MODERN GEOMETRY

Lesson 1: CLASSICAL EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY

1.1 a. THE ORIGIN OF GEOMETRY

The word “Geometry” is derived from the Greek word Geometron (Geo-metron)
meaning earth-measure. It was used in land surveying, pyramid, and construction by
Ancient Egyptian.

Greeks were the first to systematically introduce the concept of proofs. Proofs
consists of a series of arguments, starting from an original assumptions, and designed
to show that a given assertion is true.

Geometry deals with the study of shapes and sizes of objects – calculate length, area
and volumes.

TYPES OF GEOMETRY

 Euclidean Geometry
 Analytic Geometry
 Projective Geometry
 Differential Geometry
 Topology

1.1 b. UNDEFINED TERMS

 Point – names a location and has no size. It is represented by a dot.

 Line – is a straight path that has no thickness and extends forever.
 Plane – is a flat surface that has no thickness and extends forever.
 Segment – (also called Line Segment) is a part of a line consisting of two points
and all point between them.
 Endpoint – a point at the end of a segment or the starting point of a ray.
 Ray – is a part of a line that starts at an endpoint and extends forever in obe
direction.
 Opposite rays – are two rays that has a common endpoint and form a line.
 THE EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY

– Is the study of geometrical shapes (plane and solid) and figures based on
different axioms and theories.
– Basically introduced for flat surfaces/plane surfaces (also known as “Plane
Geometry”)
– Employed by Euclid (father of Geometry)
o Euclid – book: “ELEMENTS”
– In Euclidean Geometry, we have plane and solid geometry

PLANE GEOMETRY Theorem Proved

Congruence of Triangles Two triangles are congruent if they are
similar in shape and size.
Similarity of Triangles Two triangles are similar in shape but differ
in size.
Areas Area of a plane shape can be measured by
comparing it with a unit square.
Pythagorean Theorem Pythagorean theorem helps in calculating
the distance in different situations for
Geometric shapes.
Circles Equal chord determines equal angles and
vice versa in a circle.
Regular Polygons Regular Polygons are equal in sides and
angles.
Conic Section Conic sections include Ellipse, Parabola,
Hyperbola.

SOLID GEOMETRY Theorem Proved

Volume Volume of a shape can be calculated.
Regular Solids The existence of Platonic Solids.

– Common examples of Euclidean Geometry are angles and circles.

o Angle – inclination of two straight lines; formed when two lines
intersect
o Circle – a plane figure that has all the point at a constant distance from
the center (radius)
– Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometry differ in the nature of parallel lines.
Non-Euclidean includes parabolas and hyperbolas.
 PROPERTIES OF EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY

 It is the study of plane and solid geometry

 Defined point and a plane
 A solid has shape, size, position and can be moved from one place to another
 The interior angles of a triangle add up to 180˚
 Two parallel lines never cross each other
 The shortest distance between two point is always a straight line

EUCLID’S AXIOM

Axiom 1: Things that are equal to the same thing are equal to one another.

Axiom 2: If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equals.

Axiom 3: If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equals.

Axiom 4: Things that are coincide with one another are equal to one another.

Axiom 5: The whole is greater than the part.

Axiom 6 and 7: Things that are double of the same things are equal to one another.
Things that are halves of the same things are equal to one another.

1.2 EUCLID’S FIRST FOUR POSTULATES

Postulate 1: A straight line can be drawn from any one point to another point.

Postulate 2: A terminate line (segment) can be further produced indefinitely.

Postulate 3: A circle can be drawn with any center and any radius.

Postulate 4: All right angles are equal to one another.

1.3 a. EUCLID’S PARALLEL POSTULATE

“If a straight line falling on two other straight lines makes the interior angles on the same
side of it taken together less than two right angles, then two straight lines, if produced
indefinitely, meet on the side on which the sum of angles is less than two right angles.”
1.3 b. LEGENDRE’S ATTEMPTED PROOF OF THE FIFTH POSTULATE

Adriaen Marie Legendre (1752-1833) – Frenchman

- Obsessed with proving the parallel postulate that over a period of 29 years he
published one attempt after another in different edition of his Élēments de
Gēomētrie.
- Here is one attempt:

Given P not on the line l. drop perpendicular PQ from P to l at Q. let m be the line through
P perpendicular to PQ. Then m is parallel to l, since l and m have the common perpendicular
PQ. We must show that n meets l. Let PR and a ray of m emanating from P. There is a point
R’ on the opposite side of PQ from R such that QPR’ ≡ QPR. Then Q lies in the interior of
RPR’. Since l meets side PR, then certainly l meets n. Suppose l meets side PR’ at a poit A. let
B be a unique point on side PR such that PA ≅ PB. Then ∆ PQA ≅ ∆PQB (SAS); hence ∢PQB is
a right angle, so that B lies on l (and n).

In order to tell if this is correct, you would have to justify each step, first defining each
term carefully. Thus, there is a lot of work that must be done before we can detect the flaw.
Lesson 2: MODERN APPROACH TO AXIOMATICS
A proof is a chain of reasoning that leads from a set of hypothesis (assumptions) to a
conclusion. Each step of the argument adheres to logic’s rules. A statement is not
recognized as true or right in mathematics unless it is followed by a proof. Proofs follow a
complex set of patterns, and there are numerous of them.

Logic proofs are a good place to start because they’re more heavily patterned than
most proofs. Tautologies will include the majority of the inference rules especially iin
drawing conclusions since they are “always valid” statements.

Logic proof start with a premises – statement that you can take for granted. The
inference is the assertion you must prove. The idea is to work backwards from the premises,
applying inference rules before you reach a conclusion.

2.1 INFORMAL LOGIC

Logic Rule 0 : No unstated assumption may be used in a proof.

The axioms specify which properties of unknown words we are permitted to use in our
arguments. When you think about these terms, you might come up with some
properties, but you cannot use them in a proof.

Example:

When you think of the specific line formed by two point, you probably think of
it as “straight” or “the shortest path between the two points”. These
characteristics may be seen as conflicting from other perspective. Such as: the
shortest path across the earth’s surface will be an arc of a great circle rather
than a straight line.

2.2 THEOREMS AND PROOFS

Every mathematical theorem is a conditional statement of the form:

If [hypothesis], then [conclusion].

 Example:

The statement:

“Base angles of an isosceles triangle are congruent.”

Can be translated as:

“if a triangle has two congruent sides, then the angles opposite those sides are congruent.”

Logic Rule 1: The following are the six types of justifications allowed for statements
in proofs:

1) “By hypothesis…”
2) “By axiom…”
3) “By theorem…” (previously proved)
4) “By definition…”
5) “By step…” (Previous step in the argument)
6) “By rule…of logic.”

2.3 REDUCTO AD ABSURTUM (RAA)

RAA is areduction to absurdity.

Logic Rule 2: To prove a statement H⇒ C, assume the negation of the statement and
deduce an absurd statement using the hypothesis H if needed your deduction.

2.4 NEGATION

If S is a statement, we denote the negation of S by ¬S, meaning “not S”.

Logic Rule 3: The statement “¬(¬S)” is the same as “S”.

Logic Rule 4: The statement “¬(H⇒C)” is the same as “H ˄ ¬C”.

Logic Rule 5: The statement “¬(S1 ˄ S2)” is the same as “¬S1 ˅ S2”.
 A statement involving the connective “or” is called a disjunction. So when a
mathematician writes “S1 or S2”, he means “Either S1 holds, or S2 holds or they both
hold”.

“S & ¬S” is a type of statement called contradiction. A system of axioms from which
no contradiction can be deducted called consistent.

2.5 QUANTIFIERS

Universal Quantifiers

Symbol: ∀

“For any x, …”

“For each x, …”

“For every x, …”

“For all x, …”

“Given any x, …”

Existential Quantifiers

Symbol: ∃

“For some x, …”

“There exists an x, …”

“There is an x, …”

“There are x, …”

“There exists a unique x, …”

Logic Rule 6: The statement “¬(∀x S(x))” is the same as “∃x ¬S(x)”.

For example, to deny “All triangles are isosceles” is to assert “There is a

triangle that is not isosceles”.
Logic Rule 7: The statement “¬(∃x S(x))” is the same as “∀x ¬S(x)”.

For example, to deny “There is an equilateral right triangle” is to assert “Every

right triangle is non-equilateral” or, equivalently, to assert “No right triangle is
equilateral”.

Mathematical statements are sometimes made informally, and you may sometimes have to
rephrase them before you will be able to negate them.