Module 5: Geometric Designs

Introduction
Geometry is one of the oldest branches of mathematics. The word geometry in the Greek language
translates the words for” Earth” and” Measure”. The Egyptians were one of the first civilizations to use
geometry. The Egyptians used right triangles to measure and survey land. In our modern times, geometry is
used to in fields such as engineering, architecture, medicine, drafting, astronomy, and geology. To begin this
chapter on Geometry, we will describe two basic concepts which are a point and a line.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, the students should be able to:
a. Apply geometric concepts, especially isometries in describing and creating designs; and
b. Contribute to the enrichment of the Filipino culture and arts using concepts in geometry.

Discussion
I. Euclidean Geometry and Axiomatic Systems

1.1. Points, Lines, and Line Segments

A point is used to denote a specific location in space. In this section, everything that we do will be
viewed in two dimensions. For example, we could draw a point in two-dimensional space and label it as point
A.

A line is determined by two distinct points and extends to infinity in both directions. Now suppose
that we define two points in space and label them as A and B. We could pass a line through these points in
⃡ .
space and the resulting line would look the next illustration. We will label this line as 𝐴𝐵

A line segment is part of a line that lies between two points. These two points are referred to as
endpoints. In the next figure below there is an illustration of a line segment. We will label this line segment
as ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 .

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 1.2. Distance
Now that we have given a basic description a line and line segment, let’s use some properties of
distance to find the missing length of a segment. In the next example we will find the distance between two
points. To find missing distances of a line segment, we use a postulate called the segment addition postulate.
Segment Addition Postulate
If point B lies between points A and C on ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 , then ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶 .

Example 1
Given AB = 2x + 3, BC = 3x +7, and AC = 25, find the value of x, AB, and BC.

Example 2
Given AB = 10, BC = 2x + 4, CD = 12, and AD = 36, find the length of BC.

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 1.3. Rays and Angles
A ray starts at a point called an endpoint and extends to infinity in the other direction. A ray that has an
endpoint at A and extends indefinitely through another point B is denoted by 𝐴𝐵 . Here is an example of a
ray with an endpoint A that lies in a plane.

An angle is the union of two rays with a common endpoint called a vertex.

In the diagram above the vertex of the angle is A.

1.4. Angle Measure
Angles can be measured in degrees and radians. In Euclidean Geometry angles are measured in
degrees and usually the smallest possible angle is 0 degrees and the largest possible angle is 180 degrees.
Let’s briefly discuss how to measure angles using degrees. The most common way to measure angles can
is by a protractor. A protractor, shown below, is a devise use to measure angles.

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To measure an angle using a protractor, you place the protractor over the angle and line up the center point
of the protractor up with the vertex of the angle as shown in next diagram. Next, you find the side of the angle
that isn’t lined up with the base of the protractor and read the angle measure from the protractor.

The measure of the angle in the above diagram would be 55 degrees.

1.5. Special Angle Pairs
There are two types of angle pairs which are complementary angles and supplementary angles. A pair
of complementary angles are two angles whose sum is 90 degrees. Meanwhile, A pair of supplementary
angles are two angles whose sum is 180 degrees. Adjacent Angles are
two angles who share a common endpoint and common side, but share
no interior points.
The Angle Addition Postulate
If point D lies in the interior of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, then 𝑚∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 +
𝑚∠𝐶𝐵𝐷 = 𝑚∠𝐴𝐵𝐶.

1.6. Finding Missing Angle Values

To find the value of the missing angle, we will use the angle addition postulate along with the definition of
complementary angles and supplementary angles

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Example 3
Find the complement of angle measuring 360 degrees.

Example 4
Find the supplement of angle measuring 860 degrees.

Example 5
Given 𝑚∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 = 54° and 𝑚∠𝐴𝐶𝐷 = 112°, find 𝑚∠𝐷𝐶𝐵.

Example 6
Given that ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a right angle, find the value of x, 𝑚∠𝐴𝐵𝐷, and 𝑚∠𝐷𝐵𝐶.

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Example 7
Use the Diagram below to find x.

1.7. Axiomatic Systems

An Axiomatic system is a set of axioms from which some or all axioms can be used in conjunction to
logically derive a system of Geometry. In an axiomatic system, all the axioms that are defined must be
consistent where there are no contractions within the set of axioms. The first mathematician to design an
axiomatic system was Euclid of Alexandria. Euclid of Alexandria was born around 325 BC. Most believe that
he was a student of Plato. Euclid introduced the idea of an axiomatic geometry when he presented his 13
chapters book titled The Elements of Geometry. The Elements he introduced were simply fundamental
geometric principles called axioms and postulates. The most notable are Euclid five postulates which are
stated in the next passage.
1. Any two points can determine a straight line.
2. Any finite straight line can be extended in a straight line.
3. A circle can be determined from any center and any radius.
4. All right angles are equal.
5. If two straight lines in a plane are crossed by a transversal, and sum the interior angle of the same
side of the transversal is less than two right angles, then the two lines extended will intersect.
According to Euclid, the rest of geometry could be deduced from these five postulates. Euclid’s fifth
postulate, often referred to as the Parallel Postulate, is the basis for what are called Euclidean Geometries
or geometries where parallel lines exist. There is an alternate version to Euclid fifth postulate which is usually
stated as” Given a line and a point not on the line, there is one and only one line that passed through the
given point that is parallel to the given line.” This is a short version of the Parallel Postulate called Fair Play’s
Axiom which is named after the British math teacher who proposed to replace the axiom in all of the school’s
textbooks. Some individuals have tried to prove the parallel postulate, but after more than two thousand years
it still remains unproven. For many centuries, these postulates have assumed to be true. However, some

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mathematics believed that the Euclid Fifth Postulate was suspect or incomplete. As a result, mathematicians
have written alternate postulates to the Parallel Postulate. These postulates have led the way to new
geometries called Non-Euclidean Geometries.
Exercises 1
1. Use the diagram below to find the value of x.

2. Given that ∠𝑀𝑂𝑁 is a right angle, find the value of x, 𝑚∠𝑀𝑂𝑃, and 𝑚∠𝑃𝑂𝑁.

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 3. Use the diagram below to find the value of x.

II. Perimeter and Area

2.1. Understanding Perimeter

We encounter two dimensional objects all the time. We see objects that take on the shapes similar to
squares, rectangle, trapezoids, triangles, and many more. Did you every think about the properties of these
geometric shapes? The properties of these geometric shapes include perimeter, area, similarity, as well as
other properties. The first of these properties that we will investigate is perimeter. The perimeter of an
object can be thought of as the distance around the object. In case of an object such as a square,
rectangle, or triangle, the perimeter of an object can be found by taking the sum of the sides of the object.
Here is an simple example of finding the perimeter of an object.
Example 1
Find the perimeter of the rectangle.

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Example 2
Find the perimeter of the following triangle.

2.2. Understanding Area

The next property of two dimensional objects we will investigate is area. The area of an object is the
amount of surface that the object occupies. The area of object depends on its shape. Different shapes use
different formulas to compute the area. We will start by finding the area of a rectangle. The area of a rectangle
can be found by multiplying the length of the rectangle by the width of the rectangle. Let’s examine rectangles
further to see why the formula of a rectangle is length times width. Suppose we had a rectangle that was 5
blocks by 4 blocks. This would mean that we would have 4 rows of blocks that each have 5 blocks in them.
We could count the number of blocks or find the area by multiply the 4 rows of blocks by the 5 block that are
𝑏ℎ
in each rows. Therefore, the formula to find the area of a triangle would be 𝐴 = .
𝟐

Using the formula of finding area of rectangle, 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤 = 5 × 4 = 20 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠.

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Example 1
Find the area of the square.

Example 2
Find area of triangle with a base of 4 meters and a height of 6 meters.

Area can be used to calculate the square footage of a house or building. This in turn can be used to
help calculate the cost of renovations such as installing flooring or carpets. In this next example, we will use
the floor plans of one room of a house to calculate the floor area of the house that will allow us to compute
the cost to install new carpeting in the room.
Example 3
Suppose you wanted to install new carpet in one room in your house that is 15 feet by 12 feet, how many
square feet of carpet would you need? Suppose that price of carpet at the store you are buying carpet from
is ₱10.50 per square yard. Roughly, how much is it going to cost to put carpet down in the room.

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Example 4
Suppose you wanted to put down hardwood floors in your living room which is roughly 12 feet by 10 feet. If
the cost of the hardwood flooring is ₱5.00 per square foot, find the approximate cost not including labor to
put down hardwood flooring in your living room?

Example 5
Given the floor plans for the 1st floor of a house below, find the area or square footage of the 1st floor of this house.

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Circles
A circle can be defined the set of all points that are equidistance from a point called the center of the
circle. Circles are defined by the value of their radius and their center. The radius of a circle is the defined as
the straight-line distance from the center of the circle to the edge of the circle. The diameter of a circle is a
line segment that passes through the center of the circle and has endpoints that lie on the circle.

The circumference of a circle is the distance around the circle. The circumference of a circle can
thought of as the perimeter of the circle. The circumference of a circle can be found by the following formula:
C= 2𝜋𝑟. The area of the circle is given by the formula: 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 where pi is approximately 3.1416. Pi is
defined as the ratio between the circumference of the circle and the diameter of the circle.

Example 6
Find the area and circumference of the following circle.

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Exercises 2
1. Find the area of a rectangular shaped lot with a length of 40 yards and a width of 60 yards.
2. Find the area and perimeter of a square shaped lot with a length of 100 meters.
3. You want to put down hardwood floors in your living room that is roughly 18 feet by 16 feet. If the
cost of the hardwood flooring is ₱5.00 per square foot, find the approximate cost not including labor
to put down hardwood flooring in your living room?
4. You want to put down carpet in your living room that is roughly 6 yards by 2 and halfyards. If the cost
of the carpet is ₱4.00 per square yard, find the approximate cost not including labor to put down
hardwood flooring in your living room?
5. Given the floor plans for the 1st floor of a house below, find the area or square footageon the 1st
floor of this house.

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 2.3. Understanding Volume
The main topic of this section is volume. You will specifically look at how to find the volume of various three-
dimension geometric objects such as rectangular solids and cylinders. The volume of an object is the amount
space occupied by the object. We will use formulas to find the volume of an object in the same way we used
formulas to find the area of an object. Let’s begin by classifying three dimensional objects into two categories.
The two categories are prism and pyramids. A prism is a three-dimension object that has two bases that are
identical and a pyramid is a three-dimensional object with just one base.
• Prisms
In the next diagram there are pictures of a rectangular solid, a prism with a triangular base, and a cylinder.
These are just a few of the many possibilities that we have for objects that we classify as prisms. Notice
that in each example, the objects have a base at the top and the bottom are identical.
To find the area of any prism, we simply multiply the base of the prism by the height of the prism. In
next few examples, we will investigate how to find the volume of a prism such as a rectangular solid or
cylinder.
Example 1
Find the following of the following rectangular solid.

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 Example 2
Find the volume of a cylinder with a radius of 3 inches and height of 4 inches.

• Pyramids
Pyramids like prism can have number of different shapes provided the object has only one base. Here is a
diagram that illustrates a few of the types of pyramids that exist.

To find the volume of a pyramid, we multiply one third times the base multiplied by the height. The formula
1
to compute the volume of a pyramid is 𝑉 = 3 𝐵ℎ. In next few examples, we will investigate how to find the
volume of some pyramid.

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Example 3
Find the area of the following pyramid with a square base.

Example 4
Find the volume.

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 2.4. Surface Area
Every three-dimensional object has surface area as well volume. The volume, as stated earlier, measured
the amount of space occupied by a three-dimension object. The surface area of a three-dimension object
measures amount of surface of the object. The surface area of object such as a cube, rectangular solid,
pyramid, or cylinder is found by finding the area of each face and then finding the sum of the faces. For
example, suppose you had to find the surface of a rectangular solid. You would have to find the area of top
face, bottom face, front face, the face in the back, and the two sides. Let’s try an example.
Example 5
Find the area of a rectangular that has a length of 6 feet, height of 4 feet, and a width of 5 feet.

Example 6
Suppose you want to mail a rectangular solid shaped package that measures 6 inches by 6 inches by 10
inches. How much postal wrap do you need to completely cover the package? Provided that the package
weighs less than 20 pounds, the postal rate is 2.5 cents per cubic inch. Find the postage charge on the
package.

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Exercises 3
1. Find the volume of a cylinder with a radius of 3 inches and height of 4 inches.
2. Find the volume of the following pyramid with a square base.

3. Find the volume of the following cone.

4. Find the volume of a cone with a radius of 6 centimeters and a height of 8 centimeters.
5. Suppose you have a cylinder-shaped hot water heater that has a height of 5 feet and a radius of 1
foot. How water can the hot water heater hold in cubic feet and gallons?
6. Find the volume of following rectangular solid.

7. A fish aquarium shaped like a rectangular solid is 30 inches wide, 20 inches long, and 20 inches
tall. How much volume could the fish aquarium hold?

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 8. A fish aquarium shaped like a rectangular solid is 20 inches wide, 25 inches long, and 15 inches
tall. How much volume could the fish aquarium hold in cubic inches and gallons?
9. Suppose you want to mail a rectangular solid shaped package that measures 10 cm by12 cm by
12 cm. How much postal wrap do you need to completely cover the package?
10. Find the surface area of a box that is 2 feet by 3 feet by 4 feet.
References
o Auflrann, R.N., Lockwood J.S., Nation, R.D., and Clegg,D.K., 2013 Cengage Learning: Mathematical
o Excursions, 14"’ Edition Epp, S.S., 2011 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning: Discrete Mathematics: An
o Introduction to Mathematical Reasoning, 1" Edition Reyes.N. Sr., 2018 Rex Book Store, Inc.:
Mathematics in the Modern World

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