a. CREATE It is used to create a new table in the database.

Syntax:
1. CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME DATATYPES[,....]);
Example:
1. CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(20), Email VARCHAR2(100), DOB
DATE);
b. DROP: It is used to delete both the structure and record stored in the table.
Syntax
1. DROP TABLE;
Example
1. DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;
c. ALTER: It is used to alter the structure of the database. This change could be either to modify the
characteristics of an existing attribute or probably to add a new attribute.
Syntax:
To add a new column in the table
1. ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-definition;
To modify existing column in the table:
1. ALTER TABLE MODIFY(COLUMN DEFINITION....);
EXAMPLE
1. ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS ADD(ADDRESS VARCHAR2(20));
2. ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS MODIFY (NAME VARCHAR2(20));
d. TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows from the table and free the space containing the table.
Syntax:
1. TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
Example:
1. TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;
2. Data Manipulation Language:

• DML commands are used to modify the database. It is responsible for all form of changes in the
database.
 • The command of DML is not auto-committed that means it can't permanently save all the
changes in the database. They can be rollback.
Here are some commands that come under DML:

• INSERT
• UPDATE
• DELETE
a. INSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is used to insert data into the row of a table.
Syntax:
1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
2. (col1,col2,col3,....colN)
3. VALUES(value1,value2,value3,....valueN);
Or
1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
2. VALUES(value1,value2,value3,....valueN);
For example:
1. INSERT INTO BOOK (Author,Subject)VALUES("Sonoo","DBMS");
b. UPDATE: This command is used to update or modify the value of a column in the table.
Syntax:
1. UPDATE table_name SET[column_name1=value1,...column_nameN=valueN][WHERE
CONDITION]
For example:
1. UPDATE students
2. SET User_Name='Sonoo'
3. WHERE Student_Id='3'
c. DELETE: It is used to remove one or more row from a table.
Syntax:
1. DELETE FROM table_name[WHERE condition];
For example:
1. DELETE FROM BOOK
2. WHERE Author="Sonoo";

3. Data Control Language:

DCL commands are used to grant and take back authority from any database user.
Here are some commands that come under DCL:

• Grant
• Revoke
a. Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.
Example
1. GRANT SELECT,UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_USER, ANOTHER_USER;
b. Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.
Example
1. REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM USER1,USER2;

Transaction Control Language:

TCL commands can only use with DML commands like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE only.
These operations are automatically committed in the database that's why they cannot be used while
creating tables or dropping them.
Here are some commands that come under TCL:

• COMMIT
• ROLLBACK
• SAVEPOINT
a. Commit: Commit command is used to save all the transactions to the database.
Syntax:
1. COMMIT;
Example:
1. DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS
2. WHERE AGE =25;
3. COMMIT;
b. Rollback: Rollback command is used to undo transactions that have not already been saved to the
database.
Syntax:
1. ROLLBACK;
Example:
 1. DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS
2. WHERE AGE=25;
3. ROLLBACK;
c. SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll the transaction back to a certain point without rolling back the entire
transaction.
Syntax:
1. SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;

4. Data Query Language:

DQL is used to fetch the data from the database.
It uses only one command:

• SELECT
a. SELECT: This is the same as the projection operation of relational algebra. It is used to select the
attribute based on the condition described by WHERE clause.
Syntax:
1. SELECT expressions
2. FROM TABLES
3. WHERE conditions;
For example:
1. SELECT emp_name
2. FROM employee
3. WHERE age>20;
Syntax
1. Create table"table_name"
2. ("column1" "datatype",
3. "column2" "datatype",
4. "column3" "datatype",
5. ...
6. "columnN" "data type");
Example
1. SQL>CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(
2. EMP_ID INT NOT NULL,
3. EMP_NAME VARCHAR(25) NOT NULL,
 4. PHONE_NO INT NOT NULL,
5. ADDRESS CHAR (30),
6. PRIMARY KEY(ID)
7. );
If you create the table successfully, you can verify the table by looking at the message by the SQL
server. Else you can use DESC command as follows:
SQL> DESC EMPLOYEE;

Field Type Null Key Default Extra

EMP_ID int(11) NO PRI NULL
EMP_NAME varchar(25) NO NULL
PHONE_NO NO int(11) NULL
ADDRESS YES NULL char(30)
• 4 rows in set (0.35 sec)
Now you have an EMPLOYEE table in the database, and you can use the stored information related to
the employees.

DROP table:
A SQL drop table is used to delete a table definition and all the data from a table. When this command
is executed, all the information available in the table is lost forever, so you have to very careful while
using this command.
Syntax
1. DROP TABLE "table_name";
Firstly, you need to verify the EMPLOYEE table using the following command:
1. SQL>DESC EMPLOYEE;

Field Type Null Key Default Extra

EMP_ID int(11) NO PRI NULL
EMP_NAME varchar(25) NO NULL
PHONE_NO NO int(11) NULL
ADDRESS YES NULL char(30)
• 4 rows in set (0.35 sec)
This table shows that EMPLOYEE table is available in the database, so we can drop it as follows:
1. SQL>DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;
Now, we can check whether the table exists or not using the following command:
1. Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.01 sec)
As this shows that the table is dropped, so it doesn't display it.

SQL DELETE statement:

In SQL, DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a table. We can use WHERE condition to
delete a specific row from a table. If you want to delete all the records from the table, then you don't
need to use the WHERE clause.
Syntax
1. DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
Example
Suppose, the EMPLOYEE table having the following records:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000
2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000
3 Denzel Boston 7353662627 100000
4 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000
5 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000
6 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000
The following query will DELETE an employee whose ID is 2.
1. SQL>DELETE FROMEMPLOYEE
2. WHERE EMP_ID=3;
Now, the EMPLOYEE table would have the following records.

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000
2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000
4 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000
5 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000
6 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000
If you don't specify the WHERE condition, it will remove all the rows from the table.
1. DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;
Now, the EMPLOYEE table would not have any records.

SQL SELECT Statement

In SQL, the SELECT statement is used to query or retrieve data from a table in the database. The
returns data is stored in a table, and the result table is known as result-set.
Syntax
1. SELECT column1,column2,...
2. FROM table_name;
Here, the expression is the field name of the table that you want to select data from.

Use the following syntax to select all the fields available in the table:
1. SELECT * FROM table_name;
Example:
EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000
2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000
3 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000
4 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000
5 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000
To fetch the EMP_ID of all the employees, use the following query:
1. SELECT EMP_ID FROM EMPLOYEE;
Output

EMP_ID
1
2
3
4
5
To fetch the EMP_NAME and SALARY, use the following query:
1. SELECT EMP_NAME, SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE;

EMP_NAME SALARY
Kristen 150000
Russell 200000
Angelina 600000
Robert 350000
Christian 260000
To fetch all the fields from the EMPLOYEE table, use the following query:
1. SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE
Output

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000
2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000
3 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000
4 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000
5 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000

SQL INSERT Statement

The SQL INSERT statement is used to insert a single or multiple data in a table. In SQL, You can
insert the data in two ways:
1. Without specifying column name
2. By specifying column name

EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30
2 Robert Austin 300000 26
3 Christian Denver 100000 42
4 Kristen Washington 500000 29
5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

Without specify Column name:

If you want to specify all column values, you can specify or ignore the column values.

Syntax
1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
2. VALUES(value1,value2,value3,....ValueN);
Query
1. INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE VALUES(6,'Marry','Canada',600000,48);
Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30
2 Robert Austin 300000 26
3 Christian Denver 100000 42
4 Kristen Washington 500000 29
5 Russell Los angels 200000 36
6 Marry Canada 600000 48

To insert partial column values, you must have to specify the column names.
Syntax
1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
2. [(col1,col2,col3,....colN)]
3. VALUES(value1,value2,value3,....ValueN);
Query
1. INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE(EMP_ID,EMP_NAME,AGE)VALUES(7,'Jack',40);
Output: After executing this query, the table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30
2 Robert Austin 300000 26
3 Christian Denver 100000 42
4 Kristen Washington 500000 29
5 Russell Los angels 200000 36
6 Marry Canada 600000 48
7 Jack null null 40

SQL Update Statement

The SQL UPDATE statement is used to modify the data that is already in the database. The condition
in the WHERE clause decides that which row is to be updated.
Syntax
1. UPDATE table_name
2. SET column1=value1,column2=value2,...
 3. WHERE condition;
EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30
2 Robert Austin 300000 26
3 Christian Denver 100000 42
4 Kristen Washington 500000 29
5 Russell Los angels 200000 36
6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Updating single record

Update the column EMP_NAME and set the value to 'Emma' in the row where SALARY is 500000.
Syntax
1. UPDATE table_name
2. SET column_name=value
3. WHERE condition;
Query
1. UPDATE EMPLOYEE
2. SET EMP_NAME='Emma'
3. WHERE SALARY=500000;
Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30
2 Robert Austin 300000 26
3 Christian Denver 100000 42
4 Emma Washington 500000 29
5 Russell Los angels 200000 36
6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Updating multiple records

If you want to update multiple columns, you should separate each field assigned with a comma. In the
EMPLOYEE table, update the column EMP_NAME to 'Kevin' and CITY to 'Boston' where EMP_ID is
5.
Syntax
1. UPDATE table_name
2. SET column_name=value1,column_name2=value2
 3. WHERE condition;
Query
1. UPDATE EMPLOYEE
2. SET EMP_NAME='Kevin',City='Boston'
3. WHERE EMP_ID=5;
Output

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30
2 Robert Austin 300000 26
3 Christian Denver 100000 42
4 Kristen Washington 500000 29
5 Kevin Boston 200000 36
6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Without use of WHERE clause

If you want to update all row from a table, then you don't need to use the WHERE clause. In the
EMPLOYEE table, update the column EMP_NAME as 'Harry'.
Syntax
1. UPDATE table_name
2. SET column_name=value1;
Query
1. UPDATE EMPLOYEE
2. SET EMP_NAME='Harry';
Output

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Harry Chicago 200000 30
2 Harry Austin 300000 26
3 Harry Denver 100000 42
4 Harry Washington 500000 29
5 Harry Los angels 200000 36
6 Harry Canada 600000 48

SQL DELETE Statement

The SQL DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a table. Generally, DELETE statement
removes one or more records form a table.
Syntax
1. DELETE FROM table_name WHERE some_condition;

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30
2 Robert Austin 300000 26
3 Christian Denver 100000 42
4 Kristen Washington 500000 29
5 Russell Los angels 200000 36
6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Deleting Single Record

Delete the row from the table EMPLOYEE where EMP_NAME = 'Kristen'. This will delete only the
fourth row.
Query
1. DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
2. WHERE EMP_NAME='Kristen';
Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30
2 Robert Austin 300000 26
3 Christian Denver 100000 42
5 Russell Los angels 200000 36
6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Deleting Multiple Record

Delete the row from the EMPLOYEE table where AGE is 30. This will delete two rows(first and third
row).
Query
1. DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE AGE=30;
Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

2 Robert Austin 300000 26
3 Christian Denver 100000 42
5 Russell Los angels 200000 36
6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Delete all of the records

Delete all the row from the EMPLOYEE table. After this, no records left to display. The EMPLOYEE
table will become empty.
Syntax
1. DELETE * FROM table_name;
2. or
3. DELETE FROM table_name;
Query
1. DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;
Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE