What is a Computer?

A computer is an electronic device capable of performing calculations and processing

data rapidly and accurately. It accepts data as input, processes it according to
instructions, and produces information as output.

Properties of a Computer
 Speed: Computers can perform calculations and manipulate data at incredible speeds, far
surpassing human capabilities.
 Accuracy: Computers process data with high precision, minimizing errors.
 Diligence: Computers can perform repetitive tasks without getting bored or fatigued.
 Versatility: Computers can be used for a wide range of applications, from scientific
calculations to entertainment.
 Storage: Computers can store vast amounts of data for future use.
 Automation: Computers can be programmed to perform tasks automatically without human
intervention.

Limitations of a Computer
 Lack of Intelligence: Computers cannot think independently or make decisions without
human intervention. They rely on programmed instructions.
 No Common Sense: Computers lack common sense and cannot understand the context of
situations like humans do.
 Dependency on Humans: Computers are dependent on humans for programming, data
input, and maintenance.
 Incapable of Feeling: Computers cannot experience emotions or feelings.
 Error Prone: Although computers are accurate, they can produce errors if the input data or
programs are incorrect.
 Ethical Concerns: The misuse of computers can lead to ethical issues like privacy breaches
and cybercrime.

Classification of Computers
Computers can be classified based on several factors including size, capacity,
purpose, and data handling.

Classification Based on Size and Capacity

 Supercomputers: These are the most powerful computers, capable of handling massive
amounts of data and complex calculations. They are used for scientific research, weather
forecasting, and simulations.
 Mainframe Computers: Large and expensive computers used by large organizations to
handle huge volumes of data. They are used in banking, airlines, and government sectors.
 Minicomputers: Smaller and less expensive than mainframes, but still powerful enough for
multiple users. They are used in small businesses and educational institutions.
 Microcomputers: Also known as personal computers (PCs), these are the most common type
of computers used for personal and business use.
o Desktop computers: Traditional computers with a separate monitor, keyboard, and
mouse.
o Laptop computers: Portable computers with a built-in keyboard and screen.
o Tablet computers: Touchscreen devices with a mobile operating system.
 o Smartphones: Mobile phones with advanced computing capabilities.

Classification Based on Data Handling

 Analog Computers: These computers use physical quantities to represent data, such as
voltage or current. They are used in scientific instruments and control systems.
 Digital Computers: These computers use discrete values (0s and 1s) to represent data.
Almost all modern computers are digital.
 Hybrid Computers: These computers combine features of both analog and digital computers.
They are used in specific applications like medical equipment and process control.

Difference between the Analog Computer

1. Analog computer accepts the 1.Digital Computer accepts data in

data is continuous form discrete form.
2.Less Accurate 2.More Accurate
3.Speed is Slow 3. Fast
4.Represent data as Physical 4.Represent data as Numbers
Quantities
5.Memory is Limited 5. Memory is Expandable.
6. Examples: Thermometers, voltmeters, 6. Modern computers, smartphones,
analog clocks tablets.

Evolution of the Computer:

First Generation (1940-1956)

 Hardware: Vacuum tubes

 Characteristics:
o Large, bulky, and consumed a lot of power.
o Generated a lot of heat.
o Slow speed and unreliable.
o Used machine language for programming.
o Examples: ENIAC, UNIVAC.

Second Generation (1956-1963)

  Hardware: Transistors
 Characteristics:
o Smaller, faster, and more reliable than vacuum tubes.
o Less heat generation.
o Introduced assembly language.
o Batch operating systems.
o Examples: IBM 1401.

Third Generation (1964-1971)

 Hardware: Integrated circuits (ICs)

 Characteristics:
o Smaller, faster, and cheaper than transistors.
o Introduction of high-level programming languages
(FORTRAN, COBOL).
o Operating systems developed.
o Time-sharing systems.
o Examples: IBM 360.

Fourth Generation (1971-present)

 Hardware: Microprocessors
 Characteristics:
o Microprocessors led to the development of personal
computers (PCs).
o Vast improvement in speed, size, and cost.
o User-friendly interfaces.
o Networking and internet.
o Examples: Intel 4004, Apple II, IBM PC.

Fifth Generation (present and beyond)

 Hardware: Artificial intelligence (AI)

 Characteristics:
o Focus on developing computers that can think and reason
like humans.
o Natural language processing.
o Robotics.
o Expert systems.
o Still under development.

Key Improvements Over Generations

  Increased speed and efficiency.
 Reduced size and power consumption.
 Enhanced storage capacity.
 Improved reliability.
 Development of user-friendly interfaces.
 Advancements in software and programming languages.

Major Components of a Digital Computer

A digital computer is composed of several interconnected components
that work together to process data. These components can be categorized
into four main functional units:

1. Input Unit

 Function: Receives data and instructions from the outside world

and converts them into a form that the computer can understand.
 Components: Keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone, etc.

2. Output Unit

 Function: Displays the processed data and information to the

user.
 Components: Monitor, printer, speakers, projector, etc.

3. Memory Unit

 Function: Stores data and instructions temporarily or

permanently.
 Types:

o Primary Memory: RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM

(Read Only Memory).
o Secondary Memory: Hard disk, SSD, CD, DVD, etc.

4. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the brain of the computer and is responsible for controlling
and processing data. It consists of three main components:
  Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical
operations.
 Control Unit (CU): Coordinates the activities of other components.
 Registers: High-speed storage locations for data and instructions.

Hardware and Software

Hardware

 Definition: The physical components of a computer system that

you can touch and see.
 Examples: Keyboard, mouse, monitor, CPU, hard drive, printer.
 Think of it as the body of a computer.

Software

 Definition: The set of instructions that tell the hardware what to

do. It's the intangible part of a computer.
 Examples: Operating systems (Windows, macOS, Linux), word
processors (Microsoft Word), web browsers (Chrome, Firefox),
games.
 Think of it as the brain of a computer.

Difference between System And Application

Software
Applications of Computers
Computers have revolutionized almost every aspect of our lives. Here are
some key areas where computers are extensively used:

In Daily Life

 Communication: Email, social media, video conferencing.

 Entertainment: Gaming, music, movies, online streaming.
 Education: Online learning, educational software, research.
 Finance: Online banking, bill payments, investments.
 Shopping: Online shopping, e-commerce.

In Business

 Data Management: Storing, retrieving, and analyzing data.

 Accounting and Finance: Financial software, payroll, budgeting.
  Marketing: Digital marketing, social media marketing, customer
relationship management (CRM).
 Production: Computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM).
 Supply Chain Management: Inventory management, logistics.

In Science and Research

 Data Analysis: Processing large datasets, scientific simulations.

 Medical Research: Drug discovery, medical imaging, patient
records.
 Engineering: Designing products, simulating processes.
 Space Exploration: Data collection, image processing, spacecraft
control.

In Government

 Administration: Record-keeping, citizen services, e-governance.

 Defense: Military simulations, intelligence analysis.
 Law Enforcement: Crime investigation, surveillance.

In Other Fields

 Healthcare: Patient records, medical diagnosis, telemedicine.

 Agriculture: Farm management, weather forecasting, crop
analysis.
 Education: Online learning, educational software, virtual
classrooms.
 Transportation: Air traffic control, GPS navigation, autonomous
vehicles.

Input/Output (I/O) Devices

I/O devices are the communication channels between a computer and the
outside world. They enable users to interact with the computer and
provide a way for the computer to present information.

Input Devices

 Definition: Devices that allow data and instructions to be entered

into a computer.
  Examples:
o Keyboard: For typing text.
o Mouse: For controlling the cursor and selecting options.
o Scanner: For converting printed documents into digital
images.
o Microphone: For capturing audio input.
o Webcam: For capturing video input.
o Joystick: For controlling games or other applications.

Output Devices

 Definition: Devices that display or produce the processed data

and information from the computer.
 Examples:
o Monitor: Visual display of information.
o Printer: Produces hard copies of documents.
o Speakers: Output audio.
o Projector: Displays images on a large screen.
o Plotter: Produces high-quality graphics.

Primary and Secondary Memory

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

 Definition: It is the computer's primary working memory where

data and instructions are stored temporarily for immediate access
by the CPU.
 Characteristics:
o Volatile: Data is lost when the power is turned off.
o Faster access compared to secondary memory.
o Smaller capacity compared to secondary memory.
o More expensive than secondary memory.
 Types:

o RAM (Random Access Memory): Read and write data,

volatile.
o ROM (Read Only Memory): Pre-stored data, non-volatile.
o Cache Memory: High-speed memory for frequently
accessed data.
Secondary Memory (Auxiliary Memory)

 Definition: It is used for permanent storage of data and programs.

 Characteristics:

o Non-volatile: Data persists even when the power is off.

o Slower access compared to primary memory.
o Larger capacity compared to primary memory.
o Less expensive than primary memory.

 Types:

o Magnetic Storage: Hard disk drives (HDD), floppy disks,

magnetic tapes.
o Optical Storage: CD-ROM, DVD, Blu-ray.
o Solid-State Storage: SSD (Solid-State Drive), flash memory.

Fixed-Point and Floating-Point Numbers

Fixed-Point Numbers
  Definition: A fixed-point number is a number with a fixed number of digits after the decimal
point.
 Characteristics:
o Simple to understand and implement.
o Efficient for calculations involving a specific range of values.
o Limited dynamic range (range of numbers that can be represented).
 Example: In a system with 2 decimal places, numbers like 12.34, 5.67, and 99.99 can be
represented.

Floating-Point Numbers
 Definition: A floating-point number represents a real number with a variable number of
digits after the decimal point.
 Characteristics:
o Can represent a wide range of values, from very small to very large.
o More complex to implement than fixed-point.
o Used for scientific calculations, engineering, and applications requiring high
precision.
 Example: Numbers like 1.23e+10 (which is 1.23 multiplied by 10^10), or 3.14e-2 (which is
3.14 multiplied by 10^-2).

Key Differences:

Feature Fixed-Point Floating-Point

Decimal point Fixed position Variable position
Range Limited Wide
Precision Lower Higher
Complexity Simpler More complex
Use cases Specific range calculations Scientific, engineering

Character Representations: ASCII, EBCDIC, and

Unicode
Introduction

Character representations are essential for computers to understand and process text.
They assign numerical values to characters, allowing for storage and manipulation.
ASCII
 American Standard Code for Information Interchange
 Uses 7 bits to represent 128 characters
 Includes uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, punctuation, and control characters
 Example: The character 'A' has an ASCII value of 65 (decimal) or 41 (hexadecimal)

EBCDIC
 Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
 Primarily used by IBM mainframes
 Uses 8 bits to represent 256 characters
 Character arrangement differs from ASCII
 Example: The character 'A' has an EBCDIC value of 193 (decimal) or C1 (hexadecimal)

Unicode
 A universal character encoding standard
 Supports text in almost all writing systems
 Uses variable-length encoding to represent characters
 Example: The character 'A' has a Unicode code point of U+0041