys should not be conducted during magnetic storms. 26
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas
 Secular Variations of the Earth's Magnetic Field
- The fact that the Earth's magnetic field varies with time was well established
several centuries ago.
- In fact, this is the primary reason that permanent magnetic observatories were
established from which we have learned how the magnetic field has changed
over the past few centuries.
- Many sources of historical information are available.
Shown below is a plot of the declination
and inclination of the magnetic field around
Britain from the years 1500 through 1900.
• Over the past 400 years, the declination
has varied by almost 37 degrees while the
inclination has varied by as much as 13
degrees.
•These changes are generally assumed
to be associated with the Earth's main
Magnetic field. That is, these are changes associated with that portion of the
magnetic field believed to be generated in the Earth's core.
•Solid-earth geophysicists are very interested in studying these secular
variations, because they can be used to understand the dynamics of the Earth's core.
27
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas
 Magnetic Instruments:
• China the first in the first century AD.
• Compass needles around the year 1000.
• The first measurement of the inclination of the Earth’s magnetic field
1576.
• It classified to:
a) Torsion
b) Fluxgate
c) Resonance
A total field magnetometer is an instrument that measures the scalar
intensity of the local magnetic field.
b) Fluxgate:
• Developed during the Second World War to detect the submarines.
• Consists of two parallel cores made of high permeability ferromagnetic
materials.
• Primary coils are wound around these cores in series but in opposite
directions.
• Secondary coils are also wound around the cores but in the opposite
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 28
• It is insensitive to magnetic field gradient.
c) Resonance magnetometers:
• There are two types of Resonance magnetometers:
1. Proton free precession magnetometer.
2. Alkali vapour magnetometer.
1- Proton free precession magnetometer.
(a) A direct current flowing in a coil surrounding a hydrogen-rich fluid
(kerosine and decane are popular; water can also be used) causing a
magnetic field about 50 to 100
stronger than , and at the right
angle to the earth magnetic field.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 29

(b) The protons aligned themselves to the new magnetic direction.
( c ) When the applied field switched off the proton precess around the
pre- existence ambient magnetic field at a Larmor precession frequency
which is proportional to magnetic field strength (F).
 The relationship between the frequency of the induced current and the
strength of the magnetic field is called the proton gyromagnetic ratio,
and is equal to 0.042576 Hz nT−1.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 30

• Because the precession frequency depends only on atomic constants
and the strength of the ambient magnetic field, the accuracy of this type
of magnetometer can reach 1 ppm (parts per million) equal 50,000 nТ
which equal to Larmor precession frequency 2128.94 Hz.
• The proton magnetometer accuracy reduced in areas of high magnetic
gradient.
• The sensor should be directed to North Direction.
• It is used in land, marine, and airborne survey.
• Uses as base station.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 31

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 32
2- Alkali Vapor Magnetometr:
• An atomic magnetometer consists of a glass cell containing a vapor of
alkali-metal atoms (such as rubidium or cesium), which are optically
pumped using a resonant laser beam, yielding polarization on the order
of unity.
• The G-858 MagMapper Magnetometer is a high-sensitivity, fast-
sampling ‘walking’ cesium vapor magnetometer.
• Its console includes a graphical interface that’s easy to learn and makes
survey design and data review simple and efficient.
• The G-858 provides various modes of operation to allow the user to
custom design a survey grid for their particular needs, or skip the grid
entirely and use GPS! G-858 data
acquisition offers either continuous or
discrete station recording.

Horizontal gradient
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 33
 Vertical gradient

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 34

 Magnetic Survey:
 Noise and Corrections:
• Magnetic noise from metal objects, magnetic rocks, and magnetic
storms.

 Diurnal Variation Correction:

• It is the most significant .
• Base station is need to applied this correction.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 35

 Diurnal Variation Correction:
• Point A the ambient field has increased by 10 nT. so the value at point A
should be reduced by 10 nT.
• Point B the ambient field has fallen by 19 nT. so the value at point A
should be increased by 19 nT

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 36

 Elevation and Terrain Corrections:
• The gradient of the magnetic field is only 0.03 nT/m at the pole and
-0.015 nT/m at the equator so no elevation correction is applied for the
.
ground survey.
• The terrain correction is very difficult to applied since we need to know
about magnetic properties of the topographic features.
 Drift, secular variations and storm:
• Both fluxgate and proton magnetometers do not drift.
• Secular variation are yearly variations and do not influence the survey.
• Magnetic storm is very harmful so we should stop the survey.
 Latitude (geomagnetic) Corrections:
• Use international geomagnetic reference field (IGRF) update every 5
years which define the theoretical undistributed magnetic field at any
point of the Earth surface.
 Important Magnetic Survey Notes:
The operator should not have any metallic objects.
Conduct the survey far away from metallic objects ( railway lines, power
lines, cars, fencing
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 37
Why Magnetic data corrections are more complex than gravity
1-Magnetic anomalies have complex shape not positive and
negative
. like gravity anomaly.
2-Magnetic anomalies
varies in magnitude and
direction.
3- bodies with identical
Shape and intensity of
Magnetization can give rise
to very different magnetic
anomalies depending their
latitude.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 38

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 39
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 40
 Case Studies

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 41

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 42
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 43
Gulf of Aqaba Marine
Magnetic Survey

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 44

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 45
 Magnetic maps of the northern part of Munhata site: (A) observed
magnetic map (after Eppelbaum et al., 2000b),
(B) Magnetic map from (A) transformed to informational parameter

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 46

Interpretation of magnetic anomaly due to ancient garbage at the
site of Ashqelon-Marina (after Eppelbaum et al., 2000a, with
modifications).

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 47

A) Magnetic map of the
studied site, (B) Rapid
A
interpretation of magnetic
anomalies using developed
procedures along the profile
I–I. 1J denotes the effective
magnetization.
(C) Results of 3-D modeling.
Arrows show the determined
position of the total magnetic
field vector.
C B

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 48

 Location map of the flight lines of the aeromagnetic surveys in Jordan

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 49

 1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000 1350000 1400000 1450000 1500000 1550000
Aeromagnetic Anomaly Map
of Jordan 1300000 1300000

Iraq
1250000 1250000
Syria Ruwaished

Irbid
1200000 1200000

AMMAN
1150000 Al Azraq 1150000
Jericho
550
Jerusalem
425
1100000 1100000
Saudi Arabia 300

175
1050000 1050000
50

-75

1000000 -200 1000000

-325
Ma'an
950000 -450 950000
Quwaira
-575

-700
900000 Aqaba 900000

850000 Red Sea 850000

1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000 1350000 1400000 1450000 1500000 1550000
50 Km

0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 50
Sinkhole Hazard assessment at the Dead Sea area, Jordan

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 51

 Total magnetic field Map

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 52

 Total magnetic field Map after removing noise points

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 53

 Vertical magnetic gradient Map

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 54

 Total magnetic field Map transferred by the use of
gradient operator

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 55

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 56
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 57
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 58
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 59
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 60
Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 61
 Gravity Method
A network of gravity stations has been established world wide where the
absolute value of gravity has been determined.
Before started gravity survey a BASE STATION (which is the zero line )
should be selected as a reference for the readings.
The information should be known about the BASE STATION:
1-The absolute gravity.
2-The elevation of the station.
3-The coordinates of the stations used for latitude corrections.

During gravity survey we should return back to base station every two hours
to check the drift of the gravity meter.
For each measured gravity station the accuracy should be detected:
1- Elevation accuracy within ± 10 mm.
2- The latitude position within ± 10 m.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas

 GRAVITY CONTROL STATION IN JORDAN

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas

63
 Gravity measuring instruments
All earlier absolute and relative determinations used from swinging pendulum.
Gravimeters used to measure extremely small changes in spring length
produced by small changes in gravity.
Gravimeter are sophisticated spring balances from which a constant mass is
suspended.
The weight of the mass is a product of the mass and the acceleration due to
gravity, and the greater the weight acting in the spring the more the spring
is stretched.

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 64

 Gravity measuring instruments
Types of gravity instruments:

1-Stable or static system: that employs high optical, mechanical, or electronic

amplification to provide required sensitivity.
The stable systems like:
a) Askania
b) Boliden
c) Gulf

2-Unstable or astatic system: which employs an additional negative restoring

force operating against the restoring spring force.
The unstable systems like:
a) Thyssen
b) Worden
c) LaCoste-Romberg

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 65

1-Unstable or astatic system:
These systems are used more than
the stables.
 LaCose-Romberg gravity meter:
The most used gravity meter.
The spring is made of metal a high
thermal conductivity with zero length
(the length of the spring return to the
normal length when the out forces
moved
All parts of the instruments are
located in a container in which the
temperature and pressure can be
controlled.
The spring can be clamped so the
gravimeter is easily transported and
less sensitive to vibrations.
The accuracy of the gravimeter 3µ Gal

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 66

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 67
All the internal parts are located inDr.constant
Abdelrahmanpressure
Abueladas and temperature inside the68
case
All the internal parts are located inDr.constant
Abdelrahmanpressure
Abueladas and temperature inside the69
case
Top panel

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 70

 TAKING THE FIRST READING
• Place the aluminum base plate on stable place.
• Place the meter on the aluminum base plate.
• Turn on the reading light and the spirit level lights. The switch is located on the
near right side of the black lid. Do not leave the light turned on for a prolonged
time, especially in hot weather, if accurate readings are desired. If the meter is
equipped with electronic levels, the lights may not be necessary.
• Gently slide the meter in the concave base plate until the meter levels indicate
the meter is approximately level. Finish the leveling with the three leveling
screws of the meter. For efficiency, you may wish to level the cross level first
then the long level. On the meter in the standard white box, there are three
knobs atop the meter that turn the leveling screws. On some early meters in the
miniature white box, these screws and their knurled turning flanges are under
the white box.
• Release the internal beam of the gravity meter by turning the knurled arrestment
knob counterclockwise to its limit. The knob is located on the near side of the
microscope eyepiece.
• The position of the beam is determined by the image of the crosshair in the
microscope. The crosshair is a very fine wire attached to the beam. A scale is
placed in the optical path for a reading reference. The total motion of the beam
is 14 small scale divisions. The downscale or left side of the crosshair is used
as the reading edge. Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 71
•• Each meter has its characteristic reading line. There is a small placard on the
meter lid indicating the reading line for the meter. In the example above, the reading
line is 2.4.
• Bring the left side of the crosshair
to the reading line by turning the nulling dial. If the
crosshair needs to move to the right, turn clockwise. If it needs to move to the left,
turn counterclockwise.
• The number of turns of the nulling dial is limited by the counter. The counter is
located under a window in the middle of the black lid and just to the right of the
nulling dial.
• If there is a large difference between the gravity at your location and the location
where the meter was last read, it will require many turns of the nulling dial to balance
the meter’s beam.
2.4

Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 72

 Survey procedures
1-Land Survey:
Location and spacing stations:
 This controlled by the target of the survey (regional or local)
and the topography of the study area.
 Two types of the survey can be applied Random or Grid.
 The stations spacing are 1 Km (for oil, basement depth and
regional geological investigations)
 The stations spacing are 2-10 meter for high resolution
investigations (engineering, environments, archaeology).
 The locations and the elevations of the base station and the
measured stations should be detected with high accuracy.
 Avoid placing the stations near steep topography to minimize
terrain correction.
 The base station should be measured every two hours in flat
areas for drift correction, and at the end of the daily survey at
tough topography. Dr. Abdelrahman Abueladas 73
Geophysical Enigneering
Gravity Method

Lecture 3

1
 Gravity Method
A network of gravity stations has been established world wide where the
absolute value of gravity has been determined.
Before started gravity survey a BASE STATION (which is the zero line )
should be selected as a reference for the readings.
The information should be known about the BASE STATION:
1-The absolute gravity.
2-The elevation of the station.
3-The coordinates of the stations used for latitude corrections.

During gravity survey we should return back to base station every two hours
to check the drift of the gravity meter.
For each measured gravity station the accuracy should be detected:
1- Elevation accuracy within ± 10 mm.
2- The latitude position within ± 10 m.
 GRAVITY CONTROL STATION IN JORDAN

3
 Gravity measuring instruments
All earlier absolute and relative determinations used from swinging pendulum.
Gravimeters used to measure extremely small changes in spring length
produced by small changes in gravity.
Gravimeter are sophisticated spring balances from which a constant mass is
suspended.
The weight of the mass is a product of the mass and the acceleration due to
gravity, and the greater the weight acting in the spring the more the spring
is stretched.

4
 Gravity measuring instruments
Types of gravity instruments:

1-Stable or static system: that employs high optical, mechanical, or electronic

amplification to provide required sensitivity.
The stable systems like:
a) Askania
b) Boliden
c) Gulf

2-Unstable or astatic system: which employs an additional negative restoring

force operating against the restoring spring force.
The unstable systems like:
a) Thyssen
b) Worden
c) LaCoste-Romberg

5
1-Unstable or astatic system:
These systems are used more than
the stables.
 LaCose-Romberg gravity meter:
The most used gravity meter.
The spring is made of metal a high
thermal conductivity with zero length
(the length of the spring return to the
normal length when the out forces
moved
All parts of the instruments are
located in a container in which the
temperature and pressure can be
controlled.
The spring can be clamped so the
gravimeter is easily transported and
less sensitive to vibrations.
The accuracy of the gravimeter 3µ Gal

6
7
All the internal parts are located in constant pressure and temperature inside the case
8
All the internal parts are located in constant pressure and temperature inside the case
9
Top panel

10
 TAKING THE FIRST READING
• Place the aluminum base plate on stable place.
• Place the meter on the aluminum base plate.
• Turn on the reading light and the spirit level lights. The switch is located on the
near right side of the black lid. Do not leave the light turned on for a prolonged
time, especially in hot weather, if accurate readings are desired. If the meter is
equipped with electronic levels, the lights may not be necessary.
• Gently slide the meter in the concave base plate until the meter levels indicate
the meter is approximately level. Finish the leveling with the three leveling
screws of the meter. For efficiency, you may wish to level the cross level first
then the long level. On the meter in the standard white box, there are three
knobs atop the meter that turn the leveling screws. On some early meters in the
miniature white box, these screws and their knurled turning flanges are under
the white box.
• Release the internal beam of the gravity meter by turning the knurled arrestment
knob counterclockwise to its limit. The knob is located on the near side of the
microscope eyepiece.
• The position of the beam is determined by the image of the crosshair in the
microscope. The crosshair is a very fine wire attached to the beam. A scale is
placed in the optical path for a reading reference. The total motion of the beam
is 14 small scale divisions. The downscale or left side of the crosshair is used
as the reading edge. 11
•• Each meter has its characteristic reading line. There is a small placard on the
meter lid indicating the reading line for the meter. In the example above, the reading
line is 2.4.
• Bring the left side of the crosshair
to the reading line by turning the nulling dial. If the
crosshair needs to move to the right, turn clockwise. If it needs to move to the left,
turn counterclockwise.
• The number of turns of the nulling dial is limited by the counter. The counter is
located under a window in the middle of the black lid and just to the right of the
nulling dial.
• If there is a large difference between the gravity at your location and the location
where the meter was last read, it will require many turns of the nulling dial to balance
the meter’s beam.
2.4

12
Survey procedures
1-Land Survey:
Location and spacing stations:
 This controlled by the target of the survey (regional or local)
and the topography of the study area.
 Two types of the survey can be applied Random or Grid.
 The stations spacing are 1 Km (for oil, basement depth and
regional geological investigations)
 The stations spacing are 2-10 meter for high resolution
investigations (engineering, environments, archaeology).
 The locations and the elevations of the base station and the
measured stations should be detected with high accuracy.
 Avoid placing the stations near steep topography to minimize
terrain correction.
 The base station should be measured every two hours in flat
areas for drift correction, and at the end of the daily survey at
tough topography.
13
 GRAVITY
Gravity survey measures the variations in the Earth gravitational field
caused by the difference in the density of the subsurface rock.
Gravity methods applications:
1-Hydrocarbon exploration
2-Regoinal geological studies.
3-Detection subsurface cavities (microgravity)
4-Archaeology (microgravity)
5-Shape of the earth (geodesy)
PHYSICAL BASIS
Universal joint Gravitation
Isaac Newton, in his Principia, formulated the Law of Universal Mutual
Gravitation:
1-Gravity is an Attractive force:
It draws massive objects closer together
2-Gravity is a Universal force:
It operates everywhere in the Universe.
3-Gravity is a Mutual force:
It works between pairs of massive objects. 14
2
Gravity survey measures the variations in the Earth gravitational field
caused by the difference in the density of the subsurface rock.
Gravitational Force
The Force of Gravity between any two objects depends only upon:
1-The masses of the two objects:
More massive objects exert a stronger the gravitational force.
2-The distance between them:
The force gets stronger as the two objects move closer together.
The force gets weaker as the two objects move farther apart.
It does not depend on the shapes, colors, or compositions of the
objects.
 The Law of Universal Gravitation
The force of gravitational attraction between any two massive bodies is
Directly proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between their centers.

15 3
Gravitational Field Strength of an object.

Toward the center

16 3
What is the Gravitational Field Strength of a baseball
is you know: the mass of it is 0.145 kg and the distance
is 2m and G =6.7x10-11 (Newton's meter2 / kilogram2 ) or
(N).(m/kg)2
g =G m/r2
g =6.67 x 10 -11 x0.145/(2)2
g = 2.4 x 10-12 N/kg

17 3
The Force of Gravity is an example of an Inverse Square Law Force
Stated mathematically, the force of gravity between two massive bodies
is:

Where:
F = force due to gravity.
M1 = mass of the first body
M2 = mass of the second body
d = distance between their centers.
G = Gravitational Force Constant
The Gravitational Force Constant
The force constant, G, is a number which gives the size of the
gravitational coupling between two massive objects.
G is very small, in metric units:
G=6.7x10-11 (Newton's meter2 / kilogram2 ) (N).(m/kg)2
The Newton is the metric unit of force:
4.41 Newton's = 1 pound = 450 g
18 4
 Newtonian Gravitational Attraction:
The gravitational force is symmetrical:
– m1 attracts m2 with force equal as magnitude to the
force attracting m2 to m1,
– but with opposite directions
 For convenience:
– m1 attracting body
– For the Earth m1 =M
– m2 attracted body

19

Abdelrahman Aqel Abueladas

 Newtonian Gravitational Attraction:
• Gravitational force and gravitational acceleration:
Gravitational force:

– Acceleration:

 Gravitational acceleration ( ʃ ) :
• The acceleration caused by the gravitational force
• Gravitational force acting on unit mass of attracted body
• As magnitude:

• Unit of acceleration 1 gal= 1cm/s2

20

Abdelrahman Aqel Abueladas

 Newtonian Gravitational Attraction:
 Let a coordinate system be introduced, such as:
 r1 and r2 are position vectors of the
(Earth)
points P1 (Earth) and P2 respectively.

 The distance between the points can be expressed by:

21

Abdelrahman Aqel Abueladas

• Gravitational acceleration:
Has the same direction as the force with which m1=M attracts m2
–Unit vector:

Can be expressed by:

Where
22

Abdelrahman Aqel Abueladas

 Newtonian Gravitational Attraction:
• Gravitational acceleration, or simply gravitation is,
according to the previous equation:
An inverse square field -of type and being such,
It is a conservative vector field
There is a differentiable scalar function V(x,y,z) such that

Where is Unit vector

(nabla) Gradient of

23
 Newtonian Gravitational Attraction:
• The differentiable scalar function V(x,y,z) :
– Is called gravitational potential
– It is a scalar function!
– And an exact differential

24

Abdelrahman Aqel Abueladas

 Newtonian Gravitational Attraction:

• So at each point P2 with coordinates:

The gravitational acceleration f is:

And the gradient vector of the gravitational potential V :

25

Abdelrahman Aqel Abueladas

 Newtonian Gravitational Attraction:
• Gravitational potential: assume that:

• To compute the gradient the partial derivatives

should be found:

26

Abdelrahman Aqel Abueladas

 Newtonian Gravitational Attraction:
• Gravitational potential:
– Partial derivatives

Where: 27

Abdelrahman Aqel Abueladas

 Newtonian Gravitational Attraction:
• In the same way the other two partial
derivatives can be found:

28

Abdelrahman Aqel Abueladas

 Newtonian Gravitational Attraction:
Physical interpretation of the gravitational potential:
It is the work needed to bring a unit mass from infinity to the
point P2 (x2, y2, z2).
Properties of the gravitational field:
Being a conservative vector field the gravitational
acceleration has the following properties:
• The total energy of a body, moving in the field is
constant.
• A scalar function V exists, such that at each point:

29

Abdelrahman Aqel Abueladas

 Newtonian Gravitational Attraction:
• Properties of the gravitational field:
 The field is irrotational.

 dV = f dr is an exact differential

• The integral is path independent

30

Abdelrahman Aqel Abueladas

The Mass of the Earth
We can directly measure the acceleration of gravity at the surface of the
Earth by dropping objects and timing their fall (e.g., like was done by
Galileo). We find
g= 9.8 meters/sec2
We can also measure the radius of the Earth using geometry
(Eratosthenes):
Rearth=6378 kilometers = 6,378,000 meters
Combining these together using Newton's formula for the Gravitational
Force allows us to estimate the mass of the Earth, as follows:

The acceleration of the gravity should be constant over the Earth.

In reality, gravity varies from place to place because the Earths shape
like an inverted pearl. 31 5
The acceleration of the gravity should be
constant over the Earth.
In reality, gravity varies from place to
place because :
1-The Earths has the shape of flattened
sphere (like an inverted pear) rotates.
2-It has irregular topography.
3-Variation of mass distribution especially
near the surface.
Because the earth is not a perfect sphere
it is wider at the equator than at the poles)
an Ellipsoid is often used to model its shape.

The reference ellipsoid is defined by its dimensions for the major and minor
axes and the amount of flattening at the poles.
Ellipsoids that model the earth are very near to being spherical, so close that
they can be called a Spheroid.
The sea level surface if undistributed by wind or tides, is known as GEOID.
The GEOID is a representation of the earth's gravity field.
The GEOID represents a surface over which the gravitational field has equal
value and is called equipotential surfaces.
32 6
The Geoid is parallel to Earth surface
dip.
The Geoid don’t overlay the reference
ellipse
The difference between the two surfaces
are not more than 50 meter .
The earth does not have a geometrically
perfect shape is well established, and the
Geoid is used to describe the unique and
irregular shape of the earth .

Continent Reference ellipse of rotation

Geoid
Ocean

33 7
 General form of the International Gravity Formula:
 In 1930 the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
adopted the form of International Gravity Formula (Nettleton
1971).
 This become the standard for gravity work.
gФ = g0 (1+ A sin2 Ф -β sin2 2Ф)

 Standard formula for theoretical value of g at given

 latitude Ф :
gФ (1930) = 9.78049 (1+ 0.0052884 sin2 Ф – 0.000059 sin2 2Ф) m/s2

gФ (1967) = 9.78031846 (1+ 0.005278895 sin2 Ф -0.000023462 sin2 2Ф) m/s2

Gal due to Galileo

Gal = 1 Cm/ sec2 Gravity acceleration = 980 gal
1 mGal= 10-3 Gal 8
34
 Geological factors
affecting density:
► Gravity surveying is sensitive
to variation in rock density.

Range of bulk densities shown graphically 35 9

 Minerals densities:
Densities of selection of
metallic and non-metallic minerals
Data from Telford et al (1990).

36 10
 Gravitation Field of the Earth:

37 10
 Survey procedures
1-Land Survey:
Location and spacing stations:
 This controlled by the target of the survey (regional or local)
and the topography of the study area.
 Two types of the survey can be applied Random or Grid.
 The stations spacing are 1 Km (for oil, basement depth and
regional geological investigations)
 The stations spacing are 2-10 meter for high resolution
investigations (engineering, environments, archaeology).
 The locations and the elevations of the base station and the
measured stations should be detected with high accuracy.
 Avoid placing the stations near steep topography to minimize
terrain correction.
 The base station should be measured every two hours in flat
areas for drift correction, and at the end of the daily survey at
tough topography. 38
2-Marine Survey:
 The marine survey is more difficult than the land survey
because the noise, waves and the instrument must be planted
at the bottom the sea.
 Additional correction called Eotvos Effect to the data because
of the movement on the ship.

3-Airborn Survey:
 The Eotvos Effect increase because the plane speed is more
the ship speed.
 The location of the plan should be determined during flying.
 The plane elevation changes during flight for 3 meter make
change in gravity 1 m gal.

39
 Observed Gravity (gobs) - Gravity readings observed at
each gravity station after corrections have been applied for
drift and Tide.

 Gravity Corrections:
1) Instrument drift: Gravimeter readings change (drift) as a
result of elastic creep in the springs, producing apparent
change in gravity at a given station.
o The drift can be determined by repeating measurements at
the same stations at difference times and then calculate the
changes by dividing changes in gravity readings at different
times by the different in time between the two readings.
o The observed gravity can corrected by subtract then drift
value from the observed gravity.

40
2) Tides
 As the water in the ocean respond to gravitational pull of the Moon, and to
a lesser of the Sun, so does the solid earth.
 This would result in a record of the time variation of the tidal components
of the gravity field that could be used to correct the survey observations.
 Tide tables which are already published periodically by the European
Association of Exploration Geophysicists (E.A.E.G).
 How to calculate the observed gravity (OG) for measured stations ??
1- The OG0 of the base station should be in hand.
2-The first reading ( R1) and reading time (T1) in seconds together with
the end reading (R2) and reading time (T2) in seconds of the BASE
STATION must be known.
3- Calculate the DRIFT of the gravimeter:
C = (R2- R1)/(T2-T1)
4- The measured station should read by the gravimeter (R3)
5-The OG for the reading (R3) is:
gog =(R3- R1) C) K + OG base where K is the instrument factor

41
3-Latitude Correction
Variation of gravity with latitude:
-The Earth shape affects the value of acceleration.
- The polar radius (6357 km) is 21 km shorter than the equatorial radius
(6378 km).
-The points at the poles are closer to the Earth center, therefore, the value
of gravity at the poles is greater (about 0.7%) than the equator.
-The rotation of the earth one per sidereal day around north- south axis
generates a centrifugal acceleration acting at the equator more than the
poles, to the value of gravity at the equator is smaller than the poles.
- For regional gravity survey the latitude position should be known within
± 10 meter.
- The most affection of the latitude at 45º north and south.
- The affection of the latitude at 0º and 90º is zero.
dgL =0.8108 sin2Ø m gals/Km

 When the direction of the survey to the polar pole (north) we subtract
the latitude correction to the observed gravity.
 When the direction of the survey to the equator (south)
42
we add the latitude correction to the observed gravity.
4- Elevation Correction
Include two corrections:
I-Free air Correction II-Bouguer Correction
 As the gravity inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the
center of the earth so we should correct the elevation changes from the
base station.
 The free air correction is the difference between gravity measured at the
base station and an elevation of h meter with no rock in between.
 This correction is necessarily for airborne survey.

dgFA =0.3086 h m gal gh

where h is the elevation in meters.
 The correction must be added to OG of
measured gravity station if the station lies h
above the datum plane (Base Station) and g0
subtracted in opposite case. Base station Level

 The elevation difference between the stations

should be known within 4 cm to get gravity difference within 0.1 m gal.
43
II-Bouguer Correction

 The correction takes into account the attraction of the material between a
reference elevation and that of the base station (the density of the
materials).
The Bouguer Correction is given:

dgB =0.04193 ρ h m gal

where h is the elevation in meters and ρ is the density of the rock Mg/m3.
(g/cm3)

 The correction subtract from OG of measured gravity station if the

station lies above the datum plane (Base Station) and added if the station
lies under the datum plane (Base Station).

44
 5-Terrain Correction:
 The terrain correction is used in areas with variation in elevations. It
removes the effects of topography changes.
 The effect of the valley and the hill are same. In hill case there is
attraction force between the instrument mass and the hill mass toward the
hill, in other hand there is the same force between the valley and the
instrument mass but repulsion force .
 Special transparent template, known as a Hammer chart consists of a
series of segmented concentric rings.
 The chart superimposed over a topographic map with known scale and
the average elevation of each segment of the chart is estimated.
 The average elevation for each segment subtracted from the elevation of
the station (z) value.
 Using the (z) values within terrain correction tables help us to measure the
terrain correction for the station.

45
Hammer terrain correction chart.

46
 47

Hammer terrain correction chart.

48
49
6-EöTVöS CORRECTION:

For gravimeter mounted on a vehicle such as a ship or plane. Special

transparent.

Isostatic correction:

 If there were no lateral variation in density in the earth crust, the

gravity data after application of all the corrections would be the
same.
 However there are lateral variation a gravity anomaly results which
is known as Bouguer Anomaly.
 The average Bouguer Anomaly in oceanic areas is generally
positive, while over mountainous regions it is usually negative. The
effects indicate that the rock beneath the oceans is more dense
than normal while that beneath the mountains is less dense.

50
 Bouguer Gravity Anomaly
The main end-product of gravity data reduction is the Bouguer anomaly which
should correlate only with lateral variation in density of the upper crust.
When we applied all the former correction in the observed gravity of the measured
station we get Bouguer Gravity (gB ).
The equation when the measured gravity station elevation more than the base
station:
gB = gobs ± dgL + dgFA - dgB + dgT

gB= gobs ± dgL + 0.3086 h – 0.04193 ρ h + T ρ

gB : Bouguer gravity
gobs: Observed gravity
dgL :Latitude correction

dgFA : Free air correction

dgB : Bouguer correction

dgT : Topographic correction
h: elevation in meter ρ : density g/cm3
The Bouguer Anomaly (Δ gB) is the difference
between the Bouguer gravity (gB) and gravity in the
base station (gbase)

Δ gB= gB - gbase
 Determination of density
The application of Bouguer correction and topographic correction
requires an estimation of the density of the rock materials in the study
area.
 There are different methods to detect the density:
1-Boreholes logs or cores analysis.
2-Nettelton’s Method:
a) The method consists of measuring a line of closely spaced station
over
of a topographic feature (not flat area).
b) The observed gravity values are calculated using different density
values
then smoothed and are drawn like curves.
c) The actual density of the materials is represent by the curve which
has the least correlation with the topography curve.
The Nettleton Method for determining density of near-surface rock.
Bouguer anomaly in the figure the density is about 2.3 g/m3 .
 INTERPRETATION METHODS
 There are two approaches of the interpretation of Bouguer anomaly:
1- Direct: where the original data are analyzed to produce an
interpretation.
2-Indirect: where models are constructed to compute gravity anomaly.
The model producing the best fit.

 Ambiguity in geological models:

In this case the gravity anomaly curve
represent different types of shapes.
The lens shape bodies have a gravity
Anomaly identical to that of a sphere at
P of radius 600 m.
This ambiguity due to lake of the
Density changes with depth, we can
solve this ambiguity by additional density data from
Drilling logs or seismic data.
Bouguer anomaly maps are like topographic maps with highs
and lows. Linear features and areas where the contours are
closely packed.
Anomaly Separation
The anomaly separation of the subsurface feature need to be
filtered from the anomalies of the host materials (surrounded
media).
Two main problems we can encounter
1-The data reflect a long-wavelength gravity anomalies related to
huge basin (Anticline or Syncline) is called regional anomaly.
2-Shorter wavelength anomalies arising from shallow geological
features are superimposed on the regional anomaly and we can
get these anomalies by separation of the regional from the
Bouguer anomaly is called a residual anomaly.
There are different methods the calculate the residual anomaly:
1- Graphical method: which need good experience in the
geology of the study area.
2- Analytical method :using regular grid nets.
1-Graphical method:
•Calculate residual from
estimated isogals on map.
•The figure illustrates how
the residual is calculated.
0.4 0.4 0
•The 5 mGal isogal, which 0.2

has been highlighted,

intersect several regional
isogals.
• At point A and B the
difference (i.e. residual)
between the 5 mGal
line and those it crosses are
respectively +0.2 and +0.4 mGal and contours are drawn at the
same residual value.
1-Graphical method:
•If we draw a section between point C and D we get the curve
at the figure bellow.
•If we drop the difference between the observed Bouguer anomaly
and estimated regional on a street line extent from zero
coordinates the difference will be the residual anomaly generated
from the local
small body.
2-Analytical method:
1-use Empirical Grid- Residual System: calculates the average values that
measured on the circle which represents the regional anomaly. The residual
anomalies is the difference between the average value and the measured value
in the center of the circle.

In the example below the residual value in the point 0 is

gR = g0– (g1+g2+g3+g4+g5+g6+g7+g8) / 8
 Gravity Field
Lecture 6
Anomaly Separation

61
2-Analytical method:
1-Use empirical Grid- Residual System: calculates the average
values that measured on the circle which represents the regional
anomaly.
2-The residual anomalies is the difference
between the average value and the measured
value in the center of the circle.
In the example below the residual
value in the point 0 is :
gR = g0– (g1+g2+g3+g4+g5+g6+g7+g8) / 8

3-The residual values and the residual maps

generated from Grid- Residual System
Depend on:
1-The circle diameter.
2-The number of points on the circle.
62
Example:
1-If we have the measured gravity curve (A E D F B).

2-If we choose the bigger diameter A B and the named of the

gravity points in point (A) is gA and the gravity value at the center
(C) is:
gC = gA + gB / 2
The residual anomaly is the difference between gravity in (D) and
gravity in (C) : (gR = gD - gC )
3- If the diameter is small ( EF) and the gravity in the center is (G)
gG = gF + gE / 2 . The residual anomaly is the difference between
gravity in (D) and gravity in (G) : (gr= gD - gG) .
The residual anomaly (gr) is smaller than the residual anomaly (gR) 63
 Gravity anomalies over given geometric forms:
 Certain geological structures can be approximated to models
with known geometric forms (Nettleton, 1942)
For example buried cavity can be represented by sphere, a salt

dam by vertical cylinder, a basic igneous dyke by an inclined

sheet, etc.
If g is computed across a profile over a buried sphere, then that

profile should hold true for any direction across the sphere.
However if the profile is across a buried horizontal cylinder, then

the profile along the long axis of it will be quit from that cross it.
The equations used to calculate the maximum anomaly for each

geometric feature are given in table bellow.

The equations are only used to estimate the maximum values of

the associated gravity anomalies.

Calculating gravity anomalies using the above methods should

be regarded as a first step of interpretation process.

 There are more sophisticated computerized programs for gravity
64
anomaly analysis.
65
 Gravity anomalies over given geometric forms:
For complicated geological features of irregular shape which do
not approximate to any geometric forms two methods are used :
1-Graphical methods: a template which is divided into segments
is superimposed on an irregular cross-section of the geological
feature to be modeled. The gravity at a point on the surface can
be calculated by summing the effect of all the individual
segments covering the cross-section of the feature.
The graphical methods can be used for three-dimensional bodies.
2-Analytical methods: using computer software's.

66
 Gravity anomalies over given geometric forms:
1- Sphere: cavity, compact bodies.

67
2- Sphere: compact bodies.

68
69
The gravity anomaly across a vertical fault with small throw.

70
 The major importance of the interpretation of any gravity data is
the determination of the depth to the center of the mass.
The commonest rules is using the half-width of the anomaly,

where the half-width (x1/2) of the anomaly at half peak amplitude

and the form of depth and mass determination equation.

71
 X1/2

1/2Δgmax

Several basic rules established to calculate the depth.

If any geological body gives an isolated gravity anomaly, the maximum gravity (gmax )
that varies along the line of the profile is determined and the turning point on the
curve determined at the middle of the line drawn along the decay.
The x1/2 is determined and then the depth to the center of the mass determined.

72
Geophysical Engineering
Gravity Interpretation
Case studies
Lecture 4

1
 Second derivative
I-Second vertical derivative (SVD) maps
One of the problems inherent the interpretation of Bouguer
anomaly maps is that it is difficult to resolve the effects of
shallow structures from those due to deeper seated ones.
The removal of the effect of the regional field from the Bouguer
anomaly data results in an indeterminate and non-unique set of
residuals, to separate the effects of shallow and deeper
structures we need to apply the second vertical derivative.
The gravity field measured by gravimeters varies with height;
that is, there is a vertical gradient (δ g/ δ z=g’).
Over a non-uniform earth in which density varies laterally, the
vertical gradient changes and the rate of change (δ g’ / δ z) is
thus the second vertical derivative of the gravity field (δ2 g / δ z2 ).
This quantity is very sensitive to the effects of shallow features
(and to the effect of noise and topography).

2
As an illustration of how the gravity effects of shallow and deep
structures can be separated, consider two equal point masses
(m) at two different depths, say at depths 1 unit and 4 units.
The value of g for a point mass at depth z simple equal to the
product of the gravitational constant (G) and the mass divided by
the depth z squared. [g=Gm/z2 ].
If this is differentiated twice with the respect to z, it becomes
[g”=6Gm/z4] this tell us that the second derivative of the two
masses g” is inversely proportional to z4. Hence the ratio of the
two derivative will be, for z1= 1 and z4= 4, g1“/ g4“=256.
It is possible to compute and plot maps of second derivative of
Bouguer anomaly data.
The zero contour should indicate the edges of the local
geological features. The contours have units where:
10-6 mGal/cm2 ≡10-6 cm-1 s-2
It is not possible to undertaken any quantitative analyses of
SVD maps except to produce characteristic profiles over known
geometric forms. 3
The main advantage of
SVD maps is to highlight
and clarify features
spatially, as can be seen
from opposite figures :
In the Bouguer gravity
anomaly map there is no
obvious major feature
evident.
In the other hand the
SVD map shows a major
SE-NW linear feature
with three closures, and
it has picked out the
outlines of the Cement
field in Oklahoma
extremely well.
4
 In Figure below
Several deep boreholes were drilled on the large minimum
indicate on both Bouguer and residual anomaly maps missed
the target and presumed to be a single salt dam.
The SVD map highlights three salt domes accurately.
The disadvantage of SVD method is amplifies noise and so can
produce many second-derivative anomalies that are not related
to geology.

5
 Second derivative
II- Downward and upward continuation:
The effect on gravity of a geological mass at considerable depth
is far less than if it were close to the surface.
Continuation is a mathematical projection of potential field data
(gravity or magnetic) from one datum vertically upwards or
downwards to another datum.
The continuation process simulates the residual Bouguer
anomaly at levels below or above sea level as if the gravity data
had been obtained at those levels.
1-Upward continuation:
-It is straight forward as the projection usually in free space.
-It filter out the shorter wavelength anomalies and reduce the
amplitude and decrease noise.
2-Downward continuation:
-To apply it we should have information about the size and the
position of the geological features.
-It is reduce the anomaly wave length and increase its amplitude.6
Continuation also forms a method of gravitational stripping
where the gravity effects of upper layers are necessarily
removed to reveal the anomalies of the deeper geological
structures.
Upward continuation is used in comparisons of ground-based
gravity anomalies with airborne data.

7
An example of
comparison are shown in 1
The figure. The two gravity
minima associated with 2
low-density salt have
shorter wavelength
maxima superimposed
which due to the high
density cap rock.
These maxima attenuated
with increase elevation
and the agreement between the upwardly continued land Bouguer
data and the airborne is good except in the immediate vicinity of
the cap rock.

8
 Sedimentary basin or granite pluton ?
It very important for interpretation gravity data for hydrocarbon
exploration to be able to distinguish between a sedimentary
basin (good possible hydrocarbon prospect) and a granitic
pluton (no prospect for hydrocarbon) as both can produce
negative gravity anomalies.
For example, Arkell (1933) interpreted a minimum in an initial
Bouguer anomaly survey in Scotland, as being to a granite
pluton.
After further geological and gravity work (Collette, 1959 and
Sunderland, 1972) That was released that the minimum was due to a
sedimentary basin.
In 1962, Bott proposed as a set of criteria to distinguish between
a secondary basin and a granite boss as an interpretations of
gravity minima.
The argument was based on the second vertical derivative of
gravity anomaly due to a semi-infinite two-dimensional horizontal
slab with a sloping edge. 9
He found that the ratio of moduli
of maximum and minimum second
vertical derivative provides
a means of distinguishing between
the two geological structures
For sedimentary Basin
│g”max │ / │ g”min │> 1.0

For a granitic pluton

│g”max │ / │ g”min │≤ 1.0

In figures opposite McCann and

Till (1974) have described how the
method can be computerised and
the application of Fourier analysis
to Bott’s method.

10
Some authors calculate the second horizontal derivative
(δ2 g / δ x2) which responds in exactly the same way as vertical
derivative except that the maxima and minima are reversed.
In order for the method to applied, the gravity anomaly attribute
to the appropriate geological features (sedimentary basin or
granitic pluton) needs to be clearly isolated from adjacent
anomalies due to other features.
The method is not applicable in cases where extensive tectonic
activity has formed either a sedimentary basin by basin shortening
or granitic pluton by complex faulting.
The vertical variation of density of sediments with depth in a
sedimentary basin can be represented in a number of ways, as
consideration of variation in density in terms of exponential and
hyperbolic density contrast.

11
 CASE HISTORIES
1-Exploration of salt dams:
I-Mors salt dome, Denmark
An original interpretation of
Bouguer anomaly over Mors
dam was made in 1974.

Bouguer anomaly map of the Mors dam.

Solid dots represent observation points.
Contour interval= 1mGal.
From Saxov (1956) and Sharma (1968).

12
The salt dam was approximated by a sphere, the values of
Δg max =16 mGal and the approximate half width 3.7 km were
obtained from a profile across the feature used to determine the
depth of the center of the mass (z=4.8 km).
In order to calculate the depth of the top of the sphere an
estimate of the density contrast of the salt with the surrounding
material had to be made.
For density contrast of Δρ of -0.25 Mg/ m3 this gave the radius of
the sphere as 3.8 km and thus the depth of the top is about 1 km
(4.8km minus 3.8 km )
With Δρ = -0.2 Mg/ m3, the radius is 4.1 km and depth to the top
is 0.7 km (4.8km minus 4.1 km ).
This was later found to be in good agreement with seismic
results.

13
If the salt dam approximated to a vertical cylinder of length 5300
m, depth to top 700m, and radius 4400 m and density contrast
-0.2 Mg/ m3
The expected value of Δg max is around 19 mGal, compared with
an observed of 16-18 mGal; but this is still enough to be a
reasonable approximation
to the actual shape.
Uncertainty in the density
contrast is the biggest
problem in interpretation.
Drilling and seismic data
across the salt dome show
that the density contrast
Within the dome can be
divided into three sections
with different density
contrast.
14
II-Salt dome in NW Germany
Another example of gravity anomalies over salt dame is given
in opposite figure:
The amplitudes of the Bouguer anomaly minima are clearly
associated with the size of the salt domes.
The smallest having the heighest amplitude

15
 Minerals explorations:
In Gravity survey fulfil two roles in exploration for minerals:
1-for search and discovery of the ore body
2-as a secondary tool to delimit the ore body and determine
the extension of ore.
1-Discovery of the Furo
lead-zinc, Yukon:
An integrated of airborne and
geophysical exploration program
lead to discover lead-zinc deposit
in the Yukon, Canada.
Gravity was found to be the best
geophysical method to delimit the
ore body.
The results were compared with
the drilling in that area.
2- Pyramid ore body, North West Territories, Canada:
The ore was discovered using induced polarization (IP) method.
Gravity was used to optimize development drilling since the
gravity anomaly correlated well with the distribution of the
mineralization with the ore body.
The gravity anomaly was used estimate the total ore extension.
3-Engineering applications:
The size of the engineering investigations is anomaly very
shallow (<50 m) was discovered using induced polarization (IP)
method.
The resolution required for gravity measurements is the order of

µGals.
3-1 Detection of underground cavities:
The hidden voids within the near-surface can becomes serious
hazards if exposed during excavation works, or they become
obvious by subsidence of the overlying ground.
 Using of gravity methods has been achieved in many

engineering and hydrogeological surveys.

 Hidden natural cavities:
Two types of cavities are notice the natural cavities or man made
cavities.
The amplitude of gravity anomaly is greater than predicted.
A microgravity survey was carried out in Poland where karst
cavern occur to depth of around 40m in gypsum and limestone.
 The cavities develop toward the ground surface and have
resulted damages in 40 buildings within the town.
The density contrast between the cavity and the surrounding

materials A is -1.8 Mg/m3 and for figure B is -1.0 Mg/m3 slightly

lower due to presence of rock breccia within the cavity.
Micro gravity anomalies
Δg and gravity gradient
ΔWzz anomalies over:

A) An air filled cavity (BH-3),

B) One partially fiiled by
rocks fragments (BH-9).
Theor curves represent
the theoretical anomalies.
 A similar approach can be taken using horizontal gravity
gradients ( Δg/Δx or Δg/Δy) in which case the gravity anomaly
reaches a minimum or maximum, the gradient goes through zero
and the points should lie over the center of the body causing the
anomaly.
A micro gravity survey within deep coal mine
over known cavities:
A-Observed residual gravity profile

B-observed and computed vertical gravity

Gradient.

C- observed horizontal gravity gradient

mGal
0.06
0 50 100 m

0.03

0.00

-0.03

-0.06 RESTAURANT

STATION
PUMP
E
ATR
IT HE
PH
AM

FILLED SINKHOLES
RESIDUAL MICROGRAVITY
 Gravity

23
 Limestone

Cave

24
25
Microgravity
Microgravity investigations are now recognized as a powerful tool for
subsurface imaging and especially for the localization of underground
karsts.
The detection of subsurface cavities, such as crypts, cellars and
tunnels, in churches and castles belongs to successful applications of the
employment of surface gravity measurement techniques in archaeo-
prospecting.
Cavities may be natural, such as solution cavities in limestone; or
man-made, such as tunnels, mine workings and crypts. A negative
anomaly is not always the case.
The buried tomb can give rise to a positive anomaly in the case that
the tomb had collapsed (Bishop et al., 1997).
 Air-filled cavities give the largest negative anomaly amplitude
condition because of the complete absence of dense material in
the target. 26
The vertical gradient of gravity can be used for cavity detection
because it gives supplementary and more accurate information on the
distribution of density inhomogeneities in shallow depths up to about
15 m.
The non-invasiveness is the main advantage of using microgravity
technique in archaeology, but on the other hand this method is very
time consuming.
Nowadays, the leader in exploration and assessing of the cultural
heritage is the Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR).

27
Different Kinds of Noise in
Microgravity Surveys
A microgravity survey is the
geophysical method most
affected by corrections and
reductions caused by
different kinds of noise
(disturbances).

28
Noise affecting microgravity investigations (A. Al-Zoubi, et al., 2013).
These types of noise are described in more detail below.
1. Artificial (Man-Made) Noise. The industrial component of noise
mainly comes from surface and underground constructions, garbage
dumps, transportation and communications lines, and so forth. The
instrumental component is associated with the technical properties of
gravimeters (e.g., shift zero) and gradientometers. Human error,
obviously, can accompany geophysical observations at any time.
Finally, undocumented (poorly documented) results of previous
surveys can distort preliminary PAM development.
2. Natural Disturbances. Nonstationary noise includes, for instance,
known tidal effects. Meteorological conditions (rain, lightning, snow,
hurricanes, etc.) can also affect gravimeter readings. Corrections for
the atmosphere deserve special attention in microgravity
investigations, since the air layer attraction is different at various
levels over and below the m.s.l. Soil-vegetation factors associated with
certain soil types (e.g., swampy soil or loose ground in deserts) and
dense vegetation, which sometimes hampers movement along the
29
profile, also need to be taken into account.
3. Geological-Geophysical and Environmental Factors.
These constitute the most important physical-geological disturbances.
The application of any geophysical method depends primarily on the existence
of physical properties contrast between the objects under study and the
surrounding medium. The physical limitation of method application assesses
the measurable density contrast properties between the anomalous targets
and the host media.
4. Spatial Coordinates and Normal Gravity Field Determination.
Spatial coordinates and normal gravity field determination are also crucial to
precise gravity studies and any inaccuracies here may lead to significant errors
in subsequent analyses.
5. Uneven Terrain Relief. Uneven terrain relief can hamper the movement of
equipment and restrict gravity data acquisition. Physically, the gravity field is
affected by the form and density of the topographic features composing the
relief, as well as variations in the distance from the point of measurement to
the hidden target [32]. Calculations for the surrounding terrain relief
(sometimes for radii up to 200 km) are also of great importance

30
6. Earthquake Damage. Earthquake damage zones are widely spread
over the Eastern Mediterranean, especially in the regions near the
Dead Sea Transform (DST) Zone. These zones may significantly
complicate microgravity data analysis.
7. The Variety of Anomalous Sources. The variety of anomalous
sources is composed of two factors: the variable surrounding medium
and the variety of anomalous targets. Both these factors are crucial
and greatly complicate the interpretation of magnetic data.
8. Variable Subsurface. Variable subsurface can make it difficult
to determine the correct densities of bodies occurring close to the
earth’s surface.
9. Local and Regional Trends. Local and regional trends (linear,
parabolic, or other types) often mask the target gravity effects
considerably. Sometimes regional gravity trend effects may exceed
local desired anomalies by some tenfold.

31
Archaeology:
Gravity data were collected using
the relative gravimeter Scintrex
CG-5.
The instrument has a quoted
standard field repeatability of less
then 5 μ Gal.
The map of measured heights in
[m] with positions of measured
stations and a plan of the church’s
walls (represented with dotted
areas); x local [m] and y local [m]
are the horizontal and vertical
axes of the used local coordinate
system.

32
33
 The sequences of steps in final Bouguer anomaly map creation

a) b) c)

a) Incomplete Bouguer b) Modeled effect of c) Final Bouguer anomalies

Anomalies in (mGal) buildings walls in (subtracted correction for
for correction density (mGal) for density buildings effect) in (mGal)
2.0 g/cm3 1.7 g/cm3
34
The residual Bouguer
anomaly map of the survey
area based on the
“Downward continued”
approach (after removing a
simple planar surface
describing the regional
component of the Bouguer
anomaly field) in [mGal].
The highlighted area was
interpolated with a step of
0.5 m and used for further
interpretation of the acquired
negative anomaly.

35
 3D model of subsurface interpretation

b) A view of the possible location and

a) Upper of modelled air-filled shape of crypt –result along E-W profile 1:
observed field (red line), calculated field
cavity and observed field. (blue line)
36
Filled circlets donates positions of 3D Euler deconvolution depth estimates
 Inclined profile

Horizontal profile

1-Horizontal profile

Complicated slope

Smooth slope

37
38
Areal map of the investigated site (A. Al-Zoubi, et al., 2013).
(A. Al-Zoubi, et al., 2013).

39
Gravity field anomalies along profile 6 from models of sinkholes.
40 (A. Al-Zoubi, et al., 2013).
 Residual gravity map of the Ghor Al-Haditha
area after subtracting bilinear saddle regression
Bouguer gravity map of the Ghor Al-Haditha (Fig. 17)
area (Jordan).

(A. Al-Zoubi, et al., 2013).

41
 Residual gravity map of the Ghor Al-Haditha area
Results of gradient sounding. after subtracting local polynomial (Fig. 18).
(A. Al-Zoubi, et al., 2013).

42
Comparison of gravity curves constructed along profile A–B (after subtracting
the bilinear saddle regression) and A’–B’ (after subtracting the local
polynomial).
43
(A. Al-Zoubi, et al., 2013).
 An initial physical-geological model along profile A’–B’ developed on the basis of
3D gravity field modeling.
44
Microgravity
Microgravimetric and gravity gradient surveying techniques are
applicable to the detection and delineation of shallow subsurface
cavities and tunnels.
Two case histories of the use of these techniques to site
investigations in karst regions are presented.
In the first case history, the delineation of a shallow (-10 m
deep), airfilled cavity system by a microgravimetric survey is
demonstrated. Also, application of familiar ring and center point
techniques produces derivative maps which demonstrate:
(1) the use of second derivative techniques to produce a residual”
gravity map.
(2) the ability of first derivative techniques to resolve closely
spaced or complex subsurface features.
In the second case history, a deeper (-30 m deep), water-filled
cavity system is adequately detected by a microgravity survey.

45
Topographic map of the study area.
 Open circles represent overnight tidal and
closed circles represent the base station drift curves
mGal

Time

Base station gravity value mGal

Drift curve and measured earth tide curve for the Medford Cave site microgravimetric
survey.
Gravity gradient maps
Two types of gravity-gradient maps were generated from the
Medford Cave site microgravity survey data.

Fig. 1. Residual gravity anomaly map, 20 ft data spacing, FIG. 2. Residual gravity
anomaly map, 10 ft data spacing.
Gravity gradient maps
Two types of gravity-gradient maps were generated from the Medford Cave site
microgravity survey data.
The familiar ring and center point (spatial filtering) techniques were utilized to compute
first (vertical gradient) and second derivative maps from the gravity data.
These techniques were used for this site for two reasons:
(1) to investigate the application of the techniques to small-scale surveys for improved
resolution and the determination of residual gravity maps.
(2) because the known cavity system is clearly three dimensional. Since the techniques
are familiar and standard, details about their formulation and use will not be given.
Fig. 3. Second derivative map (Elkins’ residual) Fig.4. First derivative map produced from the
produced from the Bouguer anomaly. Bouguer anomaly

49
Comparing the second derivative map with the residual gravity
the similarity is evident.
 All of the primary features of the residual gravity map can be
found in the second derivative map.
The second derivative technique is a more objective procedure
than the inspection or graphical techniques, and it can be
advantageously applied to microgravity survey results when
it is difficult to recognize the proper scale regional field.
All of the anomaly features identified on the residual gravity map
can be seen on the first derivative map; however, the spatial
extent of given anomalies is generally less on the first derivative
map than on the residual gravity map.
Also, some anomalies observed as single features on the
residual gravity map seem to be resolved into two or more
features on the first derivative map.

50
In order to compare and evaluate the features of the derivative
and residual gravity maps, two north-south profile lines were
selected for study.
The residual gravity, first derivative, and second derivative
profiles along the 0 north-south line are shown in Figure bellow:

Comparison of residual gravity (gz) (• ), first

derivative (gz ‘) (o), and second derivative (gz ‘’)
(x) profiles along the 0 north-south line.

51
1-All three profiles show the negative anomaly feature between
profile locations 80 and 180. The gravity profile suggests that
there might be two closely spaced subsurface features causing
the anomaly (or at least a significant change in shape, size, or
density contrast of the feature).
2-The second derivative
profile shows essentially
the same information as
the residual gravity profile.
3-The first derivative
profile, however, clearly
resolves the anomaly into
two negative anomalies
centered at the 110- and
160-ft profile locations.
Comparison of residual gravity (gz) (• ), first
derivative (gz ‘) (o), and second derivative (gz ‘’)
(x) profiles
52 along the 0 north-south line.
•The 80W north-south profile line was discussed previously in
connection with the residual gravity profile; the gravity profile
is compared with the gravity-gradient profiles for this line in Figure
bellow.
•Qualitatively, all three profiles in Figure are similar.
The smoothing inherent in the second derivative procedure is evident in
the subdued nature of the highs and lows corresponding to the
limestone pinnacles and clay pockets.
The first derivative profile in this case, however, is nearly identical
to residual gravity profile in
delineating the top of
limestone topography
and detecting the known
cavity.

Comparison of residual gravity (gz), first

derivative (gz ‘) (o), and second derivative
(gz ‘’) (x) profiles along the 80W north-
south line.

53
The broad negative anomaly over the known cavity system in the figure
bellow is consistent in magnitude and width with the known size and
depth of the cavity system. However, there are complexities or smaller
anomalous features in the residual map which cannot be attributed to
the main cavity; some of these smaller anomalies may be due to smaller
and shallower solution features or other density anomalies.

54
Residual gravity anomaly map.
•The figure Bellow contains contoured polynomial surface fits to the
Bouguer data through fourth order.
•It is noteworthy that, although the first-order (planar) surface dip
through the grid is on a different azimuth than the plane determined by
inspection, the southeast-northwest gradient is the same, i.e., -0.22
µGal/ft.

First- through
fourth-order
polynomial
surface fits to
the Bouguer
gravity data,
contour
interval = 10
µGal.

55
The residual anomaly map, obtained by subtracting the first-order
surface fit, is shown in the figure bellow.

First-order residual gravity anomaly map.

56
 Comparison of results with 2-D model calculations:
The cavity system was modeled as a 2-D prism with rectangular cross-
section as shown in the figure bellow, and interval horizontal and vertical
gravity gradients were computed.

Two-dimensional model of the

main cavity at the Manatee
Springs site and the calculated
gravity anomaly.
57
In the figure, the computed horizontal gradient profile is compared
with the measured horizontal gradient profile for Ax = 80 ft.
The average behavior of the measured profile approximates the
calculated profile quite well in amplitude and spatial wavelength, with
the amplitude of the measured profile slightly larger on the right-hand
side.

58
A vertical gradient profile, computed by the Hilbert transform procedure
from the measured horizontal gradient profile for Ax = 80 ft, is compared to the
vertical gradient profile computed from the 2-D model in the figure bellow:
Again, the agreement between the two profiles in Figure 22 is good with
respect to amplitude and spatial wavelength.
However, the Hilbert transform profile has maximum amplitude at position 240
ft rather than 200 ft and has a prominent positive peak at 320 ft.

Comparison
59 of a vertical gravity gradient profile computed as the discrete Hilbert transform HD of the measured
horizontal gradient profile with a vertical gradient profile computed for the 2-D model.
 Geophysical Engineering

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

 RADAR: RAdio Detection And Ranging. An electronic system that
transmits electromagnetic energy and detects the location of reflected
energy.
 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a high resolution electromagnetic
technique that is designed to investigate the shallow subsurface of the
earth, building materials, and roads and bridges. Target objects are
buried pipes, cables and reinforcement, caverns, flaws and cracks, as
well as ground water and moisture.
 GPR is a high-resolution method of imaging soil and structures that
differs in there dielectric constant (K), using electromagnetic waves
(EM) in the frequency band of 10-1000 MHz.
 It is a non-destructive and noninvasive method that detects electrical
discontinuities in shallow subsurface.
 Usually, GPR is applied in reflection mode, which yields a cross
section of the subsurface, where electromagnetic waves are scattered
and reflected at the target objects.
 Depth and shape of the objects are calculated from the runtime of the
reflected signals over a profile.
 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) History:
• James Clerk Maxwell in 1864 and Heinrich Hertz in 1886 developed
the basic theory behind electromagnetic waves and their reflections.
• In 1924 the British physicist Sir Edward Victor Appleton estimated
the height of the ionosphere (a layer in the upper atmosphere that
reflects long radio waves)using basic electromagnetic reflection
principles.
• Then, in 1935, the British physicist Sir Robert Watson-Watt
developed the first practical radar system.
• By the time the British entered World War II, they had constructed a
network of radar systems along their south and east coasts to detect
enemy vessels.
• GPR survey was first performed by the German geophysicist W. Stern
in 1929.
• But GPR was largely forgotten until the late 1950’s when the radar
systems in US Air Force planes saw through ice in Greenland, causing
them to misread their altitude and crash into the ice.
 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) History:
• In 1960, John C. Cook made the first proposal for using radar to
detect subsurface reflections in his article “Proposed monocycle-pulse,
VHF radar for airborne ice and snow measurements” (Cook, 1960).
• Cook and others continued to develop radar systems to detect
reflections beneath the ground surface (Moffatt and Puskar, 1976).
• One of the original and most promising ground penetrating radars was
presented by Moffatt and Puskar (1976). Their system used an
improved antenna that gave a better target-to-clutter ratio and was
able to more accurately detect important subsurface reflections.
• Moffatt and Puskar used their system for several applications. With
their GPR unit, they estimated the location of an underground tunnel,
a fault, and mines.
• They also attempted to detect the variation of moisture content in
subsurface soils. Their conclusion was that GPR is a useful tool for
detecting anomalies and variations in subsurface rocks and soils.
• Moffatt and Puskar (1976) also presented some basic GPR theory and
computations for computing subsurface wave velocities.
 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) History:
• Ulriksen (1982) and other scientists described better methods of
processing and analyzing subsurface GPR data.
• Then, Wyatt, Waddell, and Sexton (1996) published a brief list of
articles describing methods of obtaining, processing, and analyzing
GPR data.
• Brewster and Annen (1994) were among the first to visualize GPR
results in three dimensions, and Birken and Versteeg (2000) continued
research in this area.
 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) applications:
1-Archaeology: Buried ruins location, Cavity or chamber detection.
2-Geotechnical: Geological strata mapping, void and sinkholes
investigations, Ground water mapping.
3-Civil Engineering: Utilities detection, Concrete rebars and voids
location.
4-Environmental: Hazardous waste mapping, Storage tank detection,
Hydrocarbon spill.
5-Transportation: Pavement and sub grade thickness, Railroad bed
profiling, Ice thickness.
6-Military: Ordinance detection (UXO), Runway integrity.
7-Low enforcement & forensic geophysics: Metal weapon detection,
Grave detection.
 BASIC PRINCIPLES
 In the early 20th century, the reflection of electromagnetic waves on
metallic and non-metallic surfaces was used to detect barriers and
objects and to evaluate the distance.
 During the 2nd world war, Radio detection and ranging (radar)
technology was enhanced for military applications.
 After the war, radar became soon an important tool for navigation,
weather forecasting, etc.
 Since the 1950th, radar waves were used to estimate the thickness of
arctic ice masses and glaciers.
 From the 1970th, also the structure of the shallow subsurface was
investigated and first ground penetrating radar systems were
commercially available.
 A basic radar system consists of a control unit, an impulse generator,
one or two antennas for the transmission and the receiving of the
signals and a memory ( bistatic) or one antenna work as a receiver and
transmitter (monostatic).
 BASIC PRINCIPLES
 The impulse generator sends short electric pulses (~ 1 ns) to the
antenna with a rate of 50 kHz or more. For each of these pulses, the
transmitter radiates an electromagnetic wave into the subject.
 The propagation and reflection is ruled by the electro magnetic
parameters of the medium.
 However, reflected electromagnetic waves are detected by the
receiving antenna.
 The acquisition and digitalization of these very high frequency signals
is performed using a trick (fig.1).

Fig.1: Scheme of step wise sampling a high frequency radar signal (Finck and Florian, 2003).
 BASIC PRINCIPLES
 The trace of one point measurement is built by stringing together
numerous single samples evaluated by the single impulses, which are
sent with a rate of 50 KHz.
 The time delay between the
samples is realized electronically.
 As an example, a point
measurement with a trace of
512 samples needs approximately 0.01 seconds.
 This is fast enough to move
the antenna over the profile and
still achieve a good lateral
resolution.
 The reflections of the
subsurface are following
represents an example of
a single measurement.
Example of a signal from a point measurement
(Finck and Florian, 2003).
 A sequence of single measurements then yields a B-scan, or
radargram.
 For the visualization, which can be plotted on-line, amplitudes
exceeding a threshold are plotted in black (wiggle method), or the
amplitudes are coded by a color.
 The traces are stored in the memory of the control unit. The
processing is performed after the measurement.
 Physical principles:
• The physical principles of electromagnetic waves are based on
Maxwell’s equations :
Where:

ε : the relative dielectric of the medium

σ : the conductivity of the medium.
0 :The relative magnetic permeability of the air
• The frequency spectrum of GPR waves lies in between 10 MHz and
2.5 GHz and both terms have to be taken into account (e.g. DANIELS,
1996; REYNOLDS, 1997).
• With the velocity v of the waves in the medium:

f=2π/ω

• Refraction of electromagnetic waves is formulated by Snell’s law:

 The velocity of an electromagnetic wave is dependent upon:
a) Its frequency (f )
b) The relative dielectric permeability (r)
c) The conductivity ()
d) The relative magnetic permeability (r) of the host medium

 Rocks, sediments, and soils with lower dielectric permeability (ε)

result in higher velocity (v), and lower conductivity (σ) results in a
lower amount of attenuation (α).
• Dielectric Permittivity: Dielectric Permittivity is a property of an
electrical insulating material (a dielectric) equal to the ratio of the
capacitance of a capacitor filled with the given material to the
capacitance of the identical capacitor filled with air. Earth materials
are classified generally as conductors, semiconductors and insulators
(dielectrics).
• Dielectric Constant: This number can be modified and also controls
the calculated vertical depth scale in radrgram.
• The dielectric constant is the real part of dielectric permittivity.
 In dry materials the dry bulk density influences the dielectric
constant.
 In saturated soils the dielectric constant is primarily determined by
the water content.

 Radar energy is reflected at boundaries of electrically dissimilar

materials where there is a contrast in the dielectric constant (where
there is electrical impedance).
 Material Dielectric Constant( ) Velocity v (m/ns)
•The relative Air 1 0.3
dielectric constant Distilled Water 81 0.033

(also called relative Fresh Water 81 0.033

Sea Water 81 0.01
dielectric Dry Sand 3-5 0.15
permittivity) can be Wet Sand 20-30 0.06
determined from Limestone 4-8 0.12
Shale 5-15 0.09
testing or from the Silts 5-30 0.07
chart Clays 3-40 0.06
Granite 4-6 0.13
Dry Salt 5-6 0.13
Ice 3-4 0.16
Basalt (wet) 8 10-115
Marsh 12 0.086
Agriculture land 15 0.077
Dolomite 6-8 0.1
Coal 4-5 0.1
Quartz 4 0.14
Concrete 6-30 0.05-0.1
Petroleum/ Kerosene 2.1 0.2
Aviation gasoline 1.95 0.21
Asphalt 3-5 0.13-0.17
PVC, Epoxy, Polyesters 3 0.17
Permafrost 1-8 106-300

Data from Johnson (1979), McCann et al., (1988), Morey et al., (1974), and Reynolds (1990).
• Electromagnetic waves are also reflected on material boundaries and
inhomogeneities.
• For high frequencies and a normal incidence, reflectivity R is only
dependent on the relative dielectricities of the media:

• Typically, reflections of inhomogeneities occur in the shape of

hyperbola. The runtimes tr for electromagnetic waves can be
calculated by:

• where x is the lateral offset and h the depth.

• When the attenuation α of electromagnetic waves is calculated then
the skin depth (δ) can be calculated:

• The depth at signal amplitude decreases to 1/e (37%) of the original

value is known as the skin depth (where (e ) Euler's number)
• This parameter is often used to describe the investigation depth.
• An important role plays the resolution of the electromagnetic waves.
• As a rule of thumb, the Rayleigh resolution limit is defined by λ/4,
where λ is the wave length.
• The resolution of a GPR is approximately equal to 1/3 to 1/2 of a
wavelength of the GPR signal in engineering inspections.
• If an engineer is looking for a small target, he should use the
equations to determine the required GPR frequency.
If looking for a larger target, such as the location of the water table, he
would use lower GPR unit frequencies to determine the location and
depth of the target.
• The signal to noise ratio also governs the significance of
the measurements and various processing tools and filters are available.
 Energy Loss, Attenuation, and Saturation
• Energy loss and attenuation of source signal occur when the EM
signal crosses a boundary.
• Scattering of energy will be caused by objects with dimensions the
same wavelength as the radar signal.
• This scattering of energy appears as a ‘clutter’ noise on the radar
cross section.
• Another loss of EM energy is caused by absorption (turning the EM
energy to heat).
• Attenuation is a basic cause of the loss of the energy, which is a
complex function of the electrical properties and dielectric constant
of the media which the radar signal travels through.
• Attenuation α of electromagnetic waves is given by:

0 : The relative magnetic permeability in space 0: Relative dielectric permeability in space
 Energy Loss, Attenuation, and Saturation
• The attenuation of energy (α) depends upon:
1) Relative dielectric permeability (r)
2) The conductivity ()
3) The relative magnetic permeability (r) of the host medium
4) The frequency of the signal (f ).
• For the low-loss materials, the attenuation constant is frequency
independent.
• Lower conductivity (σ) results in a lower amount of attenuation (α).

α = 0.5 { (/)1/2}
• The horizontal resolution relates to the ability to detect reflector
position in space or time, which is a function of the pulse width.
• The vertical resolution increases with an increase in the frequency
(Knapp, 1990).
• The vertical resolution is also controlled by wavelength (λ) (Knapp,
1990) which is a function of velocity and frequency ( λ = v/ f )
 The velocity can be calculated
using known object depth in the study
area using 900 MHz antenna.
V= 2d / t
ɛ=( c/ v )2
c = 0.3 (m/ns)
t : two way travel time (ns)
d : depth (meter)
ɛ : Dielectric constant
V: Average velocity
 The dielectric constant may be
determined from:
1-On-site calibrations over targets of
known depth.
2- Common depth point or midpoint
(CDP or CMP).
Dielectric constant and EM velocity for common materials.

Data from Johnson et al. (1979), McCann et al. (1988),

Morey (1974), Reynolds (1990b, 1991b).
Material Dielectric Conductivity Velocity Attenuation
constant (mS/m) (m/ns) (dB/m)
Air 1 0 0.3 0
Distilled water 80 0.01 0.033 0.002
Fresh water 80 0.5 0.033 0.1
Sea water 80 30,000 0.01 1,000
Dry sand 3-5 0.01 0.15 0.01
Saturated sand 20-30 0.1-1.0 0.06 0.03-0.3
Limestone 4-8 0.5-2 0.12 0.4-1
Shale 5-15 1-100 0.09 1-100
Silt 5-30 1-100 0.07 1-100
Clay 4-40 2-1,000 0.06 1-300
Granite 4-6 0.01-1 0.13 0.01-1
Salt (dry) 5-6 0.01-1 0.13 0.01-1
Ice 3-4 0.01 0.16 0.01

Electrical properties of geological media (after Davis et al., 1989)

Vertical resolution of GPR wave [after Basson, 1992]
• GPR pulse hits a layer or object with a different dielectric constant,
the pulse is reflected back, picked up by the receiving antenna, and
the time and magnitude of that pulse is recorded.
• In many cases, the transmitting and receiving antennas are the same.
• As a GPR transmitter is
moved along the ground at a
constant velocity, it can take a
“picture” of the shallow
subsurface.
• The GPR continuously records
reflection profiles as the
transmitter is moved along
the surface
Ray paths between transmitting and receiving antennae (Modified after Fisher et al., 1996).
 Pulse width:
• Length of duration of given pulse in nanosecond.
 Data Acquisition

900 MHz antenna

SIR-20 GPR from GSSI, USA

40 MHz antenna

400 MHz antenna with survey wheel

Range/Depth is approximately 2.5m (8 ft) assuming a
Monostatic 100 MHz antenna dielectric constant of 9.
 Post-processing
The file header should include field information such as location, client,
date, job number, surface material, or other information useful in
characterizing a site.
 Data Display Options
Radar data can be displayed in five different formats:
1-Linescan : In the Linescan format your data is displayed in a color-
amplitude form, and a color is assigned to a specific positive or negative
amplitude value of the recorded signal, depending upon the color table
and color transform selected.
The vertical scale represents time (or depth) while the horizontal
scale represents the horizontal distance traveled by the radar antenna.
• The Linescan display is the most useful for mapping man-made
objects, such as underground storage tanks, pipes, and drums.
2-Wiggle : In the Wiggle format the data, consisting of multiple radar
scans, are displayed as waveforms or “wiggle traces.” Wiggle plots are
more useful for identifying geologic features, such as a clay layer or a
water table.
In both formats, the whole data file is displayed, with time zero
(beginning of each scan) on top and time (or depth) increasing
downward.
3-O-Scope :
• In the O-Scope format, you are able to view your data one scan at a
time and as an individual waveform or wiggle trace.
• In O-Scope, time zero is at the left of the display, with time (or depth)
increasing to the right.

4-Linescan with Wiggle :

In the Linescan with wiggle format your data is displayed
in the Color amplitude form as described above with
the addition of a Vertical wiggle trace display that appears
on the right hand margin of the active file.
5-3D Display

oscilloscope
Display Parameters Setup
The Display Options command under the View menu allows you to
review and modify the display parameters for your data.
There are four icons for the different display formats: Linescan,
Wiggle, O-Scope, and 3-D.
1-Linescan Display Parameters
Select the Linescan icon on the toolbar to create a color-amplitude
image of the data file as it is loaded.
The Linescan Parameters dialog box (Figure 3) can be opened by
selecting the Linescan icon in Display Parameters Setup.
A) Color Table: Color is used to code the
amplitude of each scan (i.e., the recorded radar
signal) as shown in Figure 3. You may choose one of
the standard display color tables from a list of twenty-
five tables.
•A color table represents the amplitude of the
recorded radar signal mapped to different colors.
White in color table 1 corresponds to the
highest positive amplitude pulse; it means
that there is a strong reflection (or a high dielectric contrast).
•Generally, dark means low amplitude signal. Therefore, a large black region on the
linescan plot could be indicative of a uniform structure (such as a homogeneous sand
deposit) with little or no dielectric contrast.
• Tables 9 - 16 may be customized.
• Tables 17, 18, and 19 are high-resolution (256 shades) gray scales.
• Tables 20-25 are high-resolution 256 shade 2-color tables.
RADAN defaults to Color Table 17.
B) Color Transform: You can also change the Color Transform to
enhance weak amplitude or small contrast reflectors.
•The color transform determines whether the color scale applied to the
radar wave’s amplitude is linear, logarithmic, exponential, or
customized.
This function can also be used to de-emphasize certain features.
• In a logarithmic map, all low amplitude signals are assigned into a
compressed lower color range, and the range of high amplitude
signals is extended.
• If white represents a high-amplitude signal, then there will be more
white area for a given data set than in a linear transform.
• There are 16 color transforms (transforms 9 - 16 may be customized),
with the default being linear (Color Transform = 1).
Note: Care must be taken when selecting wiggle parameters for the Wiggle
Over Scan, because the wiggle trace may obscure certain color table transform
combinations.
2- Wiggle Display Parameters
Wiggle format is used to create a wiggle trace representation of the
data as it is loaded into RADAN.
The vertical axis corresponds to the time (or depth) while the
horizontal scale represents the distance traveled with the antenna.
•Scale: Determines the relative amplitude of the wiggle trace.
•Space: Determines the relative spacing between wiggle traces.
•Stack: Averages several scans and presents the results as one
wiggle trace. In a strict sense this is not true stacking because the
antenna may have been moving, thereby averaging out features
as well as random noise.
•Skip: Determines the number of scans to omit between wiggle
traces. Unless otherwise specified, this value will be zero.
•Fill: Determines how much (Level (%)), if any, as well as the polarity of pulses (Criteria) that are
filled.
• You may choose to fill either the Positive or Negative pulses, Both, or None.
• You may choose the fill color by clicking on the color palette and the wiggle trace width
using the Line Width option.
•Chop: Zeroes out either the positive or negative side of the return radar signal.
It defaults to None.
3-O-Scope Display Parameters
•O-Scope display represents an oscilloscope trace of one scan of radar
data in a file and is configured by pressing the O-Scope icon on the
Display Parameters Setup (see Figure 5).
•The scan number is displayed below the trace, and the entire radar
file may be viewed in this format by pressing scroll right or scroll left.
(You can use the Stop Processing button to stop scrolling,
•You can use the scroll keys in the data window to scroll at a slower
rate.)
•Scale: Determines the relative amplitude of the wiggle
trace.
•Stack: Averages several scans and presents the
averaged results as one wiggle trace. In a strict sense
this is not true stacking because the antenna can be
moving, thereby averaging out features as well as
random noise.
•Fill: Determines how much (Level (%)), if any, as well as the polarity of pulses (Criteria)
that are filled.
• You may choose to fill either the Positive or Negative pulses, Both or None.
• You may choose the fill color by clicking on the color palette and the oscilloscope trace
width using the Line Width option.
Start/End Sample: RADAN allows you
to enter the start sample (default 1) and end
sample (default 512 or 1024) to show the
portion of each scan that interests you.
For example, if the data is recorded at
1024 samples per scan, but most of the
Important information is located between
sample 1 and 512, you may enter an
End sample of 512 to show only the
upper half of your data.
Essentially, this expands the vertical
scale of your data by a factor of 2.

•If you have a large data file and you are interested in viewing an object located in the middle of the
file, you may change the Start Scan and End Scan so that only that portion of the file is displayed.
Display Scale: Allows you to display the position scale along the horizontal axis. Vertical grid can
be displayed by selecting the Display Grid option.
Display Parameters Dialog Box: Allows the user to change how the markers are displayed.
Click on the Marks option to display Short or Long marks; select None if you do not want any
marks displayed on your data.
Channel: For SIR-20, PathFinder, SIR-10, SIR-10A, SIR-10B and SIR-10H users, the Channel
option allows you to display all multi-channel data simultaneously or one channel at a time.
Save: Allows you to save your favorite display setting for Recall it at another time. To save
changes as a new user parameter file, click Save and choose a name. The new pam file will be
stored in your output directory. To make any changes permanent, click Save and browse for the
RADAN XP program directory
 Data processing
The reasons of data processing of GPR data:
1-To remove unwanted signal (noise) from the data and thereby improve
data interpretation.
2- To correct for geometric errors and provide more accurate spatial and
depth interpretation.
3-To convert from time to depth and provide accurate information in
depth sections.
4-To provide displays to you (and your clients) that are easier to
understand than the raw data.
5-Data processing schemes should be designed to accomplish these
overall objectives, and each processing step should be
designed to fulfill a specific objective.
The main types of processing Applied to the GPR data:
I) Time-Zero-Drift Corrections:
1) The initiation of the survey should be at time “zero”.
2) To correct any potential shifts, the data need to be adjusted.
3) This is accomplished by detecting the first peak in a radar cross
section (radargram).
4) This correction helps to detect the location of subsurface anomalies at
their proper location.
II) Application of Gains and Filters
1) Attenuation generally reduces the radar signal with increased travel
time.
2) Therefore, it is important to increase the weaker signals at greater
receiver arrivals.
3) The gain or the strength of the signal is based on time-variant scaling.
4) Various scaling functions can be used to increase gain (Yilmaz, 1987).
5) Gains are applied to preserve relative amplitudes and for advanced
data processing.
The main types of processing Applied to the GPR data:
III) Velocity Estimation:
 Calculation of the subsurface radar wave velocity is important in order
to convert two way travel time (TWT) of the reflected signal to true
depth of the reflector.
 The first way to estimate the GPR velocity is to measure TWT to a
horizontal layer or buried object of known depth (Annan and Davis, 1976;
Topp et al., 1980; Fisher et al., 1992a).
 The second way to measure velocity is by applying a common depth
point (CDP) survey.
 In the CDP survey, the antennae are moved incrementally larger
distances apart, and the TWT to a common midpoint is collected and
used to determine velocity.
IV) Topographic Correction:
 It is applied when there is a ground relief variations along the survey
profile.
 To apply this correction, the exact elevation along the survey line must
be surveyed using differential GPS or total station theodolite to
accurately calculate vertical variations along the survey line.
The main types of processing Applied to the GPR data:
V) Migration
 Migration is the technique that collapses hyperbolic diffractions and
corrects dipping reflectors to their proper position.
 The aim of migration is to make the reflection profile look like the
geological structure in the plane of the survey. Migration also is
useful to detect buried metal objects such as pipes and unexploded
ordnance.
 To enhance the quality of the image and its significance, a
Kirchhoff-migration (Conyers and Goodman, 1997) was performed
on the data.
 This migration corrects the data for geometrical side-effects.
 The prism shaped faults become clearer and the hyperbola vanish.

VI) Deconvolution:
• Used to remove the multiple reflection ‘ringing’ (caused by
reverberation of the radar energy) from data.
 Migration

a) Radargram before Migration b) Radargram after Migration

 Data processing
Objective Methods
Remove flat-lying system noise Horizontal high pass filter
Vertical high pass filter
Background removal
High frequency noise (i.e., snow) Horizontal low pass filter
Vertical low pass filter
Ringing multiples Deconvolution
Remove diffraction (compress Migration
hyperbolas) and correct dipping layers
Increasing visibility of low amplitude Arithmetic functions
features Display and range gain
Detect subtle features Hilbert phase transform
Correct the effects of variation in Static corrections
elevation (topographic), weathering
thickness and weathering velocity
General clearer data displays for reports Arithmetic functions
Static corrections
Hilbert magnitude transform
Stacking
Custom color tables
Custom color transform
 Editing the File Header
1. Edit > File Header or by select the button on the Toolbar.
A header describes
the setup of the radar
system at the time of
data collection. Some
of this information can
be edited to
correspond to
post-processing
changes or for
report generation.
Also, the file
header should

include field information such as location, client, date, job

number, surface material, or other information useful in
characterizing a site.
Data Display Options
Radar data can be displayed in five different formats:
1-Linescan : In the Linescan format your data is displayed in a color-
amplitude form, and a color is assigned to a specific positive or
negative amplitude value of the recorded signal, depending upon the
color table and color transform selected.
• The vertical scale represents time (or depth) while the horizontal
scale represents the horizontal distance traveled by the radar antenna.
•The Linescan display is the most useful for mapping man-made
objects, such as underground storage tanks, pipes, and drums.
2-Wiggle : In the Wiggle format the data, consisting of multiple radar
scans, are displayed as waveforms or “wiggle traces.” Wiggle plots are
more useful for identifying geologic features, such as a clay layer or a
water table. In both formats, the whole data file is displayed, with time
zero (beginning of each scan) on top and time (or depth) increasing
downward.
3-O-Scope : In the O-Scope format, you are able to view your data
one scan at a time and as an individual waveform or wiggle trace. In O-
Scope, time zero is at the left of the display, with time (or depth)
increasing to the right.
4-Linescan with Wiggle : In the Linescan with wiggle format your
data is displayed in the Color amplitude form as described above with
the addition of a Vertical wiggle trace display that appears on the right
hand margin of the active file. Display Gains and Transfer Functions can
be applied separately to either the Linescan display or the Wiggle trace
display.
The trace that appears in the wiggle trace window will scroll
automatically when the display cursor is placed in the linescan window
and the Left mouse button is clicked on the display.

4-3D Display : The 3D display is only active if you have

purchased the 3D QuickDraw module for RADAN. The 3D Display
allows you to view 3D files or to view a single profile in 3D and use
the 3D display tools to analyze it.
Display Parameters Setup
The Display Options command under the View menu allows you to
review and modify the display parameters for your data.
There are four icons for the different display formats: Linescan,
Wiggle, O-Scope, and 3-D.
1-Linescan Display Parameters
Select the Linescan icon on the toolbar to create a color-amplitude
image of the data file as it is loaded.
The Linescan Parameters dialog box (Figure 3) can be opened by
selecting the Linescan icon in Display Parameters Setup.
A) Color Table: Color is used to code the
amplitude of each scan (i.e., the recorded radar
signal) as shown in Figure 3. You may choose one of
the standard display color tables from a list of twenty-
five tables.
•A color table represents the amplitude of the
recorded radar signal mapped to different colors.
White in color table 1 corresponds to the
highest positive amplitude pulse; it means
that there is a strong reflection (or a high dielectric contrast).
•Generally, dark means low amplitude signal. Therefore, a large black region on the
linescan plot could be indicative of a uniform structure (such as a homogeneous sand
deposit) with little or no dielectric contrast.
• Tables 9 - 16 may be customized.
• Tables 17, 18, and 19 are high-resolution (256 shades) gray scales.
• Tables 20-25 are high-resolution 256 shade 2-color tables.
RADAN defaults to Color Table 17.
B) Color Transform: You can also change the Color Transform to
enhance weak amplitude or small contrast reflectors.
•The color transform determines whether the color scale applied to the
radar wave’s amplitude is linear, logarithmic, exponential, or
customized.
This function can also be used to de-emphasize certain features.
• In a logarithmic map, all low amplitude signals are assigned into a
compressed lower color range, and the range of high amplitude
signals is extended.
• If white represents a high-amplitude signal, then there will be more
white area for a given data set than in a linear transform.
• There are 16 color transforms (transforms 9 - 16 may be customized),
with the default being linear (Color Transform = 1).
Note: Care must be taken when selecting wiggle parameters for the Wiggle
Over Scan, because the wiggle trace may obscure certain color table transform
combinations.
2- Wiggle Display Parameters
Wiggle format is used to create a wiggle trace representation of the
data as it is loaded into RADAN.
The vertical axis corresponds to the time (or depth) while the
horizontal scale represents the distance traveled with the antenna.
•Scale: Determines the relative amplitude of the wiggle trace.
•Space: Determines the relative spacing between wiggle traces.
•Stack: Averages several scans and presents the results as one
wiggle trace. In a strict sense this is not true stacking because the
antenna may have been moving, thereby averaging out features
as well as random noise.
•Skip: Determines the number of scans to omit between wiggle
traces. Unless otherwise specified, this value will be zero.
•Fill: Determines how much (Level (%)), if any, as well as the polarity of pulses (Criteria) that are
filled.
• You may choose to fill either the Positive or Negative pulses, Both, or None.
• You may choose the fill color by clicking on the color palette and the wiggle trace width
using the Line Width option.
•Chop: Zeroes out either the positive or negative side of the return radar signal.
It defaults to None.
3-O-Scope Display Parameters
•O-Scope display represents an oscilloscope trace of one scan of radar
data in a file and is configured by pressing the O-Scope icon on the
Display Parameters Setup (see Figure 5).
•The scan number is displayed below the trace, and the entire radar
file may be viewed in this format by pressing scroll right or scroll left.
(You can use the Stop Processing button to stop scrolling,
•You can use the scroll keys in the data window to scroll at a slower
rate.)
•Scale: Determines the relative amplitude of the wiggle
trace.
•Stack: Averages several scans and presents the
averaged results as one wiggle trace. In a strict sense
this is not true stacking because the antenna can be
moving, thereby averaging out features as well as
random noise.
•Fill: Determines how much (Level (%)), if any, as well as the polarity of pulses (Criteria)
that are filled.
• You may choose to fill either the Positive or Negative pulses, Both or None.
• You may choose the fill color by clicking on the color palette and the oscilloscope trace
width using the Line Width option.
Start/End Sample: RADAN allows you
to enter the start sample (default 1) and end
sample (default 512 or 1024) to show the
portion of each scan that interests you.
For example, if the data is recorded at
1024 samples per scan, but most of the
Important information is located between
sample 1 and 512, you may enter an
End sample of 512 to show only the
upper half of your data.
Essentially, this expands the vertical
scale of your data by a factor of 2.

•If you have a large data file and you are interested in viewing an object located in the middle of the
file, you may change the Start Scan and End Scan so that only that portion of the file is displayed.
Display Scale: Allows you to display the position scale along the horizontal axis. Vertical grid can
be displayed by selecting the Display Grid option.
Display Parameters Dialog Box: Allows the user to change how the markers are displayed.
Click on the Marks option to display Short or Long marks; select None if you do not want any
marks displayed on your data.
Channel: For SIR-20, PathFinder, SIR-10, SIR-10A, SIR-10B and SIR-10H users, the Channel
option allows you to display all multi-channel data simultaneously or one channel at a time.
Save: Allows you to save your favorite display setting for Recall it at another time. To save
changes as a new user parameter file, click Save and choose a name. The new pam file will be
stored in your output directory. To make any changes permanent, click Save and browse for the
RADAN XP program directory
 EXAMPLE OF MEASUREMENTS
• Investigations were performed on a cascaded specimen with faults in
various depths.
• This specimen was built for ultra sonic and impact echo
measurements (Ruck and Beutel, 2001). Geometrical effects of the numerous
edges of the specimen caused problems in ultra sonic investigations.
• One profile ran over the center of the specimen, starting on the
shallow step towards the deepest step.
• where d is the thickness of the various steps and t the depth of the
faults in cm, respectively.
 Results of these investigations
• The pseudo depth axis on the right is adapted to the measured data via
a calibration measurement on the specimen, which revealed a
electromagnetic wave velocity of approximately 0.1 m/ns, or an
εr = 9.
• The raw data in show four
prominent reflection hyperbola
representing the faults.
• The second reflection (from
the left) is weaker than the
others and appears slightly
under the connecting
line of the other reflections.
• No information of the signals
can be assigned to back wall
reflections.
• The data from the shallowest
Raw GPR data of the central profile
step is relatively noisy.
• To enhance the quality of the image and its significance, a Kirchhoff-
migration (CONYERS AND GOODMAN, 1997) was performed on the data.
• This migration corrects the data for geometrical side-effects.
• The prism shaped faults become clearer and the hyperbola vanish.
Also the back wall reflections of the shallowest and the second step
are clearly visible.
• The reflection of the fault in the
second step is weak again.
• This fault is not placed in the center
of the specimen, so the reflections,
Which are visible in the data, are
generated by the side of the fault.
• This is also the reason, why this
Fault appears deeper than it is.

Migration of the profile

 This example shows:
a) The radar system is very well-suited for high resolution
investigations. After the migration, also geometrical effects can be
minimized.
b) The positions and depths of the reflectors do very well correlate with
the real dimensions of the specimen.
c) On the other hand, the limited depth of investigation is obvious.
d) The back wall of the third step is expected in a depth of 45 cm, but
there is no clear reflection, only a weak shadow.
 For these target depths, additional measurements with an antenna with
a lower frequency would be necessary.
 DISTANCE [meter]
W E

1 3 4
2

FIG.. PART OF GPR SURVEY PROFILE RIV3, 400MHz ANTENNA.

FIG.Photograph of excavated marble plate.

 :‫الحفر االنهدامية في منطقة غور حديثة‬4-
N SINK1A
S

D 0
T
e
I
p
M
t
E
h
ns
CRACKS
5
m
e
t
e
r
10

FIG. GPR SURVEY PROFILE SINK1A, 100MHz ANTENNA.

 PART OF PROFILE SINK1H
0 25 DISTANCE METER 50 75
N S

D
e 1 T
p 50 I
t M
h 5 E

5 n
100 a
n
m o
e 4 s
t 3 150 e
e c
r o
n
10 200 d
2

250
 : ‫ أمثلة أخري‬2-
GPR record of 40000
gallon underground
storage tank (UST).

0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 Distance (m)
GPR record of 40000
gallon underground
storage tank (UST),
after Processing (DN).
 GPR record of five
GPR record of five
10000 gallon (USTs).
10000 gallon (USTs).
Travel time (ns).

GPR record of five

GPR record of five
10000 gallon (USTs),
10000 gallon (USTs),
after processing
after processing
(Migration)
(Migration)
Depth (m).
 GPR record of water
GPR record of water
table.
table.
Travel time (ns).

GPR record of water

GPR record of water
table, after processing
table, after processing
(Deconvolution and FIIR).
(Deconvolution and FIIR).
Travel time (ns).
 Ground Penetrating Radar:
Distance (m)
Depth (m)

400 MHz antenna GPR profile, the anomaly at distance 2-4 m ..

 N Distance (m) S
Two way travel time (ns)

Depth (m)
Wall Wall
Aqueduct

Radar cross section along Profile GAR4003.

The multiple slices view along X direction at
distance (7, 13 and 20m) determines the
extension of the anomaly along y direction.
The interpreted radagram shows a continuity
of the inferred fault along X direction.

Sister school Area

 Results
•Several trenches were
excavated across faults in
Aqaba (Niemi, 2000, 2001).
• Trench AQ-3 was excavated
a cross one of the northwest
-trending, cross fault (Mansoor,
2002; Slater and Niemi, 2003).
• The trench was 13 m long by
3 m deep and marked by a
scarp that varies in height from
140 to 170 cm along the strike.

•The interpreted GPR

profile shows two
discontinuities with
displacement at marker
8 and 9 along the
profile.
•Several fractures
Interpreted 400 MHz radargram along profile 1. (joints) are also clearly
seen on the GPR profile.
 N Distance (m) S
Two way travel time (ns)

Depth (m)
Wall Wall
Aqueduct

Radar cross section along Profile GAR4003.