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in

6.9 Audio effects automatically stored in magnetic tape or

converted to digital formats for storage.
Mono and stereo are two classifications of
reproduced sound. The main difference
between mono and stereo comes with the 6.9.2 Stereophonic sounds
number of audio channels used in each. Stereo is a short version of stereophonic
Mono is the term used to describe the sounds. In stereo, several channels are used
sound that is only from one channel while to transport audio signals to speakers and
stereo uses 2 or more channels to provide thus to a listeners ears. Generally, stereo
an experience much like being in the same uses two channel, but it can use more. In
room where the sound was created. the most common set up, one channel is
transported to one speaker and the other
6.9.1 Monaural sounds channel to another speaker.
Mono is a short version on monaural sound,
having only one source for the audio.
From the fig 6.17 we can understand
that the sound comes from only one source
and even though it is transported to two
different speakers, the content of the
signal is always the same. When listening
to music or other auditory speeches using
Signal 1 Signal 2
headphones, we cannot hear any difference
by removing one earphone.
FIGURE 6.18 Stereo Sounds

The figure 6.18 shows the usual setup for

stereo sounds. There are two different
sources that send their individual signal
to one speaker each.
In this system, the sounds that are
transported entirely to the right speaker
will appear to come from a listener’s right
Signal
side. The signal not only transported to one
speaker in its entirely through. Sound can be
FIGURE 6.17 Monaural Sounds
transported proportionally as well. Meaning
Mono is still widely used today that a small proportion of the sound can be
in situations where stereo only takes up transported to the right speaker while the
bandwidth and offers no advantages. rest is sent to the left one, creating more
A good example for this is in voice 3-dimensional hearing experiences. Sounds
communications like in talk radio and that are equally transported to both speakers
telephone calls. The equipment needed appear to come from the center.
to record mono sound is only a single This is all based on the typical set up of
microphone and the data it acquires is two sources of sound that are transported to

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two speakers. Thus, stereo is used to create an block consists of the ‘master gain control’
inspiration of sounds coming from different and the ‘tone control circuits’. The tone
directions, setting sound in perspective to control circuits consist of the base and treble
one another and the listener. This is especially control circuits. The base control circuit will
useful in movies and audio plays to emerge amplify or cut the low frequency signals and
the listener / viewer into the story. It is also the treble control will amplify or cut the
used in music. Particularly in film songs, high frequency signals.
the guitar part is send to one speaker, while
the bass is send to the other. Headphone Driver and power amplifier
users are easily identifying the stereophonic
sounds. Removing one earphone can reveal The driver amplifier drives the power
that a particular instrument or sound is only amplifier to give more power. It is
transported to your left or right ear. basically a voltage amplifier gives the
designed power amplification to its input
6.10 PA System signal. The push pull type of amplifier
is generally used because this type
The figure 6.19 shows the block diagram eliminates the even harmonics from the
of public address system. The functions of output of amplifier and avoids the core
different blocks are as follows. saturation of the output transformer. The
power amplifier drives the loud speakers.
Microphone Matching transformers are used between
It converts sound to an equivalent them to match the low speaker impedance
electrical signal. Generally two or three to the output impedance of the power
microphone can be connected plus one amplifier.
auxiliary input for CD is also provided.
6.11 Home Theater
Mixer
Home theater system is a combination
The output of microphone is fed to the of electronic components designed to
mixer stage. The mixer stage is used to recreate the experience of watching a
isolate different channels from each other movie in a theater. When we watch a movie
before they are fed to the amplifier. on a home theater system, and sense good
experience than watch one on an ordinary
Voltage Amplifier & Processing
television.
Circuits
To build a home theater, we need to
The voltage amplifier is used to amplify the recreate these following elements.
mixer output further. The processing circuit

Microphones

LS
Voltage Process Driver Power
Mixer
amplifier Ckts amplifer amplifier

FIGURE 6.19 PA system

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„ A large screen television (32 inches) „ The speakers behind the viewer fill in
with a clear picture various sorts of background noise in
„ At least four speakers the movie dogs barking, rushing water,
and the sound of a plan overhead. They
„ Equipments for splitting up the
also work with the speakers in front
surround sound signal and sending it
of the viewer to give the sensation of
to the speakers.
movement a sound starts from the
„ The main thing that sets a home theater front and then moves behind you.
a pact from an ordinary television setup
is the surround sound. For a proper
6.12 Noise pollution
surround sound system, two or three
speakers in front of the viewer. The audio Noise pollution is a type of energy pollution
signal is split into multiple channels so in which distracting, irritating or damaging
that different sound information comes sounds are freely audible. It is a dangerous
out of the various speakers. The most pollutant, even destroys bridges and
prominent sounds come out of the front produces cracks in buildings. The noise can
speakers. When someone or something cause skin and mental diseases.
is making noise on the left side of the
screen, we hear it more from a speaker Adverse effects of Noise
to the left side. Similarly in the right Pollution
side, we hear from the right side speaker
Noise effect is harmful to human beings,
sits in the center, just under or above
environment and animals many ways.
the screen. This center speaker is very
Some of them are as follows.
important because it anchors the sound
coming from the left and right speakers. 1. Hearing Problems
It plays all the dialogue and front sound Exposure to noise can damage one of
effects so that they seem to be coming the most vital organs of the body, the
from the center of television screen, ear. Hearing impairment due to noise
rather than from the sides pollution can either be temporary or
permanent. When the sound level crosses
the 70 decibel (dB) mark, it becomes
noise, for the ear. Above 80 dB produces
damaging effects to the ear.
When ear is exposed to extreme
loud noise, above 100dB for a considerable
period of time, it can cause irreparable
damage and may lead to permanent
hearing loss.
2. Cardiovascular issue
A noisy environment can be a source of
heart related problems.
High intensity sound causes a
dramatic rise in blood pressure as noise
FIGURE 6.20 Home Theater

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levels constrict the arteries, disrupting the 4 silence zone : 50 dBA (Day time)
blood flow. The heart rate also increases  40 dBA (Night time)
and become one of the reasons to the
cardiovascular diseases. „ 77 dBA for two wheelers between
3. Sleep disturbance 80cc to 175cc engines
This is one of the noise pollution effects „ 75 dBA for two wheelers more than
that can deter your overall well being. 175cc engines
Noise can interrupt a good night’s sleep, „ 75 dBA for cars (less than 9 seater)
and when this occurs, the person feels „ 80 dBA for heavy vehicles
extremely annoyed and uncomfortable.
The disturbed person’s energy level fall These are the standard noise limit
down considerably, and decreases that which has been accepted by government
person’s ability to work efficiently. of India.
Loudspeakers may be used with the
6.13 Government Rules and permission of relevant authority.
Regulations Regarding The Public Address System (PAS)
with Sound cannot be used in the night time except in
closed areas.
The central pollution control board of
India published a rule book, with title the
noise pollution (regulation and control) Note
rules, 2000’ in the year of 2000. 1. Day time shall mean from 6.00AM
In this rule book, they have decided to 10.00PM
all areas in four different zones and 2. Night time shall mean from
decided limits for noise level in respective 10.00PM to 6.00AM
zones.
3. Silence zone is an area comprissing
1. industrial area : 75 dBA (Day time) not less than 100 meters around
 70 dBA (Night time) hospitals, educational institutions,
2. commercial area : 65 dBA (Day time) courts, religious places or any
other area which is declared as
 55 dBA (Night time)
such by the competent authority.
3. residential area : 55 dBA (Day time)
4. dBA (A – weighted decibel) is unit
 45 dBA (Night time) of noise

learning outcome
After studying this chapter, students can understand the following
1. Characteristics of sound waves 4. Applications of Acoustic Engineering
2. Microphones & Speakers 5. PA system and Audio power amplifier
3. Audio mixers-types circuits
6. Effects of noise pollution

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QUESTIONS 8. ______ is early reflection of sound

a) Echo
Part – A (1 Mark)
b) Magnet
I Multiple choice Questions
c) Pure sound
1. Sound is produced due to _____
d) Intelligible sound
a) Friction
9. Multiple reflections are called
b) Circulation
____________
c) Vibration
a) Reverberations
d) Refraction
b) Refraction
2. Sound waves travel at _____ c) Echo
a) Same speed in different mediums d) Compressions
b) Different speed in same mediums 10. The noise level of industrial
c) Different speed in different area decided by the central
mediums Government is between
____________
d) Highest speed in vacuum
a) 40-50 dBA
3. Sound wave do not travel through
__________ b) 45-55 dBA

a) Vacuum b) Solid c) 55-65 dBA

c) Liquid d) Gasses d) 70-75 dBA

4. The wavelength of a wave is measured

in _____
a) Meter b) Hertz
Part – B (3 Marks)
II Answer in few sentences
c) Second d) Decibel
1. What is sound? How is it produced?
5. Sounds above 20 kHz is called _____
a) Ultra cool 2. What are the speed of sound in
solids, liquids and air?
b) Ultrasound
3. Define Velocity of sound.
c) Infra-audio
d) Infrasound 4. What are the three types of polar
patterns?
6. The velocity of sound in
air___________ 5. Write short notes on MEMS.
a) 300 m/s b) 334 m/s 6. Define tweeter and woofer.
c) 1130 m/s d) 350 m/s 7. What is an audio mixer?
7. The voice coil and internal parts of the 8. Define Noise Pollution.
speaker is protected by __________
9. Why is noise pollution dangerous?
a) Dust Cap b). Spider
10. What is decibel (dB)?
c) Diaphragm d) Magnet

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Part – C (5 Marks) Part – D (10 Marks)

III Answer in a paragraph IV Answer in One Page (Essay type Question)
1. Explain the various applications of
1. Explain the two types of sound
Acoustic Engineering.
waves.
2. Explain the construction and
2. Explain about Lavalier Microphone.
working function of an audio power
3. What is the difference between amplifier using TDA 2030 IC with a
analog and digital mixer? Explain neat diagram.
4. Explain monaural sounds? 3. Draw the block diagram of PA system
5. Explain briefly about home theater. and explain each block

Answers :
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b)
6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (d)

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07

CHAPTER
POWER ELECTRONICS

learning objective
The students can understand the following in this chapter
1. Applications of Power Electronics
2. Converting AC to DC
3. Types of Inverter
4. DC to DC Regulator
5. AC to AC Regulator
6. Switching Circuits
7. Switch Mode Power Supply

7.1 Introduction circuit function by using semiconductor

devices as switches, thereby controlling or
Power Electronics is the study of switching
modifying a voltage or current.
electronic circuits in order to control the
flow of electrical energy. Power Electronics Applications of power electronics
is the technology behind switching range from high-power conversion
power supplies, power converters, power equipment such as dc power transmission
inverters, motor drives, and motor soft to everyday appliances, such as power
starters. supplies for computers, cell phone
chargers, and hybrid automobiles. Power
Power electronics circuit convert
electronics includes applications in
electric power from one form to another
which circuits process milliwatts or even
using electronic devices. Power electronics
megawatts.

117
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Importance of Power Electronics to power the propulsion motor. Electric

As the trend towards electrification and trains use power electronic devices to
renewable energies increases, enabling obtain power, as well as for vector control
technologies such as power electronics are using pulse width modulation (PWM)
becoming even more important. Power rectifiers. The trains obtain their power
electronics is an umbrella term that from power lines. Another new usage for
encompasses the systems and products power electronics is in elevator systems.
involved in converting and controlling the These systems may use thyristors,
flow of electrical energy. inverters, permanent magnet motors or
various hybrid systems that incorporate
Applications of power electronics PWM systems and standard motors.
include conversion of,
1. AC to DC (rectifier)
2. Conversion of DC to AC (inverter)
3. Conversion of an unregulated DC
voltage to a regulated DC voltage
(DC to DC converter)
4. Conversion of an AC power source
from one amplitude and frequency
to another amplitude and frequency.
(AC to AC converter)

Applications of power electronics

range in size from a Switched Mode Power A battery charger is an example of a
Supply in an AC adapter, battery chargers, piece of power electronics
audio amplifiers, fluorescent lamp ballasts,
through variable frequency drives and
DC motor drives used to operate pumps,
fans, and manufacturing machinery,
up to gigawatt-scale high voltage direct
current power transmission systems used
to interconnect electrical grids. Power
electronic systems are found in virtually
every electronic device.
In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs),
power electronics are used in two formats:
series hybrid and parallel hybrid. The
difference between a series hybrid and a
parallel hybrid is the relationship of the
electric motor to the internal combustion
engine (ICE). Devices used in electric A PCs power supply is an example
vehicles consist mostly of dc/dc converters of a piece of power electronics, whether
for battery charging and dc/ac converters inside or outside of the cabinet.

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enables integrated circuits to operate

The Difference between
from a 50-Hz AC line voltage by
Electrical and Electronics
converting the ac signal to a dc signal
Circuits of the appropriate voltage.
Both involve moving electricity around
a circuit to power useful products and Application
machines, but that is where the similarity
ends! AC/DC rectifiers are used in an electronic
device radio, computer, television, etc.
The main difference between electrical and
These may simply change AC to DC or
electronic circuits is that electrical circuits
can also change the voltage level as part of
have no decision making (processing)
their operation.
capability, whilst electronic circuits do.
2. DC Input/AC Output: The DC-AC
converter is also called as an inverter.
In the inverter, average power flows
from the dc side to the ac side.
7.2 Converter Classification Examples of inverter applications
include producing a 220-V rms 50-
The objective of a power electronics
Hz voltage from a 12-V battery and
circuit is to match the voltage and current
interfacing an alternative energy
requirements of the load to those of the
source such as an array of solar cells
source. Power electronics circuits convert
to an electric utility.
one type or level of a voltage or current
waveform to another and are hence
called converters. Converters serve as an Application
interface between the source and load. DC/AC converters (inverters) are used
This is shown in fig 7.1 primarily in UPS or renewable energy
systems or emergency lighting systems.
Input Output
Mains power charges the DC battery. If
Source Converter Load the mains fails, an inverter produces AC
electricity at mains voltage from the DC
battery. Solar inverter, both smaller string
FIGURE 7.1 Power Electronics and larger central inverters, as well as solar
micro-inverter are used in photovoltaics
Converters are classified by the as a component of a PV system.
relationship between input and output:
3. DC input/DC output: The DC-
1. AC input/DC output: The AC-
DC converter is useful when a load
DC converter produces a dc output requires a specified (often regulated)
from an ac input. Average power is dc voltage or current but the source
transferred from an ac source to a is at a different or unregulated DC
dc load. The AC-DC converter is value. For example, 5V may be
specifically classified as a rectifier. obtained from a 12-V source via a
For example, an AC-DC converter DC-DC regulator.

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Application Rectifier
P

DC/DC regulator are used in most mobile

devices (mobile phones, PDA etc.) to +
+
maintain the voltage at a fixed value, Converter
– –
whatever the voltage level of the battery
is. These converters are also used for
electronic isolation and power factor P
Inverter
correction. A power optimizer is a type of
FIGURE 7.2 A converter can operate as a rectifier or
DC/DC converter developed to maximize
an inverter, depending on the direction of average
the energy harvest from solar photovoltaic power P.
or wind turbine systems.
Power conversion can be a multistep
4. AC input/AC output: The AC-AC process involving more than one type of
regulator may be used to change converter. For example, an AC-DC-AC
the level and/or frequency of an AC conversion can be used to modify an AC
signal. Examples include a common supply (source) by first converting it to
light-dimmer circuit and speed direct current and then converting the dc
control of an induction motor. signal to an ac signal that has an amplitude
and frequency different from those of
Application the original AC source, as illustrated in
AC/AC regulators are used to change Figure 7.3.
either the voltage level or the frequency
(international power adapters, light Source
Input
Converter 1 Converter 2
Output
Load
dimmer). In power distribution networks
AC/AC regulators may be used to
exchange power between utility frequency FIGURE 7.3 Two converters are used in a multistep
process.
50 Hz and 60 Hz power grids.
Some regulators circuits can operate
in different modes, depending on circuit 7.3 Converting AC to DC
and control parameters. For example, Introduction
some rectifier circuits can be operated as
inverters by modifying the control on the The objective of a full-wave rectifier is to
semiconductor devices. In such cases, it is produce a voltage or current that is purely
the direction of average power flow that DC or has some specified DC component.
determines the converter classification. In While the purpose of the full-wave
Fig. 7.2, if the battery is charged from the rectifier is basically the same as that of
ac power source, the converter is classified the half-wave rectifier, full-wave rectifiers
as a rectifier. If the operating parameters of have some fundamental advantages. The
the converter are changed and the battery average current in the ac source is zero
acts as a source supplying power to the ac in the full-wave rectifier, thus avoiding
system, the converter is then classified as problems associated with nonzero
an inverter. average source currents, particularly in
transformers. The output of the full-wave

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rectifier has inherently less ripple than the 2. The voltage across the load is +V s
half-wave rectifier. when D1 and D2 are ON. The voltage
In this chapter, uncontrolled and across the load is -Vs when D3 and
controlled single-phase and three-phase D4 are ON.
full-wave converters used as rectifiers 3. The maximum voltage across a
are analysed for various types of loads. reverse-biased diode is the peak value
Also included are examples of controlled of the source. This can be shown by
converters operating as inverters, where Kirchhoff ’s voltage law around the
power flow is from the DC side to the AC loop containing the source, D1, and
side. D3. With D1 ON, the voltage across
D3 is -Vs.
7.3.1 Single-Phase Full-Wave 4. The current entering the bridge
Rectifier from the source is iD1 - iD4, which is
The bridge rectifier is the basic single- symmetric about zero. Therefore, the
phase full-wave rectifier. average source current is zero.
5. The rms source current is the same
The Bridge Rectifier as the rms load current. The source
current is the same as the load current
For the bridge rectifier of Figure 7.4(a) and
for one-half of the source period and
7.4(b), these are some basic observations:
is the negative of the load current
1. Diodes D1 and D2 conduct together, for the other half. The squares of
and D3 and D4 conduct together. the load and source currents are the
Kirchhoff ’s voltage law around the same, so the rms currents are equal.
loop containing the source, D1, and
6. The fundamental frequency of the
D3 shows that D1 and D3 cannot be
output voltage is 2ω, where ω is the
on at the same time. Similarly, D2 and
frequency of the AC input, since two
D4 cannot conduct simultaneously.
periods of the output occur for every
The load current can be positive or
period of the input.
zero but can never be negative.

vs
i0 Vm
is iD1 t
0
2
–Vm
D1 D3
v0
+ Vm
+
vs v0 0
2 t
vD1,vD2
– t
0
2
D4 D2 vD3,vD4
Vm
iD4 0
2 t
–Vm

(a) (b)

FIGURE 7.4 (a) Circuit diagram. (b) Voltage Wave forms

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7.4 DC TO AC - Inverter 7.4.1 Types of Inverters

Inverter is an electronic circuit, which There are three different types of outputs
converts direct current (DC) into from inverters and hence the inverters can
alternating current (AC). The input be classified into three primary types viz.
voltage, output voltage and frequency, „ Square Wave inverter
and all power handling depend upon the
„ Modified Sine wave inverter or quasi
DC source. A simple 12 V DC to 220 V
sine wave inverter
AC inverter circuit shown in Figure 7.5
produces an AC output of 220 V AC at „ Pure sine wave inverter
line frequency. In this circuit, the 555 is
1. Square Wave Inverter
configured as a low-frequency oscillator,
which is tuneable over the frequency range The input power source for the inverter
of 50 to 60 Hz by the potentiometer R4. The is a battery and the output is a square
output of the 555 (amplified by Q1 and Q2) AC waveform, which can be used to
is fed into the input of transformer T1 (a drive less-sensitive AC devices. The
reverse-connected filament transformer output from the square wave inverter
with the necessary step-up turns ratio). can result in noise. The output voltage,
Capacitor C4 and inductance coil L1 are frequency, and waveform of the
used to filter the high frequency noise and inverter depend on the design of the
dc components in order to assure a sine inverter.
wave output. The power output (in watts) 2. Quasi sine wave inverter
of this circuit depends on the selection The first electronic inverters to be
of required power rating of different introduced were basic square wave
components, especially for the transistor inverters. As time and technology
and the transformer. progressed, a second generation

DC to AC inverter with the 555

+5V to +15V

R1
10K
4 8 Q1
7 TIP41A

NPN
R2 L1
100K R3 C4
555 100
1μH
3 +
AC
R4 Time Phase
50K oscillator 2700μF
T1
FREQ 6 PNP Output
(see 120 to 230V
2 Q2
test) 50 to 60Hz
TIP42A
1 5
C1 C2 C3
0.1μF 0.01μF Neutral
AC
Gnd. Tony van roon

FIGURE 7.5 12 V DC to 220 V AC inverter using 555

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power inverter became popular battery will be charged via diode D3 and
and was called a “modified square the regulator IC gets supply via diode D5.
wave” or “quasi-sine wave” inverter. Thus, the 12 V and 5 V DC are available at
It could be more accurately called as the output terminals. When mains supply
modified-square wave. is not available, the battery supplies
3. Sine Wave Inverter
current to the regulator IC and to the 12 V
DC terminal through diode D4. Also, the
In a sine wave inverter, the input is diode D3 blocks reverse flow of current
from a battery and output is a pure during battery mode. Capacitors C2 and
sine AC waveform. It is used to give C3 act as filters.
supply to sensitive AC devices. The
output is a sine-wave with very low
Advantages
harmonic distortion.
1. It supplies an un-interrupted power
output.
7.5 UPS (Uninterrupted
2. AC mains power is present or not,
Power Supply)
the output is at constant level.
An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) 3. Simple and very low-cost circuitry.
is a device that allows an electrical/
electronic gadget to keep in operation for
at least a short time, when the primary 7.6 DC to DC regulator
mains power source is lost. It also provides DC-DC regulators are power electronic
protection from power surge. circuits that convert a DC voltage to a
Figure 7.6 shows the circuit diagram different dc voltage level, often providing
of a simple UPS circuit that can deliver regulated outputs. The circuits described
12 V unregulated and 5 V regulated DC in this chapter classified as switched-mode
outputs. The transformer T1 step-downs DC-DC converters, also called switching
the mains voltage to 12 V AC and then power supplies or switchers. This section
the bridge B1 rectifies it. The rectified describes some basic DC-DC regulator
signal is smoothed by the capacitor C1. circuits also called Voltage regulators.
When the mains supply is present, the

D5 F2

1N4007 2A 12V
12 B1 R1
220
F1 Ohms
D3 D4
T1 1 IC1 3
2A 7805
0 1N4007 1N4007 5V
R2
1K 2
C1 + +
2200uF D2 B1
LED C2 C3
230V AC 12V
100nF 100nF

Simple UPS

FIGURE 7.6 Simple UPS circuit

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7.6.1 Voltage Regulator source in the circuit may have fluctuations

A voltage regulator is a circuit used to and would not give a fixed 9 V output
regulate the output voltage level for a voltage. The voltage regulator IC shown
given application. When a steady, reliable in Figure 7.7 maintains the output voltage
and fixed output voltage is required, the at a constant value of 9V.
regulator circuit provides a constant
output voltage irrespective of the changes 7.6.2 Voltage Regulator-7805
in the input voltage or load conditions. Figure 7.8 shows 7805-based 5 V voltage
Also, it acts as a buffer for protecting regulator circuit that regularizes the
components from damages. output voltage at 5 V for the input voltage
Basically, there are two types of range of 7-25 V. The pin description of
voltage regulators available the 7805 is given in the Table 7.1. Here,
1. Linear voltage regulator and
the 5 voltage regulator IC 7805 is given
an reference voltage of 4.3V using a zener
2. Switching regulator
diode at the pin 2. This will increase the
The linear voltage regulators are output voltage from 5V to 9V.
further classified into series and shunt Figure 7.9 shows a complete
type regulators. In the case of switching circuit diagram of a 5V regulator using
regulators, there are three sub-classes 7805. In this circuit, the mains 230 AC is
such as step-up, step-down and inverter converted into 12V AC using a step-down
type of voltage regulator. transformer. The voltage at the secondary
Figure 7.7 shows a 7809 based of the transformer is connected to a bridge
voltage regulator circuit. It is a member rectifier circuits, which converts the 12V
of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage AC into a fluctuating DC. The capacitors
regulator ICs. The input 12 V DC voltage 1000 µF and 0.22 µF are used to filter- out

7809
In Out +9V
Vin voltage Vout
1 regulator 3

from +12v 2 Gnd

yellow wire C1 C2 C3
100nF 100nF 100uF
0v 0v
Min. input Output
Type voltage voltage
7805 7V +5V
Voltage 7806 8V +6V
regulator 7808 10V +8V
78xx
7809 11V +9V
7812 15V +12V
7815 18V +15V
1 3
7818 22V +18V
in 2 Out
Gnd 7824 30V +24V

FIGURE 7.7 7809 V DC to DC voltage regulator

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D1

1 7805 3 +9V
Vin Vout
regulator
R1
from +12v 2
5.5mA
yellow wire C1 C3
4.3 C2
100nF 100uF
Zener 100nF
0v 0v
BZX55-C4V3 Zener diode
FIGURE 7.8 7805 dc to dc voltage regulator circuit

1A fuse

Bridge rectifier

230V + 5V
@50Hz Regulated
1000F 0.22F 0.1F output
230V – 12V 1N4007
Step down transformer

FIGURE 7.9 5 V regulator circuit using 7805

the 50 Hz and high frequency noises, Important Points on 7805

respectively. Now, 12V pure DC voltage Voltage Regulator IC
is generated, which is fed to the input
„ The input voltage should always be
terminal (pin 1) of the 7805 regulator. The
greater than the output voltage (7 to
reference terminal (pin 2) is connected to
25 V).
the ground terminal of the power supply.
At pin 3, 5V regulated DC voltage is „ The input current and output current
obtained, which is further filtered for high are almost identical. This means that
frequency noise. The diode IN 4007 in the when a 7.5 V, 1 A supply is given at
output terminal of 7805 provides over- input, the output will be 5 V, 1 A.
voltage protection.

TABLE 7.1 Pin Description of 7805

Pin No Pin Description
Pin 1 is the INPUT Pin. A positive unregulated voltage is given as
1 INPUT
input to this pin. Voltage range 7-25 V.
2 GROUND Pin 2 is the GROUND Pin. It is common to both Input and Output.
Pin 3 is the OUTPUT Pin. The output is regulated at 5 V and the
3 OUTPUT
maximum current supplied is 1.5 A.

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„ The remaining power is dissipated

as heat and hence a heat sink should
be provided to limit the working
temperature of the 7805 IC.

7.6.3 Negative Voltage Regulator-

IC 79Xx (7905, 7912, 7915,
7918)
The 79xx voltage regulator series is designed
to obtain negative power supply voltage
required in some of the op-amp circuits.
FIGURE 7.10 Pin diagram of Negative Voltage
The input to these negative regulators
Regulators
should be a negative voltage, which is 2.5V
greater than the required output voltage.
The pin diagram of the 79xx series is shown
Variable Voltage Power Supply:
in Figure 7.10. Pin 1 is given a reference
LM317T
voltage, usually the ground voltage. Pin 2
is input terminal where the input negative LM317 is a popular adjustable
voltage is given. Pin 3 is the output terminal, positive linear voltage regulator. It was
where the negative output is drawn. The designed by Robert C Dobkin in the year
various negative voltage regulators and their 1976 at National Semiconductor. LM337
output voltages are listed in Table 7.2. (negative voltage counterpart of LM317)
is used to regulate negative voltages.
TABLE 7.2 N
 egative Voltage Regulators LM317 is an adjustable 3−terminal
and their output voltage positive voltage regulator capable of
IC Number Output Voltage supplying in excess of 1.5A over an output
7905 -05 Volts voltage range of 1.2V to 37V. This voltage
7912 -12 Volts regulator is used two external resistors to
7915 -15 Volts
set the output voltage. Figure 7.11 shows a
variable voltage regulator circuit.
7918 -18 Volts

LM317T
In Out
Vin voltage Vout
3 regulator 2
V ref R1
Input 1 Adj Output
voltage Voltage LM317T
100uA R2
0v 0v
1 3
in 2 Out
Gnd
FIGURE 7.11 Variable Voltage Regulator using LM317

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7.7 AC to AC Regulators 7.7.1 

The Single-Phase AC Voltage
Controller
Introduction
Basic Operation
An ac voltage controller is a regulator that
controls the voltage, current, and average A basic single-phase voltage controller
power delivered to an ac load from an ac is shown in Figure 7.12. The electronic
source. Electronic switches connect and switches are shown as parallel thyristors
disconnect the source and the load at (SCRs). This SCR arrangement makes it
regular intervals. In a switching scheme possible to have current in either direction
called phase control, switching takes place in the load. This SCR connection is called
during every cycle of the source, in effect antiparallel or inverse parallel because the
removing some of the source waveform SCRs carry current in opposite directions.
before it reaches the load. Another type of A triac is equivalent to the antiparallel
control is integral-cycle control, whereby SCRs. Other controlled switching devices
the source is connected and disconnected can be used instead of SCRs.
for several cycles at a time.
The principle of operation for a
The phase-controlled ac voltage
single-phase ac voltage controller using
controller has several practical uses
phase control is quite similar to that of
including light-dimmer circuits and speed
the controlled half-wave rectifier. Here,
control of induction motors. The input
load current contains both positive and
voltage source is ac, and the output is ac
negative half-cycles. An analysis identical
(although not sinusoidal), so the circuit is
to that done for the controlled half-wave
classified as an AC-AC regulator.

VT1 Vs
+ – Vm sin ωt

Is Io 2
T1
0
 ωt
– T1
T2
– – + Vo T2
VT2
Vm 
Vs = R 
Vm sin ωt
+ ωt

io
+ Vm/R

ωt

FIGURE 7.12 Single-phase ac voltage controller with a resistive load; (b) Waveforms.

CHAPTER 07 Power Electronics 127