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DBMS Unit 1
Database System Applications
A Historical Perspective
Early 1960s: Hierarchical and navigational data models used, inefficient and difficult to
manage.
Late 1960s: Charles Bachman invents the first general-purpose DBMS (Integrated
Data Store) using the network model.
Late 1970s: Edgar Codd proposes the relational model, using tables for easier data
storage and retrieval.
Late 1980s: IBM develops SQL for relational databases, allowing management of large
datasets.
1980s: Introduction of user-friendly DBMS products like Oracle, Sybase, and Microsoft
SQL Server.
1990s: Object-oriented DBMS (OODBMS) emerge for complex data structures, but
adoption is limited commercially.
1991: Microsoft releases MS Access, dominating the personal DBMS market.
1997: XML integration into DBMS products begins.
2000s: Rise of web applications and cloud computing leads to new DBMS systems like
NoSQL databases.
Today: DBMS continues to evolve, focusing on scalability, performance, and cloud
support. Popular options include Oracle, SQL Server, MySQL, PostgreSQL, and
MongoDB.

Database System Applications

A Historical Perspective
File Systems versus a DBMS
The Data Model
Levels of Abstraction in a DBMS
Data Independence
Structure of a DBMS

Introduction to Database Design

Database Design and ER Diagrams
Entities, Attributes, and Entity Sets
Relationships and Relationship Sets

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Additional Features of the ER Model

Conceptual Design With the ER Model

A Historical Perspective

Data collection and storage challenges

Evolution from hierarchical to relational models
Contributions of Charles Bachman and Edgar Codd
Emergence of SQL and relational databases
Evolution into object-oriented and NoSQL databases
Contemporary trends towards cloud-based applications

Introduction to Database Management System (DBMS)

Definition of data, database, and DBMS

Role of DBMS in managing data
Importance in various sectors like banking, education, etc.
Distinction between data and information
Significance of metadata in database management

Database System Applications

1. Banking
2. Universities
3. Airlines
4. Railways

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5. Sales
6. Manufacturing
7. Telecommunication
8. Human Resources

Advantages of Database Management System

1. Efficient data storage and retrieval

2. Data independence
3. Backup and recovery facilities
4. Consistent and updated information
5. Enhanced data security
6. Centralized data administration
7. Representation of complex data relationships

Components of DBMS

1. Hardware
Importance of hardware in DBMS
Examples of hardware components
2. Software

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Role and types of software in DBMS

Examples of DBMS software
3. Data
Nature and importance of data in DBMS
Types of data and metadata
4. People
Roles of database administrator, software developer, and end user
Classification of database users

File Systems vs. DBMS

What is a File System?
Technique for arranging files in storage mediums like hard disks, pen drives, DVDs, etc.
Organizes data for easy retrieval.
Consists of various file types (e.g., mp3, mp4, txt, doc) grouped into directories.
Installed directly into the computer's operating system (e.g., Windows, Linux).

What is DBMS?
Software for storing and retrieving user data with security measures.
Consists of programs manipulating the database.
Accepts data requests from applications and provides specific data via the DBMS
engine.
Facilitates data storage and retrieval for users and third-party software in large
systems.

Difference between File System and DBMS:

Feature File System DBMS

Purpose Used to manage and organise A software to store and retrieve
the files stored in the hard disk of the user's data
the computer
Redundant data Present No presence of redundant data
Query Not so efficient Efficient
processing
efficiency
Data Low High (due to normalization)
consistency

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Feature File System DBMS

Complexity Less complex, does not support More complexity in managing
complicated transactions data, supports complicated
transactions easier
Security Less Supports more security
mechanisms
Cost Less expensive compared to Higher cost than file system
DBMS
Crash recovery Does not support crash recovery Highly supported crash recovery
mechanism

Features of File System

Stores data in groups of files.
Data dependency among files.
Designed using languages like C/C++ and COBOL.
Supports shared file systems.
Enables fast file system recovery.

Features of DBMS
User-accessible catalog of data.
Transaction support.
Concurrency control with recovery services.
Authorization services.
Ensures consistent data value across all locations.
Offers data communication support.
Provides independent utility services.
Allows simultaneous file sharing among multiple users.

The Data Model

Data models in DBMS help in understanding database design at conceptual, physical, and
logical levels, providing clarity for developers in creating physical databases.

Hierarchical Model
Organizes data into a tree-like structure with a single root.
Each child node has only one parent node.
Efficiently represents one-to-many relationships (e.g., index of a book, recipes).

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Network Model
An extension of the Hierarchical model.
Organizes data more like a graph, allowing nodes to have more than one parent.
Establishes multiple relationships, facilitating easier and faster data access.

Entity-relationship Model (E-R Model)

Divides objects of interest into entities and attributes.
Establishes relationships between entities using relationships.
Represents relationships in pictorial form for better understanding.

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Example: A School Database with entities like Student and Address, and their
attributes.

Relational Model
Organizes data in two-dimensional tables.
Maintains relationships by storing a common field.
Introduced by E.F. Codd in 1970, it's the most widely used model globally.

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Tables are also known as relations in this model.

Object-Oriented Data Model

Combines object-oriented programming and relational data model.
Represents data and relationships in a single structure called an object.
Facilitates storage of complex data types like audio, video, images.

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Levels of Abstraction in a DBMS

Data abstraction in DBMS involves hiding unimportant database details from end users to
facilitate easy and secure data access.

Purpose
Hide irrelevant data from users and provide a focused view of relevant data.
Simplify data access for users, improving system efficiency.

Example
Analogy: Turning on a fan without needing to understand electrical connections.
Data abstraction hides background details, allowing users to perform tasks without
complexities.

Levels of Data Abstractions

1. Physical or Internal Level:
Defines how data is stored in the database.
Complex data structures are detailed at this level.
Managed by Data Administrators (DBAs) who handle data storage and
organization.
2. Logical or Conceptual Level:

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Describes stored data and their relationships.

Represents data structure using tables.
Less complex than the physical level.
Helps DBAs abstract data from the physical level.
3. View or External Level:
Defines different views of the overall database data.
Allows end-user interaction.
Users access data based on queries.

Advantages
Easy data access based on user queries.
Enhanced data security.
Improved database system efficiency.

Data Independence
Data independence in DBMS allows altering the schema of a database at one level without
affecting the schema definition at the next higher level, improving data quality and
minimizing the need for modifications in application programs.

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Types of Data Independence

1. Logical Data Independence

Alters the schema at the conceptual level without affecting the external or user view.
Changes in the logical structure of the database necessitate modifications at the logical
level.
Examples:
Breaking existing records into multiple records.
Combining multiple records into one.
Modifying, deleting, or inserting attributes.

2. Physical Data Independence

Alters the schema at the internal or physical level without affecting the conceptual level.
Changes in storage size or physical structure do not affect the conceptual view.

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Achievable more easily compared to logical data independence.

Examples:
Modifying indexes in the database system.
Modifying the data structure used for storage.

Data independence enhances flexibility and maintenance of database systems by allowing

changes at different levels without disrupting higher-level schemas or application programs.

Structure of a DBMS
DBMS (Database Management System) serves as an interface between users and
databases, facilitating various operations like insertion, deletion, updating, and retrieval of
data. It comprises three essential components: Query Processor, Storage Manager, and
Disk Storage, each playing a crucial role in managing databases effectively.

Components of DBMS Structure

1. Query Processor
Responsible for executing user queries, the query processor translates application
program-provided requests into machine-readable instructions. Its components include:

DDL Interpreter: Interprets Data Definition Language (DDL) statements for schema
definitions.
DML Compiler: Converts Data Manipulation Language (DML) statements into
executable code and optimizes queries.
Embedded DML Pre-compiler: Converts embedded DML commands in application
programs into standard procedural calls.
Query Optimizer: Analyzes and executes query evaluation plans efficiently.

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2. Storage Manager
Acts as a bridge between queries and database data, maintaining consistency and
integrity. Its components include:

Integrity Manager: Manages integrity constraints in the database.

Authorization Manager: Verifies user authentication for specific queries or requests.
File Manager: Manages database files and data structures.
Transaction Manager: Ensures database consistency before and after transactions
and controls concurrent processes.
Buffer Manager: Transfers data between primary and main memory and manages
cache memory.

3. Disk Storage
Utilizes various data structures for physical system implementation. Its components
include:

Data Dictionary: Stores metadata about database objects' structures.

Data Files: Stores data in files.
Indices: Enables fast and efficient data access and retrieval.

The structured organization of DBMS components ensures efficient data management and
access, providing users with seamless interaction with databases.

Characteristics of DBMS:
1. Support for Multiple Views of Data:
A database supports multiple views of data, allowing different users or groups of
users to access subsets of the database tailored to their needs.
2. Sharing of Data and Multiuser System:
Modern database systems support multiple users accessing the same database
simultaneously, facilitated by concurrency control strategies to maintain data
integrity.
3. Control of Data Redundancy:
DBMS aims to minimize data redundancy by storing each data item in only one
place, although some redundancy may be introduced for performance reasons,
controlled by the application programming.
4. Data Sharing:
Integration of data within a database system allows for easier data sharing among
employees and users, enabling the generation of more information from the
available data.
5. Enforcement of Integrity Constraints:
DBMS must enforce integrity constraints to ensure data validity and integrity,
including constraints related to data type, uniqueness, and other rules defined by

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the user.
6. Restriction of Unauthorized Access:
Security subsystems in a DBMS restrict unauthorized access by defining different
user accounts with varying levels of access privileges, such as read-only or read-
write access.
7. Data Independence:
DBMS allows for data independence by separating data descriptions (metadata)
from application programs, enabling changes to the data structure without
impacting the application programs.
8. Transaction Processing:
DBMS includes concurrency control subsystems to ensure data consistency and
validity during transaction processing, even when multiple users are updating the
same information simultaneously.
9. Backup and Recovery Facilities:
Database systems provide backup and recovery facilities to protect data from loss
due to hardware failures or other issues, ensuring data integrity and availability
even in the event of system failures.
10. Provision for Multiple Views of Data:
DBMS inherently permits multiple users to access its database simultaneously,
with users being unaware of the underlying storage and organization of data.

Introduction to Database Design

Database Design and ER Diagrams
Database Design
Database Design in DBMS involves a series of processes aimed at creating efficient and
effective systems for managing enterprise data. The main objectives of database design are
to produce logical and physical models of the proposed database system, focusing on data
requirements, storage, and organization. One common tool used in database design is the
Entity-Relationship (ER) Diagram, which visually represents the relationships between
entities stored in the database. This diagram helps to explain the logical structure of the
database and is based on the concepts of entities, attributes, and relationships.

Entity-Relationship (ER) Diagram:

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Entities: Represented by rectangles, entities are the objects or concepts about which
data is stored in the database. Examples of entities include customers, products,
employees, etc.
Attributes: Represented by ellipses, attributes are the characteristics or properties of
entities. Each entity has a set of attributes that describe it. For example, a customer
entity may have attributes such as name, address, and phone number.
Relationships: Represented by diamond shapes, relationships define how entities are
related to each other. They indicate how data from one entity is linked to data in
another entity. Relationships can be one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-many.
Lines: Lines connecting entities and attributes represent the connections or
relationships between them. These lines indicate how data flows between different
parts of the database.
Double Ellipses: Used to represent multi-valued attributes, which are attributes that
can have multiple values for a single entity.
Double Rectangles: Represent weak entities, which are entities that cannot be
uniquely identified by their attributes alone and depend on a related entity for
identification.

Entities, Attributes, and Entity Sets

Components of an ER Diagram:

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1. Entities:
An entity represents a real-world object or concept that can be identified and
distinguished from other objects. It is depicted as a rectangle in an ER diagram.
Example: In a university database, entities could include Student, Course,
Professor, and Department.

2. Weak Entity:
A weak entity is an entity that cannot be uniquely identified by its attributes alone
and relies on a related entity for identification. It is represented as a double
rectangle in an ER diagram.
Example: In a library database, a BookCopy entity might be weak because it
depends on the Book entity for identification.

3. Attributes:
Attributes are the properties or characteristics of entities. They describe the
entity's properties.
Attributes are depicted as ovals connected to their respective entity rectangles.

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Example: Attributes of a Student entity might include StudentID, Name,

DateOfBirth, etc.

4. Key Attribute:
A key attribute uniquely identifies an entity within an entity set. It is underlined in
an ER diagram.
Example: In a Customer entity, the CustomerID might be a key attribute.

5. Composite Attribute:
A composite attribute is an attribute composed of multiple simpler attributes. It is
represented as an oval connected to other ovals.
Example: An Address attribute might be composed of Street, City, State, and Zip
Code.

6. Multivalued Attribute:
A multivalued attribute can have multiple values for a single entity. It is
represented as a double oval.

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Example: In a Product entity, the Color attribute might be multivalued if a product

can come in multiple colors.

7. Derived Attribute:
A derived attribute is an attribute whose value can be derived from other attributes
of the entity. It is represented by a dashed oval.
Example: Age can be a derived attribute if it is calculated based on the
DateOfBirth attribute.

Relationships and Relationship Sets

Relationships in an ER Diagram:

1. One-to-One Relationship:

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In a one-to-one relationship, each record in the first entity (A) is associated with
exactly one record in the second entity (B), and vice versa.
Represented by a line connecting the two entities, with the cardinality notation "1"
on one side of the line and "1" on the other side.
Example: A Student entity may be associated with exactly one Address entity, and
vice versa.

2. One-to-Many Relationship:
In a one-to-many relationship, each record in the first entity (A) can be associated
with many records in the second entity (B), but each record in the second entity
(B) is associated with at most one record in the first entity (A).
Represented by a line connecting the two entities, with the cardinality notation "1"
on one side of the line and "N" (or "M") on the other side.
Example: A Department entity may have many Employees, but each Employee is
associated with only one Department.

3. Many-to-One Relationship:
In a many-to-one relationship, many records in the first entity (A) can be
associated with one record in the second entity (B), but each record in the second
entity (B) is associated with at most one record in the first entity (A).
Represented by a line connecting the two entities, with the cardinality notation "N"
(or "M") on one side of the line and "1" on the other side.
Example: Many Orders can be placed by one Customer, but each Order is
associated with only one Customer.

4. Many-to-Many Relationship:
In a many-to-many relationship, each record in the first entity (A) can be
associated with many records in the second entity (B), and vice versa.
Represented by a line connecting the two entities, with the cardinality notation "N"
(or "M") on both sides of the line.

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Example: Many Students can enroll in many Courses, and each Course can have
many Students.

Additional Features of the ER Model

Features of ER Model:
1. ER Diagram:
ER diagrams illustrate the logical structure of databases by depicting entities,
attributes, and relationships between them.
2. Database Design:
The Entity-Relationship model facilitates the design of databases in a simple and
conceptual manner, aiding database designers in building effective database
structures.
3. Graphical Representation for Better Understanding:
ER diagrams provide a graphical representation that is easy to understand,
enabling developers to communicate database designs effectively with
stakeholders.
4. Easy to Build:
ER models are straightforward to construct, making them accessible for database
designers of varying levels of expertise.
5. Extended E-R Features:
The ER model includes additional features such as specialization, inheritance,
aggregation, and generalization, which enhance its expressive power and
flexibility.
6. Integration:
The ER model can be seamlessly integrated into a common relational model,
serving as a valuable tool for database designers in communicating and
implementing database structures.
7. Simplicity and Versatility:
ER diagrams provide a blueprint for implementing data in specific software
applications, offering a preview of table connections and fields, which contributes
to their simplicity and versatility in various applications.

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Participation Constraint in ER Diagrams:

1. Total Participation:
In total participation, each entity in the entity set must participate in the
relationship. This means that every instance of the entity set must be associated
with at least one instance of the related entity set.
Represented by a double line connecting the entity to the relationship in the ER
diagram.
Example: If every student must be enrolled in at least one course, then the
participation of students in the "Enrolled in" relationship is total.
2. Partial Participation:
In partial participation, entities in the entity set may or may not participate in the
relationship. This means that some instances of the entity set may not be
associated with any instances of the related entity set.
Represented by a single line connecting the entity to the relationship in the ER
diagram.
Example: If some courses may not have any students enrolled, then the
participation of courses in the "Enrolled in" relationship is partial.

Conceptual Design With the ER Model

Conceptual design using the Entity-Relationship (ER) model involves creating a high-level
representation of the data requirements and relationships in the system.

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1. Identify Entities: Determine main objects or concepts to be stored as entities (e.g.,

Student, Course).
2. Define Attributes: Specify properties for each entity (e.g., StudentID, Name for
Student).
3. Establish Relationships: Identify connections between entities (e.g., Enrollment
between Student and Course).
4. Refine Cardinality and Participation: Determine how many instances of one entity
relate to another and if participation is mandatory or optional.
5. Validate the Model: Review to ensure accuracy and alignment with requirements.
6. Iterate and Refine: Make adjustments as needed based on feedback and changes.
7. Document the ER Model: Create diagrams and descriptions to communicate the
database structure.

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