Al-Baath University

The Higher Institute of Languages

Master’s degree in Teacher Training

Code-switching and Code-mixing

Prepared by: Nidal Al-Najjar

Supervised by: Prof. Ahmad Alhasan
 Outline

I- Introduction about Code-Switching and Code-Mixing

II- Body:

Code-switching
a) Definition
b) The history of code-switching
c) Code-switching as Sociolinguistic Approach
d) Why Do People Code-switch (reasons)
e) Types of Code-switching
f) Context Matters
g) Code-switching in Literature and Media

Code-mixing
a) Definition
b) Examples of Code-mixing
c) Code-mixing: A historical Perspective
d) Types of Code-mixing
e) Code-mixing VS. Code-switching
f) Factors Influencing Code-mixing

III- Summary

IV- References
Introduction:
These intertwined phenomena occur when bilingual or multilingual
speakers seamlessly blend different languages within their
communication. Code-switching involves intentionally switching between
languages at specific points in a conversation, while code-mixing fluidly
integrates elements from different languages within sentences. These
dynamic practices highlight the versatility and creativity inherent in
multilingual expression.

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Code-Switching

➢ Definition:

o Code-switching occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more languages or

language varieties within a single conversation, sentence, or even phrase.
o Unlike code-mixing, where elements from different languages blend together, code-
switching involves clear boundaries between the languages used.

Examples:

Gracias for the lovely gift.Esta awesome!

(Spanish +English)

Saweyti l-homework tabaa'k?

(Arabic + English)

➢ The History of Code-Switching:

Code-switching has been known since the early twentieth century, when the first
recognizable observations concerning bilingual research were recorded. However,
the phenomenon was not investigated for a long time. In the entire first half of the
twentieth century and in large part of the second half, code-switching was
considered something that occurred randomly, without a logical pattern behind it, as
a result of imperfect of second language learning. The perspective of code-
switching began to change in the nineteenth seventies when Blom and Gumperz
(1972) published an article in which they presented a survey of their studies of a
Norwegian village.Blom and Gumperz discovered that members of the village
spoke two dialects and used them according to specific situations. In the following
years, more scholars conducted researches on the systematic characters of code-
switching.

➢ Code-Switching as a Sociolinguistic Approach:

Here is the study of code-switching from three distinct perspectives: linguistics,

psycholinguistics, and sociolinguistics:

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 1. Linguistic Perspective:
o Focus: Linguists study universal grammatical constraints related to code-
switching.
o Research: They explore how different languages can coexist within a
single speech exchange.
o Example: Examining grammatical patterns when switching between
languages.
2. Psycholinguistic Perspective:
o Focus: Psycholinguists investigate how bilinguals’ linguistic systems are
stored and accessed in the cognitive system.
o Research: They explore memory retrieval, cognitive processes, and
language activation.
o Example: Understanding how bilinguals switch between languages in
real-time communication.
3. Sociolinguistic Perspective:
o Focus: Sociolinguists pay attention to the social motivations behind
code-switching.
o Research: They analyze why speakers choose specific languages in
different contexts.
o Example: John Gumperz’s taxonomy of code-switching in Norway,
which recognizes social factors.
4. Historical Perception:
o Past View: Code-switching was often seen as a lack of linguistic
competence.
o Misconception: Bilinguals were thought to be unable to acquire or
separate languages properly.
o Evolution: Current belief acknowledges that code-switching is structured
and systematic.
5. Sociolinguistic Importance:
o Essential Skill: Code-switching is crucial in an ever-evolving
multicultural world.
o Adaptability: Moving between social groups and adjusting speech
allows progress in personal and professional life.
o Common Ground: It helps find common ground through language,
avoiding awkward situations.

Why do people use code-switching (Reasons):

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1-To Emphasize a point: •According to Gal (1979), doing code switching at the end
of a conversation not only means to end the conversation, but also to emphasize a
point. Anderson (2006) states that when a speaker wants to emphasize a particular
statement, then code switching can be occurred. •Emphasis is also used when the
same statement is repeated in two different languages. A study found that Arab
teachers teaching English tend to make statements in English and repeat them in
Arabic in order to emphasize the point of the statement or to make the students
understand what the teachers are talking about. For example: ''Llame pero no habia
nadie. I missed him so bad!'' (I called but there was no one there. I missed him so
bad!) The switch from Spanish (L1) to English (L2) emphasizes the speaker's
affection towards certain individual.

2-To Show Identity with a group: Crystal (1987) asserts that an individual switches
to express solidarity with a particular social group. Malik states that cod switching
is used when the speaker intends to greet people who come from various language
backgrounds. Speakers might switch to a different language to introduce someone
to a group when that person does not share the same language as them. It is the
same when an instructor code-switches in the classroom in order to build solidarity
and associate in friendly relations with the students. Thus, code-switching
establishes a supportive language environment in the classroom.

3-Semantic Significance: Code switching can be used to signify the attitude of the
speaker, communicative intentions and emotions because code switching is a tool
which is used to convey appropriate linguistic and social information.

4-Lack of Register Ability: •Muthusamy (2009) states that when a certain

vocabulary is not available in the first language, he\she switches to the second
language during a dialogue. •Anderson suggests that certain phrases would sound
better in the L2 than in the L1 and this usually triggers code switching. For
example: ''La clase de hoy fue way over my head''. (Today's class was way over my
head) The phrase ''over my head'' is an English phrase meaning ''beyond my
understanding''.

5-Lack of Facility: •This term refers to bilingual or multilingual speakers who often
switch codes to find the appropriate terminology or identical word(s) from the L2
vocabulary to match the word(s) of their native language. •A speaker will switch
code if he\she is unable to express himself\herself in a language. This is a
compensation for the limitations of his\her words or to cover up his\her
shortcomings.

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6-Mood of the Speaker: •Speakers' moods can determine what language to use while
communicating. •According to Muthusamy, in a rational and stable state of mind, a
person is able to think of the right vocabulary to be used in the target language.
•Code switching is triggered when the speaker is emotionally affected (e.g.,
upset\happy\surprised\scared or distracted)

7-Pragmatic Reasons: Malik argues that speakers will switch codes with the
intention of attracting attention to the context of a conversation. He emphasized that
sometimes the choice between two languages is more meaningful based on the
context of the conversation. For example: In a conversation about dieting, a speaker
may use his L1 to stress his\her personal feelings about the issue and L2 to stress
the referential context which is advice from his\her doctor.

8-Habitual Expressions: Malik emphasizes the fact that code switching often occurs
in fixed phrases of welcoming and parting, commands, requests, Invitations,
expressions of thanks and discourse markers such as (O, Yes\You Know/I mean\ I
like \ Excuse me)

9-To Attract Attention: Malik mentions that in advertising (both written and oral),
code switching is used to attract the attention of readers and listeners.

10-To Address Different Audience: Malik thinks that code switching is also used
when the speaker intends to address people coming from various linguistic
backgrounds.

➢ Types of Code-Switching:

o Intra-sentential Code-Switching: This happens within a sentence. For example: “I

need to buy some groceries en el supermercado.”
o Inter-sentential Code-Switching: Here, the switch occurs between sentences. For
instance: “I went to the store. Compré some fruits.”

➢ Context Matters:

o Code-switching is context-dependent. It happens more frequently in bilingual

communities, multilingual families, and informal settings.
o Formal contexts (e.g., academic presentations) tend to minimize code-switching.

➢ Code-Switching in Literature and Media:

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o Authors and poets often use code-switching to evoke cultural richness or
authenticity.
o Listen to bilingual songs or watch movies with subtitles to observe code-switching.

Code-Mixing

➢ Definition:

Code-mixing is a fascinating linguistic phenomenon that occurs when speakers blend

elements from two or more languages or language varieties within a single
conversation or utterance. Here are some ideas related to code-mixing that you can
explore and include in your file:

➢ Examples of Code-Mixing

1. “Let’s take a selfie during our lunch break, yaar.” (Code-mixing: “selfie” – English,
“yaar” – Hindi/Urdu)
2. “I’m going to comprar algunas frutas from the market.” (Code-mixing: “comprar”
– Spanish, “algunas frutas” – Spanish, “market” – English)
3. “Yesterday, I attended a mela near my grandma’s house.” (Code-mixing: “mela” –
Hindi/Urdu). A mela means a “gathering, meeting”

➢ Code-Mixing: A Historical Perspective

• Early Observations: Code-mixing has been known since the early twentieth
century. The first recognizable observations concerning bilingual research were
recorded in the works of linguists such as Ronjat (1913) and Leopold (1939-49)2.
• Investigation: Despite its early recognition, code-mixing was not extensively
investigated until later. Researchers gradually delved into its intricacies, seeking to
understand why people switch between languages, the psycholinguistic factors
enabling this behavior, and how to distinguish true code-mixing from mere
introduction of elements from another language

➢ Types of Code-Mixing:
Insertion: In this type, a speaker inserts a word or phrase from one language into a
sentence or utterance primarily in another language. For example, a bilingual speaker

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might say, “I need to buy some groceries en el supermercado” (where “groceries” is
the inserted English word).

Alternation: Alternation involves switching between languages at specific points

within a sentence or conversation. For instance, a speaker might say, “I went to
the cinema hier soir” (where “cinema” is the French word for “movie theater”).

Congruent Lexicalization: This type occurs when a speaker uses a word from one
language that has a close equivalent in another language. The chosen word maintains a
similar meaning across both languages. For example, “I love to eat pasta” (where
“pasta” is the same in both English and Italian).

➢ Code-Switching vs. Code-Mixing:

Code-Switching:

Definition: Code-switching occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more

languages or language varieties within a single conversation, sentence, or even phrase.

Context: Speakers code-switch for various reasons, such as emphasizing a point,

expressing identity, or filling lexical gaps.

Example: Imagine a bilingual speaker saying, “I went to the supermercado to buy

some groceries.” Here, “supermercado” (Spanish for “supermarket”) and “groceries”
(English) are code-switched.

Code-Mixing:

Definition: Code-mixing involves incorporating elements (words, phrases, or

grammatical structures) from one language into another without necessarily switching
the entire language.

Context: Code-mixing can happen naturally in bilingual or multilingual communities.

Example: Consider a sentence like, “She loves to eat pasta with tomato sauce.” Here,
“pasta” (Italian) is code-mixed into an English sentence.

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➢ Factors Influencing Code-Mixing:

➢ Individual Characteristics of Speakers:

o Multilingual individuals have unique linguistic backgrounds,
proficiency levels, and preferences. Their personal traits, such as
language proficiency, cognitive abilities, and language attitudes,
impact their code-mixing choices.
o For example, a bilingual speaker comfortable in both English and
Spanish may seamlessly switch between the two languages based
on their own linguistic competence.
➢ Language Environment:
o The linguistic environment in which speakers operate influences
code-mixing. Exposure to multiple languages at home, school, or
work affects their language choices.
o Growing up in a multinational family or community provides
ample opportunities for code-mixing. Children exposed to heritage
languages from their parents and the wider community’s language
system often engage in code-mixing1.
➢ Social Status of Languages:
o The perceived prestige and social status of languages impact code-
mixing. Speakers may choose to code-mix based on the context
and the relative status of the languages involved.
o For instance, a speaker may code-mix differently when conversing
with friends (using colloquial language) versus in a formal setting
(using standard language).
➢ Everyday Language Use:
o The practical utility of code-mixing influences its occurrence.
Speakers code-mix to express themselves effectively, convey
nuances, or fill lexical gaps.
o In multilingual communities, code-mixing becomes a resourceful
way to navigate communication barriers.

➢ Code-Mixing in Multilingual Education:

Background:

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 • Code-Mixing Definition: Code-mixing refers to the practice of blending
elements from two or more languages within a single conversation or
communication context.
• Multilingual Settings: In multilingual environments, speakers often select
multiple codes or mix languages they consider appropriate to facilitate
communication and clarify meanings in their expressions.

Pedagogic Functions of Code-Mixing in Multilingual Education:

• Transition from L1 to L2: Code-mixing can help English as a Second

Language (ESL) students transition from their first language (L1) to the target
language (L2). It bridges the gap between what they already know and what
they need to learn.
• Complex Language Contents: Teachers use code-mixing to facilitate the
learning of complex language contents. By strategically incorporating familiar
elements from the students’ L1, teachers make the content more accessible and
comprehensible.
• Retention and Understanding: Code-mixing aids in student retention by
ensuring that learners understand the material effectively. It allows teachers to
convey nuances of meaning and intentions.

Research Findings:

A quantitative study examined the efficacy of code switching and mixing as a

teaching strategy. The results indicated that both teachers and ESL learners benefited
from these practices in language learning

To sum up, in this intricate dance of language, bilingual and multilingual

speakers move seamlessly between linguistic worlds. Code-switching allows
intentional transitions, emphasizing cultural identity or adapting to context.
Meanwhile, code-mixing blends languages within sentences, reflecting comfort and
linguistic versatility. These intertwined phenomena celebrate the richness of
multilingual expression, revealing the harmonious coexistence of diverse linguistic
systems.

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References:

1. Bullock, Barbara E., and Almeida Jacqueline Toribio, editors. The

Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Code-switching. Cambridge
University Press, 2009.
2. Marasigan, Elizabeth. Code-switching and Code Mixing in
Multilingual Societies. 2018.
3. Appel, Rene, and Pieter C. Muysken. “Code-switching and code
mixing.” In Language Contact and Bilingualism, Chapter 10, 2nd ed.,
Routledge, 2005, pp. 223-240.
4. Liu, Ping. Code-switching and Code-mixing. Parsone, 2015.
5. Malik, L. (1994), Sociolinguistics: A Study of Code-switching. New
Delhi: Anmol.
6. Gumperz, J. (1982). Language and Social Identity. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
7. Gumperz,J. (1982).Discourse Strategies. Cambidge University Press.
8. Poplack,S. (1988).Contrasting Patterns of Code-Switching in Two
Communities. Oxford: Oxford University Press

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