Programming Logic and Design

Chapter-1: Introduction to computers

Definition: A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the ability to
store, retrieve, and process data.

Computer is perhaps the most Powerful tool that man has invented Computers have made a Ereat
impact on our daily life. Rarely does a field exists where its presence is not felt .This includes industries,
banks, offices, hospitals, airports railways, retails stores, schools. colleges and homes.
All kinds of people use computers for performing 2 wide variety of jobs in 2 modern society.
A computer is nothing but 2 programmable computing machines. In the early days of Computers, they
were used largely by scientific and engineering community to carry out Complex computations. In those
days computers were typically large, powerful and costly. Hence only large organizations, governments,
research labs or universities could
afford them. With advancements in semiconductor technology, it is now possible to manufacture Very
powerful computers at a reasonable cost. This has brought computers
within the reach of smaller organizations and even individuals.

These Computers are used for variety of purposes.

Some of these are listed below:

(a) Perform fast computations in a laboratory

(b) Control different processes or machines
(c) Measure, display and control physical quantities
(d) Text preparation, manipulation and publishing
(e) Preparing graphics and animation
(f) Store and retrieve huge amounts of information
(g) Map geographical locations
(h) Building expert systems and robots
(i) Transmitting information 2cross networks
j) Building complex enterprise applications
k)The very expanse of the above applications would quickly bring forth one point-every person has to
have at least a working knowledge of computers, since today rarely does a
field exists which has not been influenced by computers.

Evolution of Computers

Computers have gone through many changes over time. The first generation of computers started
around 1940 and since then there have been five generations of computers until 2023. Computers
evolved over a long period of time, starting from the 16th century, and continuously improved
themselves in terms of speed, accuracy, size, and price to become the modern day computer.

The different phases of this long period are known as computer generations. The first generation of
computers was developed from 1940-1956, followed by the second generation from 1956-1963, the
third generation from 1964-1971, the fourth generation from 1971 until the present, and the fifth
generation are still being developed.
Before computers, as we know them today, mathematicians and inventors looked for ways to make
calculations easier without using graphing calculators, spreadsheets, computer algebra systems, etc.

First Generation of Computers

Second Generation of Computers

Third Generation of Computers

Fourth Generation of Computers

Fifth Generation of Computers

First Generation of Computers

The first generation used vacuum tube technology and were built between 1946 and 1959. Vacuum
tubes were expensive and produced a lot of heat, which made these computers very expensive and only
affordable to large organizations. Machine language was the programming language used for these
computers, and they could not multitask.

The ENIAC was the first electronic general-purpose computer that used 18,000 vacuum tubes and was
built in 1943 for war-related calculations. Examples of the first generation include EDVAC, IBM-650, IBM-
701, Manchester Mark 1, Mark 2, etc.

Here are two of the main advantages of first-generation:

1. The first generation was tough to hack and was quite strong.
2. The first generation could perform calculations quickly, in just one-thousandth of a second.
Here are two of the main disadvantages of first-generation:

1. They consumed high amounts of energy/electricity.

2. They were not portable due to their weight and size.

Second Generation of Computers

The second generation of computers was developed in the late 1950s and 1960s. These computers
replaced vacuum tubes with transistors making them smaller, faster and more efficient. This was done as
transistors were more reliable than vacuum tubes, required less maintenance and generated less heat.

Second-generation computers were smaller and more portable, making them accessible to a wider
audience. Magnetic core memory was also introduced in this generation, which was faster and more
reliable. This laid the foundation for further developments, paving the way for the third generation that
used integrated circuits.

Here are two of the main advantages of first-generation:

They provided better speed and improved accuracy.
Computers developed in this era were smaller, more reliable, and capable of using less power.
Here are two of the main disadvantages of first-generation:
They were only used for specific objectives and required frequent maintenance.
The second generation of computer used punch cards for input, which required frequent maintenance.

Third Generation of Computers

The third generation of computers emerged between 1964 and 1971. This generation used microchips or
integrated circuits, making it possible to create smaller, cheaper, and much faster computers.
The third generation of computers was much faster than previous generations, with computational times
reduced from microseconds to nanoseconds. New input devices like the mouse and keyboard were
introduced, replacing older methods like punch cards. New functionalities, like multiprogramming and
time-sharing, and remote processing, were introduced, allowing for more efficient use of computer
resources.
Here are two of the main advantages of first generation:
The use of integrated circuits made them more reliable.
Smaller in size and required less space than previous generations.
Here are two of the main disadvantages of first generation:
Advanced technology was needed to manufacture IC chips.
Formal training was necessary to operate third-gen computers.

Fourth Generation of Computers

Fourth generation computers were developed in 1972 after third generation that used microprocessors.
They used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits, which contained about 5000 transistors capable of
performing complex activities and computations.
Fourth generation computers were more adaptable, had more primary storage capacity, were faster and
more reliable than previous generations, and were also portable, small, and required less electricity. Intel
was the first company to develop a microprocessor used in fourth generation computer.
Fourth generation computers used LSI chip technology and were incredibly powerful but also very small,
leading to a societal revolution in the computer industry. This generation had the first supercomputers,
used complex programming languages like C, C++, DBASE, etc., and could perform many accurate
calculations.
Here are two of the main advantages of first generation:
Fourth generation computers were smaller and more dependable.
GUI (Graphics User Interface) technology was used in this generation to provide users with better
comfort.
Here are two of the main disadvantages of first generation:
They use complex VLSI Chips, and VLSI Chip manufacturing requires advanced technology.
To build these computers, Integrated Circuits (ICs) were required, and to develop those, cutting-edge
technology was needed.

Fifth Generation of Computers

The fifth generation of computers emerged after the fourth generation and is still being developed.
Computers of fifth generation use artificial intelligence (AI) to perform various tasks. These computers
use programming languages such as Python, R, C#, Java, etc., as input methods.

The fifth generation computers employ ULSI technology (Ultra Large Scale Integration), parallel
processing, and AI to perform scientific computations and develop AI software. They can perform
intricate tasks such as image recognition, human speech interpretation, natural language understanding,
etc. Examples of fifth generation include laptops, desktops, notebooks, chromebooks, etc.

Here are two of the main advantages of first generation:

These computers are lightweight and easy to move around.
They are easier to repair and parallel processing technology has improved in these computers.
Here are two of the main disadvantages of first generation:
Using it for spying on people.
Fear of unemployment due to AI replacing jobs.

What is a computer

A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input and processes it with a
set of instructions (a program) to produce the result as output. It renders output just after performing
mathematical and logical operations and can save the output for future use. It can process numerical as
well as non-numerical calculations. The term "computer" is derived from the Latin word "computare"
which means to calculate.

A computer is designed to execute applications and provides a variety of solutions through integrated
hardware and software components. It works with the help of programs and represents the decimal
numbers through a string of binary digits. It also has a memory that stores the data, programs, and result
of processing. The components of a computer such as machinery that includes wires, transistors, circuits,
hard disk are called hardware. Whereas, the programs and data are called software.

It is believed that the Analytical Engine was the first computer which was invented by Charles Babbage in
1837. It used punch cards as read-only memory. Charles Babbage is also known as the father of the
computer.
Computer Parts or Components

Computer components are the essential building parts of developing a functional computer system. The
components that make up a computer are called computer components. The processor (CPU), memory,
and input/output devices are every computer's three main building blocks. Initially computers were
primarily used for numerical computations because any information can be numerically encoded. The
ability of computers to interpret information for several purposes was quickly recognized.

There are 5 main computer components that are given below:

o Input Devices
o CPU
o Output Devices
o Primary Memory
o Secondary Memory

Let's look a bit further at each of them.

Input devices

A computer system's input devices are important because they allow users to enter commands and data.
Keyboards, mice, scanners, and microphones are numerous examples of input devices.
 o The keyboard is the most commonly utilized input device for inserting text and queries into a
computer system.
o Mice are another common input tool used to move the cursor on a computer screen.
o Scanners are used for inputting physical documents or images into a computer system.
o Microphones are used to input audio data into a system for computing. They can be used for
various tasks, including recording audio for podcasts, participating in video conferences, and
creating voice memos for later use.

CPU

A computer machine's "brain" is its central processing unit (CPU). It executes the calculations and
commands required for functioning of the computer device. The CPU comprises some components: the
control unit, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and registers.

o The CPU's control unit is a crucial component. It is in charge of reading and decoding instructions
from memory. The right part of the CPU receives and executes these instructions from the control
unit.
o The ALU, often known as the arithmetic logic unit, is another crucial CPU part. The ALU operates
addition, subtraction, comparison calculations, and other logical and mathematical processes.
These operations are carried out using binary logic, which limits operations to the 0 and 1 digits.
o Registers are compact, high-speed data and instruction storage spaces within the CPU. They are
utilized to store data that is being processed by the CPU momentarily. Registers are used to
accelerate data processing because they are much faster than other forms of memory, such as
RAM.
 o The CPU's clock speed is yet another crucial aspect that affects overall performance. The clock
speed, measured in GHz (gigahertz), controls what number of commands the integral processing
unit can process in a second.

Modern CPUs also have additional features like cache memory, virtualization capability, and a couple of
cores in addition to the abovementioned components. A small, quick memory called a cache is used to
store data and instructions that are utilized frequently. A single CPU may run numerous operating systems
thanks to virtualization capability. The CPU can execute numerous tasks simultaneously thanks to multiple
cores, enhancing its performance and multitasking capabilities.

Primary Memory

The CPU has direct access to primary memory, sometimes referred to as random access memory (RAM).
The data and instructions that are currently being processed are kept in primary memory. The data and
instructions are accessed by the CPU from primary memory when a computer programme is running. The
information is removed from primary memory once the programme is completed.

Primary memory is classified into two types: random access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM).

o RAM is the most common form of primary memory and is used to store data and instructions that
the CPU wishes to access frequently. RAM is volatile, which means that its contents are lost when
the computer is turned off. But RAM can be effortlessly and quickly written to and read from,
making it a really perfect storage medium for temporary data and instructions.
o ROM is a form of memory this is used to store data and instructions that don't change. ROM is
non-volatile, which means that its contents aren't lost while the computer is turned off. ROM is
used to keep firmware and the laptop's basic input/Output machine (BIOS), that are required for
the computer to boot up and function well.

Other primary memory types, including cache memory, are sometimes used in computer systems. High-
speed memory called cache saves information and instructions, which might be utilized often. By lowering
the time, the CPU has to wait for data to be received from RAM or secondary storage devices, it is used
to speed up the processing of records.
Secondary Memory:

Secondary memory, also called auxiliary storage, is a type of computer memory that is used to store data
and programs that aren't currently being utilized by the CPU. In contrast to primary memory, secondary
memory is non-volatile, which means that its contents are not lost when the computer is turned off.

There are several types of secondary memory devices, such as hard disk drives (HDD), solid-state drives
(SSD), optical disks (including CDs and DVDs), and USB flash drives. These devices have varying storage
capacities, read and write speeds, and different capabilities that make them appropriate for different
types of applications.

Hard disc drives are the most typical secondary memory tool in computing devices and laptop computers.
They come in various sizes and speeds and keep data on magnetic discs. However, solid-state drives
employ flash memory to store data and are typically quicker and more reliable despite being extra high-
priced than HDDs.

o Optical discs are a secondary memory that reads and writes data to discs using lasers. They are
frequently used for data backup, distribution of software, and other digital information. Small,
portable storage devices known as USB flash drives are connected to a computer's USB
connection.
Users can store a lot of data and programmes in secondary memory, which is useful since it makes them
accessible fast and readily when needed. Users can also protect crucial data from loss due to system
crashes or other issues by using secondary memory devices as backups.

Output Devices:

Output devices are hardware components of a computer system that are used to show or send data from
the pc to the user or any other device. They enable customers to view and engage with the information
and applications the computer is processing. Speakers, projectors, printers, and monitors are a few
examples of output devices.
 o Monitors are the most frequently used output devices used to show data on a computer machine.
They may be used to show photos, videos, and different forms of data and exist in various sizes
and resolutions.
o Printers are another form of output device this is used to print hard copies of papers and other
styles of data. They include inkjet and laser printers and are available in various sizes and brands.
While laser printers utilize toner to make speedy, high-volume prints, inkjet printers employ liquid
ink to produce high-quality prints.
o Speakers are used to output sound from a computer system. They can be connected externally or
incorporated into the computer system. They enable users to interact with other forms of
multimedia material, view videos, and listen to music.
o Projectors are output device that displays huge images and videos on a screen or wall. They are
frequently utilized in presentations and other occasions that call for a sizable display.
o
Operations of Computer Components

The operations of computer components are given below:

Computer components collaborate to carry out the numerous tasks necessary for a computer system to
run. The following are some of the major operations carried out by computer components:
1. Inputting: It is the process of entering raw data, instructions and information into the computer.
Keyboards, mice, and scanners are used as input devices to help with the process. These tools are
used to enter information and instructions into a computer system. Data is transferred to the CPU
for processing after inputting by an input device.
2. Processing: It is the process of converting the raw data into useful information. This process is
performed by the CPU of the computer. It takes the raw data from storage, processes it and then
sends back the processed data to storage. The CPU performs arithmetic computations, logical
operations, and data transport processes.
3. Storing: The computer has primary memory and secondary storage to store data and instructions.
It stores the data before sending it to CPU for processing and also stores the processed data
before displaying it as output. The primary memory, sometimes called RAM, is where the CPU
processes the data and instructions. Hard disc drives and solid-state drives, which serve as
secondary memory, offer long-term storage for data and programmes that are not currently used.
4. Outputting: It is the process of presenting the processed data through output devices like
monitor, printer and speakers. These devices display or produce the results of the processing
performed by the CPU. The results are sent to an output device for display or printing after the
CPU has finished processing the data and instructions.
5. Controlling: This operation is performed by the control unit that is part of CPU. The control unit
ensures that all basic operations are executed in a right manner and sequence. The main circuit
board connects all the parts of the computer. It also regulates the data flow between them,
ensuring they function properly and connecting them all.

Benefits of Using a Computer:

o Increases your productivity: A computer increases your productivity. For example, after having a
basic understanding of a word processor, you can create, edit, store, and print the documents
easily and quickly.
o Connects to the Internet: It connects you to the internet that allows you to send emails, browse
content, gain information, use social media platforms, and more. By connecting to the internet,
you can also connect to your long-distance friends and family members.
 o Storage: A computer allows you to store a large amount of information, e.g., you can store your
projects, ebooks, documents, movies, pictures, songs, and more.
o Organized Data and Information: It not only allows you to store data but also enables you to
organize your data. For example, you can create different folders to store different data and
information and thus can search for information easily and quickly.
o Improves your abilities: It helps write good English if you are not good at spelling and grammar.
Similarly, if you are not good at math, and don't have a great memory, you can use a computer to
perform calculations and store the results.
o Assist the physically challenged: It can be used to help the physically challenged, e.g., Stephen
Hawking, who was not able to speak used computer to speak. It also can be used to help blind
people by installing special software to read what is on the screen.
o Keeps you entertained: You can use the computer to listen to songs, watch movies, play games
and more.
The computer has become a part of our life. There are plenty of things that we do in a day are dependent
on a computer. Some of the common examples are as follows:
1. ATM: While withdrawing cash from an ATM, you are using a computer that enables the ATM to
take instructions and dispense cash accordingly.
2. Digital currency: A computer keeps a record of your transactions and balance in your account and
the money deposited in your account in a bank is stored as a digital record or digital currency.
3. Trading: Stock markets use computers for day to day trading. There are many advanced
algorithms based on computers that handle trading without involving humans.
4. Smartphone: The smartphone that we use throughout the day for calling, texting, browsing is
itself a computer.
5. VoIP: All voice over IP communication (VoIP) is handled and done by computers.
Types of Computer
We can categorize computer in two ways: on the basis of data handling capabilities and size.
On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:
o Analogue Computer
o Digital Computer
o Hybrid Computer
1) Analogue Computer
Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is continuous data that
changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can say that analogue computers are used
where we don't need exact values always such as speed, temperature, pressure and current.
Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first converting it into
numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in physical quantity and generally render
output as a reading on a dial or scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue
computers.
Analog computers accept data directly from a measuring device without converting it to numbers and
codes.

Analog Computers measure continuous changes in physical quantities. Speedometer and mercury
thermometers are examples of analog computers.
Advantages of using analogue computers:
o It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and continuous representation
of all data within the rage of the analogue machine.
o In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the help of transducers for
converting the inputs or outputs to digital electronic form and vice versa.
o The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the analogue computer. It
provides insight into the problem and helps understand the errors and their effects.
Types of analogue computers:
o Slide Rules: It is one of the simplest types of mechanical analogue computers. It was developed
to perform basic mathematical calculations. It is made of two rods. To perform the calculation,
the hashed rod is slid to line up with the markings on another rod.
o Differential Analysers: It was developed to perform differential calculations. It performs
integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to solve differential calculations.
o Castle Clock: It was invented by Al-Jarazi. It was able to save programming instructions. Its height
was around 11 feet and it was provided with the display of time, the zodiac, and the solar and
lunar orbits. This device also could allow users to set the length of the day as per the current
season.
o Electronic Analogue Computer: In this type of analogue computer, electrical signals flow through
capacitors and resistors to simulate physical phenomena. Here, the mechanical interaction of
components does not take place. The voltage of the electrical signal generates the appropriate
displays.
2) Digital Computer
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It accepts the
raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1) and processes it with programs stored
in its memory to produce the output. All modern computers like laptops, desktops including smartphones
that we use at home or office are digital computers.
Advantages of digital computers:
o It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily whenever you need
it.
o You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
o Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the program without making
any changes in hardware
o The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology.
o It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
o It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.
o Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise, temperature, humidity,
and other properties of its components.
3) Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like an analogue computer
and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can process both continuous and discrete data.
It accepts analogue signals and convert them into digital form before processing. So, it is widely used in
specialized applications where both analogue and digital data is processed. For example, a processor is
used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price. Similarly, they
are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific applications.
Advantages of using hybrid computers:
o Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of the analogue subsystem.
o It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
o It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time.
o It helps in the on-line data processing.

On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:

1) Supercomputer

Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process huge amount of
data. A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second. It has thousands of
interconnected processors.
Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather
forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. The first supercomputer was developed
by Roger Cray in 1976.
Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:
o It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security reasons.
o It produces excellent results in animations.
o It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
o It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions. It can run in
NOAA's system (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) that can execute any type of
simple and logical data.
o It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for their training.
o It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centres or cloud system. For example,
in insurance companies.
o It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock market and bitcoin.
 o It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate results in brain
injuries, strokes, etc.
o It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analysing data obtained from exploring the solar
system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
o It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and other pollutants in the
atmosphere.
2) Mainframe computer

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. They can
support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different processes
simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big organizations like
banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process high volume of data.

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. They
can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different processes
simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big organizations like
banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process a high volume of data that requires
integer operations such as indexing, comparisons, etc.
Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:
o It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in the banking sector.
o It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper installation.
o It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.
o It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors and input/output
terminals.
o There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe computers. If any error
occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the performance.
o It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of information and data.
Applications of mainframe computers:
o In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a record of their millions of patients in order to
contact them for treatment or related to their appointment, medicine updates or disease
updates.
 o In the field of defence, it allows the defence departments to share a large amount of sensitive
information with other branches of defence.
o In the field of education, it helps big universities to store, manage and retrieve data related to
their courses, admissions, students, teachers, employees and affiliated schools and colleges.
o In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge customer base and branches use
mainframe computers to handle and execute information related to their inventory management,
customer management, and huge transactions in a short duration.
3) Miniframe or Minicomputer
It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and can support 4 to 200
users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes and departments for tasks such as billing,
accounting and inventory management. A minicomputer lies between the mainframe and
microcomputer as it is smaller than mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.
Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

o It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.

o It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
o It is very fast compared to its size.
o It remains charged for a long time.
o It does not require a controlled operational environment.
Applications of minicomputers:
A minicomputer is mainly used to perform three primary functions, which are as follows:
o Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing. It mainly performs two primary
functions that are collecting data and feedback. If any abnormality occurs in the process, it is
detected by the minicomputer and necessary adjustments are made accordingly.
o Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to collect, store and share
data. Local hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain the records of their patients and customers
respectively.
o Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device in larger systems by
serving as a portal between a human operator and a central processor or computer.
4) Workstation

Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific applications. It has a
faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and high speed graphic adapters. It generally performs a
specific job with great expertise; accordingly, they are of different types such as graphics workstation,
music workstation and engineering design workstation.
Characteristics of workstation computer:
o It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for business or professional
use.
o It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a personal computer.
o It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and editing.
Any computer that has the following five features, can be termed as a workstation or can be used as a
workstation.
o Multiple Processor Cores: It has more processor cores than simple laptops or computers.
o ECC RAM: It is provided with Error-correcting code memory that can fix memory errors before
they affect the system's performance.
o RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): It refers to multiple internal hard drives to store
or process data. RAID can be of different types, for example, there can be multiple drives to
process data or mirrored drives where if one drive does not work than other starts functioning.
o SSD: It is better than conventional hard-disk drives. It does not have moving parts, so the chances
of physical failure are very less.
o Optimized, Higher end GPU: It reduces the load on CPU. E.g., CPU has to do less work while
processing the screen output.
5) Microcomputer
Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose computer that is designed
for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory, storage area, input unit
and output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are examples of microcomputers. They are suitable for
personal work that may be making an assignment, watching a movie, or at office for office work.
Characteristics of a microcomputer:
o It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.
o A limited number of software can be used.
o It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at a time.
o It is less expansive and easy to use.
o It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.
o Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.
o It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching videos, etc.

What is Computer Hardware?

Hardware, which is abbreviated as HW, refers to all physical components of a computer system, including
the devices connected to it. You cannot create a computer or use software without using hardware. The
screen on which you are reading this information is also a hardware.

What is a hardware upgrade?

A hardware upgrade refers to a new hardware, or a replacement for the old one, or additional hardware
developed to improve the performance of the existing hardware. A common example of a hardware
upgrade is a RAM upgrade that increases the computer's total memory, and video card upgrade, where
the old video card is removed and replaced with the new one.

Computer Hardware Parts

Some of the commonly used hardware in your computer are described below:
 1. Motherboard
2. Monitor
3. Keyboard
4. Mouse

1) Motherboard:

The motherboard is generally a thin circuit board that holds together almost all parts of a computer except
input and output devices. All crucial hardware like CPU, memory, hard drive, and ports for input and
output devices are located on the motherboard. It is the biggest circuit board in a computer chassis.

It allocates power to all hardware located on it and enables them to communicate with each other. It is
meant to hold the computer's microprocessor chip and let other components connect to it. Each
component that runs the computer or improves its performance is a part of the motherboard or
connected to it through a slot or port.

There can be different types of motherboards based on the type and size of the computers. So, a specific
motherboard can work only with specific types of processors and memory.

Components of a Motherboard:

CPU Slot: It is provided to install the CPU. It is a link between a microprocessor and a motherboard. It
facilitates the use of CPU and prevents the damage when it is installed or removed. Furthermore, it is
provided with a lock to prevent CPU movement and a heat sink to dissipate the extra heat.

RAM Slot: It is a memory slot or socket provided in the motherboard to insert or install the RAM (Random
Access Memory). There can be two or more memory slots in a computer.

Expansion Slot: It is also called the bus slot or expansion port. It is a connection or port on the
motherboard, which provides an installation point to connect a hardware expansion card, for example,
you can purchase a video expansion card and install it into the expansion slot and then can install a new
video card in the computer. Some of the common expansion slots in a computer are AGP, AMR, CNR, PCI,
etc.

Capacitor: It is made of two conductive plates, and a thin insulator sandwiched between them. These
parts are wrapped in a plastic container.

Inductor (Coil): It is an electromagnetic coil made of a conducting wire wrapped around an iron core. It
acts as an inductor or electromagnet to store magnetic energy.

Northbridge: It is an integrated circuit that allows communications between the CPU interface, AGP, and
memory. Furthermore, it also allows the southbridge chip to communicate with the RAM, CPU, and
graphics controller.

USB Port: It allows you to connect hardware devices like mouse, keyboard to your computer.
PCI Slot: It stands for Peripheral Component Interconnect slot. It allows you to connect the PCI devices
like modems, network hardware, sound, and video cards.

AGP Slot: It stands for Accelerated Graphics Port. It provides the slot to connect graphics cards.

Heat Sink: It absorbs and disperses the heat generated in the computer processor.

Power Connector: It is designed to supply power to the motherboard.

CMOS battery: It stands for complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor. It is a memory that stores the
BIOS settings such as time, date, and hardware settings.

2) Monitor:
A monitor is the display unit of a computer on which the processed data, such as text, images, etc., is
displayed. It comprises a screen circuity and the case which encloses this circuity. The monitor is also
known as a visual display unit (VDU).

Types of Monitors:

1. CRT Monitor: It has cathode ray tubes which produce images in the form of video signals. Its main
components are electron gun assembly, deflection plate assembly, glass envelope, fluorescent
screen, and base.
2. LCD Monitor: It is a flat panel screen. It uses liquid crystal display technology to produce images
on the screen. Advanced LEDs have thin-film transistors with capacitors and use active-matrix
technology, which allows pixels to retain their charge.
3. LED Monitor: It is an advanced version of an LCD monitor. Unlike an LCD monitor, which uses cold
cathode fluorescent light to backlight the display, it has LED panels, each of which has lots of LEDs
to display the backlight.
4. Plasma Monitor: It uses plasma display technology that allows it to produce high resolutions of
up to 1920 X 1080, wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate, outstanding contrast ration, and more.

3) Keyboard:

It is the most important input device of a computer. It is designed to allow you input text, characters, and
other commands into a computer, desktop, tablet, etc. It comes with different sets of keys to enter
numbers, characters, and perform various other functions like copy, paste, delete, enter, etc.

A keyboards is an input device through which users can input text, numbers, and special characters. It is
an input device with a typical QWERTY keyset. It is an external hardware device that is connected to the
computer. It serves as the user's most fundamental interface with a system. It has numerous buttons that
can be used to generate letters, numbers, and symbols as well as unique keys like the Windows and Alt
keys that can also accomplish other tasks.
Types of Keyboards:

1. QWERTY Keyboards
2. AZERTY Keyboards
3. DVORAK Keyboards

4) Mouse:

It is a small handheld device designed to control or move the pointer (computer screen's cursor) in a GUI
(graphical user interface). It allows you to point to or select objects on a computer's display screen. It is
generally placed on a flat surface as we need to move it smoothly to control the pointer. Types of Mouse:
Trackball mouse, Mechanical Mouse, Optical Mouse, Wireless Mouse, etc.
A mouse can be wireless or wired. It is a portable pointing device that is used to interact with objects on
computer screens with the help of moving the cursor around the screen. On the display screen, the cursor
moves in the same direction as the users' mouse movements. The term "mouse" refers to a compact,
wired, elliptical-shaped gadget that somewhat resembles a mouse.

Main functions of a mouse:

o Move the cursor: It is the main function of the mouse; to move the cursor on the screen.
o Open or execute a program: It allows you to open a folder or document and execute a program.
You are required to take the cursor on the folder and double click it to open it.
o Select: It allows you to select text, file, or any other object.
o Hovering: Hovering is an act of moving the mouse cursor over a clickable object. During hovering
over an object, it displays information about the object without pressing any button of the mouse.
o Scroll: It allows you to scroll up or down while viewing a long webpage or document.
Parts of a mouse:
 o Two buttons: A mouse is provided with two buttons for right click and left click.
o Scroll Wheel: A wheel located between the right and left buttons, which is used to scroll up and
down and Zoom in and Zoom out in some applications like AutoCAD.
o Battery: A battery is required in a wireless mouse.
o Motion Detection Assembly: A mouse can have a trackball or an optical sensor to provide signals
to the computer about the motion and location of the mouse.
What are external hardware components?
The items that are frequently attached to the computer from outside in order to control input or output
functions are known as external hardware components, sometimes known as peripheral components.
These hardware components either serve as input devices for the software or output devices for the
output of the software's operations (output).
The following are examples of common input hardware components:
o Microphone: A microphone is an input device that converts sound waves into electrical impulses
in order to allow computer-based audio communications. It was developed by Emile Berliner
in 1877. It is used to enter audio into computers or transform sound waves into electric waves. It
captures audio with the help of converting sound waves into an electrical signal that could be a
digital or analog signal. This process can be implemented by a computer as well as other digital
audio devices.

o Camera: Visual pictures are captured by a camera, which then transmits them to a computer or a
network device. A camera is a piece of equipment that takes photographs with the help of using
photosensitive film or a plate inside of a light-proof housing. The photosensitive film is exposed
to light via the camera's shutter, which opens and closes as the image is imprinted onto the film.

o Touchpad: A touchpad is an input device that is also known as a glide pad, glide point, pressure-
sensitive tablet, or trackpad. It enables finger cursor movement for the user. It can take the place
of a regular mouse. To control the pointer on a display screen, a touchpad can be either external
 or incorporated into a laptop. Usually, it serves as a substitute for an external mouse.

o USB flash drive: A USB flash drive is a type of storage device for data that connects to a computer
via a USB port and uses flash memory. It is an external, removable storage device that has a built-
in Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface. Many USB flash drives can be removed and written to.
They have a compact, reliable, and small physical design. They often operate more quickly the
more storage space they have. Because there are no moving parts, USB flash drives are extremely
mechanically durable.

o Memory card: A memory card is a kind of portable external storage device; video, photo, and
other data files can be stored on it. A form of storage medium, which is additionally known as a
flash memory. Also, it provides a volatile and non-volatile medium. It is frequently found in
gadgets, including phones, laptops, digital cameras, camcorders, gaming consoles, MP3 players,
printers, and more.

Joysticks, styluses, and scanners are examples of additional input hardware components.
The following are a few examples of output hardware components:
o Printer: A printer is a hardware output device used to produce hard copies of documents or print
them. It converts computer-generated electronic data into printed form. Text files, pictures, or a
combination of the two can all be considered documents. It receives input commands from users
so that computers or other devices may print the sheets. You must create a soft copy of your
report and print it using a printer, for example, if your institution needs you to submit a project
 report.

o Speaker: One of the most popular output devices is a speaker that connects to a computer to
generate a sound output. While some speakers can only be connected to computers, others can
be used with any type of sound system.

o Headphones, earphones, earbuds: These are also output devices much like speakers, which offer
audio that can only be heard by one listener.
Hardware vs. software
Hardware describes the physical parts of the computer or its delivery mechanisms that hold and execute
the software's written instructions. The intangible component of the system software enables the user to
communicate with the hardware and give commands to perform specific tasks. Computer software
includes:
o OS and associated tools;
o Applications that regulate particular computer operations
o Programs that generally operate on data provided by the user
Virtual keyboards are not physical keyboards; therefore, they are also considered software on mobile
devices and laptop computers.
The software must be developed to function properly with the hardware because they both are necessary
for a computer to create usable output. Also, they depend on each other.
If any system has malware or malicious software, such as worms, spyware, viruses, and Trojan horses,
they can have a significant impact on software and the operating system of a system. Malware, however,
has no effect on hardware.
On the other hand, malware can impact the system in additional ways. For example, it can use up a lot of
memory of the system or even reproduce itself to take up the entire hard drive. This can stop reliable
programs from working and causes the computer to run slowly. Furthermore, users may not be able to
access the files stored on the computer's hardware due to malware.
Software

Software, which is abbreviated as SW or S/W, is a set of programs that enables the hardware to perform
a specific task. All the programs that run the computer are software. The software can be of three types:
system software, application software, and programming software.

1) System Software

The system software is the main software that runs the computer. When you turn on the computer, it
activates the hardware and controls and coordinates their functioning. The application programs are also
controlled by system software. An operating system is an example of system software.

i) Operating System:

An operating system is the system software that works as an interface to enable the user to communicate
with the computer. It manages and coordinates the functioning of hardware and software of the
computer. The commonly used operating systems are Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Apple Mac OS X.

Some other examples of system software include:

o BIOS: It stands for basic input output system. It is a type of system software, which is stored in
Read Only Memory (ROM) located on the motherboard. However, in advanced computer
systems, it is stored in flash memory. BIOS is the first software that gets activated when you turn
on your computer system. It loads the drivers of the hard disk into memory as well as assists the
operating system to load itself into the memory.
o Boot Program: Boot refers to starting up a computer. When you switch on the computer, the
commands in the ROM are executed automatically to load the boot program into memory and
execute its instructions. The BIOS program has a basic set of commands that enables the
computer to perform the basic input/output instructions to start the computer.
o An assembler: It plays the role of a converter as it receives basic computer instructions and
converts them into a pattern of bits. The processor uses these bits to perform basic operations.
o A device driver: This system software controls hardware devices connected to a computer. It
enables the computer to use the hardware by providing an appropriate interface. The kernel of a
Computer's CPU communicates with different hardware through this software. Operating systems
generally come with most of the device drivers. If the operating system does not have a device
driver for hardware, you have to install the device driver before using that hardware device.

2) Application Software:

Application software is a set of programs designed to perform a specific task. It does not control the
working of a computer as it is designed for end-users. A computer can run without application software.
Application software can be easily installed or uninstalled as required. It can be a single program or a
collection of small programs. Microsoft Office Suite, Adobe Photoshop, and any other software like payroll
software or income tax software are application software. As we know, they are designed to perform
specific tasks. Accordingly, they can be of different types such as:
 o Word Processing Software: This software allows users to create, edit, format, and manipulate the
text and more. It offers lots of options for writing documents, creating images, and more. For
example, MS Word, WordPad, Notepad, etc.
o Spreadsheet Software: It is designed to perform calculations, store data, create charts, etc. It has
rows and columns, and the data is entered in the cell, which is an intersection of a row and
column, e.g., Microsoft Excel.
o Multimedia Software: These software are developed to perform editing of video, audio, and text.
It allows you to combine texts, videos, audio, and images. Thus, you can improve a text document
by adding photos, animations, graphics, and charts through multimedia software. For example,
VLC player, Window Media Player, etc.
o Enterprise Software: These software are developed for business operational functions. It is used
in large organizations where the quantum of business is too large. It can be used for accounting,
billing, order processing and more. For example, CRM (Customer Relationship Management), BI
(Business Intelligence), ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), SCM (Supply Chain Management),
customer support system, and more.

3) Programming Software:

It is a set or collection of tools that help developers in writing other software or programs. It assists them
in creating, debugging, and maintaining software or programs or applications. We can say that these are
facilitator software that helps translate programming language such as Java, C++, Python, etc., into
machine language code. So, it is not used by end-users. For example, compilers, linkers, debuggers,
interpreters, text editors, etc. This software is also called a programming tool or software development
tool.

Some examples of programming software include:

o Eclipse: It is a java language editor.

o Coda: It is a programming language editor for Mac.
o Notepad++: It is an open-source editor for windows.
o Sublime text: It is a cross-platform code editor for Linux, Mac, and Windows.

Operating System
Operating System Tutorial provides the basic and advanced concepts of operating system . Our Operating
system tutorial is designed for beginners, professionals and GATE aspirants. We have designed this tutorial
after the completion of a deep research about every concept.

The content is described in detailed manner and has the ability to answer most of your queries. The
tutorial also contains the numerical examples based on previous year GATE questions which will help you
to address the problems in a practical manner.

Operating System can be defined as an interface between user and the hardware. It provides an
environment to the user so that, the user can perform its task in convenient and efficient way.

The Operating System Tutorial is divided into various parts based on its functions such as Process
Management, Process Synchronization, Deadlocks and File Management.

Operating System Definition and Function

In the Computer System (comprises of Hardware and software), Hardware can only understand machine
code (in the form of 0 and 1) which doesn't make any sense to a naive user.

We need a system which can act as an intermediary and manage all the processes and resources present
in the system.
An Operating System can be defined as an interface between user and hardware. It is responsible for the
execution of all the processes, Resource Allocation, CPU management, File Management and many other
tasks.

The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in which a user can execute programs
in convenient and efficient manner.

Structure of a Computer System

A Computer System consists of:

Advanced Excel

What does an Operating system do?

1. Process Management
2. Process Synchronization