ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

(Early Childhood Education and Elementary

TeacherEducation Department)

ASSIGNMENT # 1 Course: General Method of

teaching Autumn-2023)

Level: B.Ed. 1.5 years

Student Name: Sitara Saleem

Course Code: 8601

Students ID. 0000763320@aiou.edu.pk

Semester : 1st Spring-2024

 Assignment No: 01

Q.1 Define and explain the concept of effective teaching. How

can you make your teaching more effective?

Ans. Teaching
In education, teaching is the concerted sharing of knowledge and experience, which is usually
organized within a discipline and, more generally, the provision of stimulus to the psychological
and intellectual growth of a person by another person or artifact.

Effective Teaching
Effective teaching can be defined in many ways including teacher behavior (warmth, civility,
and clarity), teacher knowledge (of subject matter, of students), teacher beliefs, and so forth.
Effective teaching can be defined as the ability to improve student achievement as shown by
research.

Some qualities of a good teacher include skills in communication, listening, collaboration,

adaptability, empathy and patience. Other characteristics of effective teaching include an
engaging classroom presence, value in real-world learning, exchange of best practices and a
lifelong love of learning.

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Effective teaching involves acquiring relevant knowledge about students and using that
knowledge to inform our course design and classroom teaching. Effective teaching occurs best
when all education stakeholders, including parents, policymakers, community members, and
educators, share responsibility for continuous improvement and student achievement. For
teachers in classrooms, effective professional learning is the single most powerful pathway to
promote continuous improvement in teaching.
ACE‟s commitment to student success includes an understanding of effective teaching as a
crucial building block of high student achievement. Effective teaching foregrounds the
relationship between instruction and student outcomes, supporting student attainment and
achievement. ACE‟s research and insights on effective teaching are part of our long history of
education content quality assurance, and encapsulate all stages of instruction, from planning and
preparation to feedback for future teaching.

By Controlling these Factors you can make your teaching more

effective:
Factors Affecting Effective Teaching
There are a number of factors that can affect how effective you are as a teacher and how
successful your students are in mastering subjects. When evaluating your performance as a
teacher, as well as other influences that affect your classroom, such as student behavior, it is
important to track how well the changes you make improve performance over time.

Appropriate Training

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Having the appropriate training to teach a specific subject is an important factor in being able to
teach that class effectively. For teaching in the public school system, teachers should have taken
courses in the subjects they wish to teach. For teaching college level courses, a PhD in the
discipline or a related field is
normally required, although many community colleges accept a master's degree and some
universities allow someone with a master's to teach while pursuing a
PhD. Effective teachers engage in continuing education to stay abreast of developments and
advances in their field.
Keep track of your professional development activities. Note any observable effects on student
outcomes.

Clear and Concise

Good communication skills are a must in order to effectively teach, whether you teach middle
school or are a college instructor. You must be able to project in a clear way. If students can't
keep up with you or have a hard time hearing you, they may also have a hard time understanding
the ideas or concepts they need to master to do well on exams and other assignments. You can
improve your communication skills by listening more closely, reflecting back what you heard,
simplifying instructions, providing more feedback, and restating important points to remember.

Learning Environment
Schools that offer students a positive learning environment, including the use technology in the
classroom and a quality library, give students an edge in mastering math, English, science and
other subjects. Up-to-date textbooks and other materials to use during lectures and other teacher
presentations are also important. Students learn best in a safe, caring, welcoming and inclusive
environment. Talk about the importance of valuing differences, celebrating diversity and being
accepting of students from different backgrounds.
Innovative Teachers
Teachers who are good at sparking the imagination of students through hands-on learning
activities or other creative approaches draw students into the joy of learning. These students no
longer see new ideas as something to dread.
Educators like Jaime Escalante, a math teacher portrayed in the movie "Stand and Deliver," show
that regardless of the economic disadvantages of many students and school
districts, a teacher who uses a creative approach can make a difference. Note any achievement
gaps between certain groups of students.
Research and implement strategies for closing the gap.

Student Behavior
Managing student behavior and maintaining discipline in your classroom is vital to creating a
learning environment where each student feels he can share his thoughts and ideas with you and
with his peers. It also helps you stay on track in presenting materials on schedule. This enables
you to fulfill the required curriculum for that academic year, semester or quarter. Consider taking
the lead in implementing an evidenced based behavioral management approach like
Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) in your school.
Teacher’s Knowledge, Enthusiasm and Responsibility for Learning
Good classroom is one in which knowledge is shared among teacher and students. Teacher not
only gives instructions but takes ideas of students during the teaching learning process and carry

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out discussions. In such an environment the knowledge is shared; students and teachers all
become learners and discover the world of the subject. In such an environment, a teacher takes
responsibility for the sharing and enjoyment of the knowledge.

Classroom Activities That Encourage Learning

In a classroom of opportunity and experience, the learners explore and do experiment. In such a
climate the process of learning become a measure of success and the students feel that they are
masters of their own learning. Attitude of a teacher in such a classroom can influence the
outcome.

Assessment Activities That Encourage Learning

Through experience the assessment contributes towards the creation of an effective learning
process. If the students know the value of assessment in the ongoing learning process, not at the
end, then they can work well and take part in the process and use it to gain better results. The
effective learning environment involves the process of peer tutoring, cooperative learning,
questioning, clarifying and summarizing. All of these processes are used to empower the
learners. For example is the teacher asks the question: ‘What do you do in the classroom?’ If
assessment activities are part of the ‘doing’ then they become a central part of the learning
process.
Effective Interaction between the Teacher and the Students, Creating an Environment That
Respects, Encourages and Stimulates Learning through Experience
Learning is an emotional exercise. Students like those things or actions that appeals to them
emotionally. The teacher who brings a sense of personal involvement to the classroom, and who
wants to share knowledge with the class. Up-to-date textbooks and other materials to use during
lectures and other teacher presentations are also important. Students learn best in a safe, caring,
welcoming and inclusive environment. Talk about the importance of valuing differences,
celebrating diversity and being accepting of students from different backgrounds.

Effective Feedback that Establishes the Learning

These students no longer see new ideas as something to dread.
Educators like Jaime Escalante, a math teacher portrayed in the movie "Stand and Deliver," show
that regardless of the economic disadvantages of many students and school
districts, a teacher who uses a creative approach can make a difference. When evaluating your
performance as a teacher, as well as other influences that affect your classroom, such as student
behavior, it is important to track how well the changes you make improve performance over
time.

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Q2: How does a teacher design the instructions? How can a
teacher assess the effectiveness of the taught lesson by
him/her?
ANSWER:

Def:
“Instruction refers to the process of teaching or imparting knowledge, skills, and information to
learners. It involves systematic planning, delivery, and assessment to facilitate learning.
Instruction can take place in various settings, such as classrooms, workshops, online platforms,
or one-on-one tutoring sessions”

What is design?
Design implies a systematic or intensive planning and ideation process prior to the

development of something or the execution of some plan in order to solve a problem.

Design has many applications. Design can be used to improve products, processes and
environments thereby improving daily lives of people. Using a systematic and creative process,
which has human needs at the core, design helps to solve human problem and bring about
responsible change.

Description:
It takes into consideration: content characteristics, learners' needs and preferences, features

of the classroom and institutional environment, and availability of resources. Instructional

design functions as a knowledge base that can guide educational practice.

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Systematic Design of Instruction . Here are step of design instruction.

 Goal
The instructional goal is identified by identifying the skills and knowledge that learners
expect to be included in the instruction. The goal represents what someone would be doing if
he or she were demonstrating he or she could already perform the goal. A goal analysis
consists of identifying what it is the students will be able to do, not what they have been or
will be taught, told, or read.

 Analysis of the learners

This is an analysis of what the learners expect to learn: the skills, knowledge, application
that is desired. Analysis may look at generalities (what is missing in medical care) and also at
the achievement needed to reach the goal. The entry level of learners in terms of their existing
knowledge and skills, and what instruction is needed to bring the learners to mastery at the
level desired is the analysis. Both learner analysis and context analysis is necessary to prepare
the instruction. Some learners may need to complete prework to bring them to a level for
instruction to be productive.

 Develop Needs
What learning should occur to bring the learners to the desired performance level.
What should the learners already know or be able to do and how do they learn best?
What is the personal setting in which the skills and knowledge will be used?
Instruction must contribute to meeting an identified need by providing the skills and
knowledge expected. Knowing the learners, the need, and the environment in which the
learning will be used all contribute to developing the needs. Since motivation is an important
factor in identifying needs, the ARCS model is a good introduction to needs analysis .
Learners are motivated by wishing to do their job in the best possible way.

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  Create objectives
Learning objectives are based on the learner needs that have been established.
Objectives serve as a guide both to planning instruction and for the learners to know what
learning to expect.
Learning objectives are stated in terms of active verbs and should indicate what the learner
will be able to do as a result of the learning experience.

 Design the learning

Learning experiences reflect the learning indicated by the objectives.
A meaningful learning experience is set in a context to enhance the type of learning, and
reflects needs and objectives and prepares for the expected outcome.
Remember that an expository or informational part of the learning process should also provide
learners with an opportunity to practice or apply what they have learned. In this way, they will
remember the information, gain skills, and transfer the learning into their own context of
practice.
Always consider the best delivery approach and how practice can be undertaken to best effect.

 Participate in feedback
Feedback is clear and focuses on improvement strategies
Feedback on learning tasks also needs to be regular and provided as soon as possible after
completion. Written, descriptive comments need to be in the language that is accessible to the
learners and should refer back to the preliminary discussion of learning goals and success
criteria. Effective feedback provides specific guidance on how to improve learning outcomes and
it enables the learner to think about the learning involved in the task and not just the activity of
completing the task.
Feedback encourages reflection
The amount of feedback needs to be limited to what learners can reasonably accept. Effective
feedback does not merely correct learners’ errors but actively requires them to reconsider their
work and think about why, for example, spelling and punctuation may be incorrect, where a
mistake has been made in mathematical workings or an idea or situation has been misunderstood.

Errors measure misunderstandings

It is recognised that making errors is a fundamental point in improving learning. Feedback on
where the misunderstandings and misconceptions are occurring assists learners to move to
greater understanding and success, to become more self-directed and to believe in their ability to
complete tasks and reach goals.

What are assessment strategies?

Assessment strategies are methods teachers use to evaluate their students' progress and plan the
content in their courses. Teachers perform assessments regularly to determine the next steps in
their lessons. If certain students are progressing slower than others, they can give them
individualized attention. If the entire class is performing behind or ahead of schedule, the teacher
can adjust the curriculum accordingly.Traditionally, teachers have relied on tests and quizzes to
assess progress. Many alternative assessment strategies exist, however, that are often more
effective, subjective and engaging for students. The key is to use a variety of fair and consistent
assessments.

 10 assessment strategies for students

When choosing which assessment strategies to use in your classroom, make decisions based on your
students' learning styles, your teaching style, the subject you teach and the content of your lessons. Here
are some assessment strategies you can use for inspiration:

1. Quizzes and polls

Quizzes and polls are easy to make and administer. You can give students periodic graded or
ungraded quizzes to assess both individual and group learning in your classroom. You create the
questions, so you decide how complex you want the quiz to be.Consider giving quizzes regularly
at the end of class to determine whether your students understood that day's lesson. You can also
hand out simple one-question quizzes that students can answer quickly and you can grade easily
to assess comprehension. This may help you identify what topics to discuss further before
moving on to another subject.

2. Interviews
Interview assessments or individual meetings are conferences to discuss what students know.
Schedule five-minute interviews with every student, and decide in advance what topic you want
to talk about or assess during each meeting. Private interviews can be friendly and informal, and
they not only help you assess your students' progress but also help you learn more about your
students and build stronger relationships with them. Many students also feel more comfortable
talking about their progress and challenges privately, without other students or parents present.

3. Entry and exit questions

Give each student a question at the beginning of class to find out what they remember from the
previous day's lesson. Then, give them another question at the end of class to see if they
understood that day's lesson. Collect all the responses and count how many understood the
lesson, partially understood the lesson or didn't understand the lesson. The number of students
that fall into each category should help guide your teaching plans going forward.When creating
entry and exit questions, you can ask targeted questions about specific concepts you taught or
open-ended questions such as:
What did you find most interesting about today's class?
What did you find most challenging about today's class?
List three things you learned today.
Tell me one thing you didn't understand today.

4. Reflective writing
Give your students journals and ask them to reflect on the day's lesson by writing about what
they learned as well as what they found challenging. Encourage them to explain how they might
apply the lesson or skill they learned in real life. You can then review their entries to determine

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your students' level of understanding and identify areas to focus on. To modernize and digitize
your assessment, give each student a personal blog to post in rather than a paper journal.

5. Choral responses
A choral response is a quick and easy way to assess your students' understanding of a concept
they just learned. Ask the entire class a question, and evaluate their level of understanding based
on the number and type of responses you receive. This exercise also encourages all students to
participate in the question-and-answer process.You might find that asking students to respond by
holding up a certain number of fingers is an easier way to assess a large group's responses. For
example, students may hold up one finger means to show they don’t understand the topic, or
they might hold up five to show they understand it completely. In this example, holding up
between two and four fingers shows some level of understanding.

6. Computer survey
Send your students computer-based surveys they can complete on their own time. A variety of online
platforms offer free survey tools. You can include short-response questions such as multiple
choice or true and false to assess their understanding of the day's or week's lessons. Another
benefit of using surveys is you can organize and evaluate responses by student or class and have
a record of responses to reference.

7. Presentations
Have students give short presentations to you or the class sharing what they have learned about a
particular topic. You could also ask them to summarize the lesson's most important concepts.
Rather than grading the presentations, use them as an assessment tool to determine students' level
of understanding.

8. Four corners
Four corners is an engaging assessment strategy that gets students moving around the room. Label each
corner of the room with a different level of comprehension: strongly agree, agree, disagree and
strongly disagree. State facts or details about the current lesson, and ask them to stand in the
corner of the room that represents their response. Encourage students to explain why they chose
a certain response so that you can make decisions about future lessons.

9. Lists
Midway through a lesson, pause and ask your students to list a certain number of things they’ve
learned. Review their lists to determine if students are at the appropriate level of understanding.
You can also use these lists to identify misunderstandings and areas you need to focus on more.

10. One-minute response

Ask your class a question about a topic, and give them one minute to write a response.
Encourage them to focus on their ideas and information rather than correct spelling, grammar
and writing conventions. Alternatively, you can ask your students to write a one-sentence
summary of what they have learned about that topic. Look for detail and understanding in their
responses, and use that to guide your lesson planning.

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Q.3 What are the different factors that influence student
motivation? Write a brief note on the theories of motivation.
Ans.

Motivation plays a huge role in how students learn and perform in school. However, failing to
understand what actually motivates students and not engaging them properly can have the
opposite effect. Therefore, it’s important to understand that motivation is a complex concept. In
fact, psychologists identify two different kinds: extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
Understanding them can help parents and teachers organize the learning process in a way that
best supports the students’ needs and interests. Consequently, that can positively affect their
performance and learning outcomes.

Factors that Influence Students’ Motivation in Education

1. Class and Curriculum Structure

Children thrive when there is structure and struggle when there is chaos. When students sense or
see that classes follow a structure, and the curriculum and class materials have been prepared
beforehand, it provides them with a greater sense of security.
The feeling of security is one of our basic needs. When that’s provided in a learning
environment, it allows students to fully focus on the learning material.
To help students feel more secure, educators need to plan classes and curriculums. All materials
that will be used in class should be prepared in advance. Educators can also state the objectives
of a course or class at the beginning of a semester or a class.

2. Teacher Behavior and Personality

If a student has a negative emotion such as fear or disliking towards their teacher, that can
negatively affect their attitude toward the subject as a whole. If a teacher shows a preference
towards certain students or uses derogatory and humiliating language, that can lower their
motivation in education.
On the other hand, kindness, optimism, positive feedback, and encouragement can positively
affect students’ motivation to learn.

3. Teaching Methods
Students are more likely to retain their motivation in education if educators use different teaching
methods. That creates diversity and prevents students from getting bored. Giving room for
certain choices such as which partner they’d like to work with can be beneficial too.
Students in a single class are likely to have different styles of learning. Thus, a teacher is more
likely to meet these needs by applying different teaching methods.
Another important aspect, especially when it comes to girls in STEM subjects, is ensuring that
the knowledge or skills learned can be practically applied in real life.

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 In some cases, enrolment in extracurricular activities or support from a tutor can help address
students’ needs that are not met at school.

4. Parental Habits and Involvement

Quite a few parental habits can indirectly affect the motivation of children, intrinsic motivation
in particular. These include:
showing interest in the child’s learning material,
inquiring about their day,
actively listening,
helping with specific tasks or skills taught at school,
attending parent meetings,
encouraging children t complete homework or study for a test.
Another habit that’s been proven to improve motivation, is reading. Reading to and with small
children helps them develop literacy faster than talking does. However, reading
comprehension level can determine students’ success in later school years.

5. Family Issues and Instability

Same as the lack of security in the classroom, the lack of security at home can negatively impact
motivation in education.
Children who live with both parents, on average get better grades than children who don’t.
Family conflicts and disruption can result in poorer academic performance. Some examples
include:
1. divorce,
2. loss of one or both parents,
3. not living with the biological father or mother,
4. not having contact with the biological father or mother,
5. frequently moving from one home to another,
6. being or having been involved with Child Protective Services.
7. As a result, in certain instances, additional support may be needed from schools to help
students with their issues.

6. Peer Relationships
As children grow older, the influence peers have upon them increases as well. Therefore,
problems and conflicts with peers can make students feel less secure about their social status
among peers, increase their stress levels, and lower motivation in education.
Keeping an eye on any conflicts, bullying, and other peer issues can prevent serious problems.

7. Learning Environment
School environment or school climate is another factor that affects motivation in education.
School environment refers to different norms and regulations that determine the overall climate
in the school.
Positive school environment makes students feel safe and secure, meets their basic needs such as
daily meals, and provides an optimal environment for them to build healthy social relationships.
Too many classes and learning environment that’s too serious can also lower motivation in
education. Adding a fun element to classes can help to ease the atmosphere and improve

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motivation and results. Allowing enough time for play and rest can also have a positive effect.

8. Assessment
While standardized assessment increases the standards of attainment, it can negatively
influence students’ motivation in education, especially at a younger age. The opposite can be
seen in countries like Finland where primary school children do not get any tests. Despite the
lack of assessment, Finnish children display higher academic achievements.
It is also common for students to lose motivation if tests are continuously too challenging. This
does not provide a sense of achievement and lowers motivation in education over time. Thus, it’s
important for educators to experiment with and apply different testing methods which would be
able to address the different learning needs of students.

Difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Humans tend to achieve their goals by simply taking up the tasks that they need to perform.
Sometimes while we are achieving our goals, we face some predicaments, and we often feel like
giving up. While we are at our lowest, there are a few things that are enough to keep us afloat.
And once we gain acquaintance with those things, we are good to go.
Motivation is one of those things that is enough to keep us afloat. If we get it in the right way, we
bounce back with more confidence and start working to achieve our goals. Although, motivation
can be either intrinsic or extrinsic.
Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation

The main difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is the way an individual gets
them. An individual gets intrinsic motivation from within, or by pursuing something you like, and
when a person doesn’t emphasize the reward they might get after completing a certain activity,
on the other hand, an individual gets extrinsic motivation when they do an activity to gain
something and when they do it for gaining a reward.
The kind of motivation that an individual gets from oneself and the motivation that they acquire
from within is known as intrinsic motivation. For instance, when a person does something
without thinking of the reward they might get after doing that thing.
When a person does something for gaining experience and not for gaining a reward or a prize. Ifa
person is intrinsically motivated, then that person ought to emphasize learning several things
while performing the activity, and the person does not emphasize the reward or the prize.
The kind of motivation that an individual gets to gain rewards after doing an activity is known as
extrinsic motivation. The kind of motivation that is dependent on external rewards is known as
extrinsic motivation. When a person is intrinsically motivated, then that person ought to
emphasize the reward that the person can get after completing a certain activity. It is a relatively
easier way to motivate people so that they can complete a certain activity.

M otiv a tion the or ie s :

P s yc ho lo g is t s a nd ma na g e me nt e xp er t s d e ve lo p mo t iva t io n t heo r ie s t o

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id e nt i f y fa c t o r s t hat mo t iva t e a n ind i v id u a l. T he s e t heo r ie s a ls o co ver ho w
a n o r g a nis a t io n c a n a p p l y t he m t o o pt im i s e p e r fo r ma nc e . Mo t ivat io n is a
fo r c e t hat dr i ve s e mp lo ye e s t o wo r k t ow a r d s ind i v id u a l a nd o r g a nis a t io na l
go a ls . Qu a l i f i e d pr o fe s s io na ls ma y r e q uir e mo t i va t io n t o pe r fo r m at t he ir
o pt i mu m le ve l c o ns is t e nt l y. A mo t iva t ed e mp lo ye e is l i k e l y t o pe r fo r m
be t t e r t ha n a n u nmo t iva t e d e mp lo ye e at wo r k, be c a u s e t he y d e r ive
s at is fa c t io n fr o m t he ir pr o fe s s io na l e ng a g e me nt . Mo t iva t io n is a co nt inu o u s
p r o c e s s a nd ma na g e r s u s e mo t iva t io n t heo r ie s t o i mp r o ve pr o du ct iv it y,
p r o fit s , e mp lo ye e r et e nt io n r at e s a nd emp lo ye e s at is fa c t io n le ve ls . T he
o bje c t ive o f a mo t iva t io n t heo r y is t o d i s c o ver w hat fa c t o r s d r ive
i nd i v id u a ls t o wo r k t o wa r d s a go a l o r an o ut co me . Ma na g e r s a nd
o r ga ni s a t io ns ma y a do pt a nd i mp le m e nt mo t iva t io na l t heo r ie s t hat s u it t he m
t o cr e at e a co ns is t e nt l y p r o d uct ive wo r kfo r c e

 Types of Motivation:
 What is Intrinsic Motivation?
The kind of motivation that an individual gets from oneself and the motivation that they acquire
from within is known as intrinsic motivation. This kind of motivation puts focus on completing
an activity without caring about the reward and caring about the things one can get to learn
during the process.
There are several factors necessary and important in intrinsic motivation.
However, self-determination and competence are considered the two main factors by some
theorists. Several factors are responsible for causing intrinsic motivation. These factors include
curiosity, challenge, recognition, cooperation etc. The sole pleasure of learning and mastering is
gained when any of these factors are present within an individual.
Intrinsic motivation is often considered a sustainable kind of motivation. It interests people in
focusing on the attributes that are necessary for one’s personality development and overall, for
their life rather than giving importance to materialistic rewards or prizes. To employ it, one can
try to focus on the values that can be gained while performing an activity.
There are several examples of intrinsic motivation. A person trying to opt for a job that he/she
likes to gain happiness and satisfaction rather than opting for a job just to earn money is an
example of intrinsic motivation. It is a value-driven motivation and helps an individual to shape
their personality better.

 What is Extrinsic Motivation?

The kind of motivation that an individual gets to gain rewards after doing an activity is known as
extrinsic motivation. This kind of motivation puts focus on the external prizes and rewards that
one can get after completing a certain task assigned to them. It is a reward-driven motivation.
This kind of motivation depends on the reason or the reward that motivates the activity. The
person is interested in the outcome rather than the values that can be gained while performing the
activity. These external rewards can be anything.
They can be money, prizes or even a threat of reprimand.
The rewards involved in extrinsic motivation may lead to over justification, as proposed by some
theories. The decrease in a person’s intrinsic motivation because of the external rewards is
known as the over justification effect. The intrinsic motivation is sort of undermined in this

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effect because the person who didn’t think of the reward starts thinking about the reward and
shifts to extrinsic motivation.

There are several examples of extrinsic motivation. A person opting for a job to earn just money
and not opting for a job to gain happiness and satisfaction is an example of extrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic motivation is reward-driven motivation and puts a person in a place where he cares
about the outcome more.
Although there is one advantage of extrinsic motivation, that is, it is a relatively easy motivation
to instill among people.

 W ha t a r e the diffe re nt ty pes of motiv a tio na l the or ie s ?

M o t iva t io na l t heo r ie s c a n be co nt e nt - bas e d t heo r ie s , pr o c e s s - ba s e d t heo r ie s
a nd co g nit i ve t he o r ie s . Co nt e nt t heo r ie s d e sc r ibe ne e d s t hat c a n d r ive
mo t iva t io n, w he r e a s pr o c e s s t heo r ie s d es c r ibe ho w mo t iva t io n ha p p e ns .
C o g nit i ve t heo r ie s e xa m i ne ho w a n ind i v id u a l's p e r c ept io ns a nd
e nv ir o n me nt a f fe c t mo t iva t io n. T e a c he r s c a n a p p l y t he s e t heo r ie s t o
mo t iva t e st u d e nt s a nd co a c he s c a n u s e t he m t o imp r o ve t he p er fo r ma nc e o f
s po r t s p er so ns .

 5 Popular motivational theories

T h es e a r e s o m e ef f ec t i v e a n d p o p u la r mo t i v a t i o n a l t h eo r i es t h a t b u s i n es s es a n d
i n d i v i d u a l s ca n emp l o y :

1. Maslow's theory of hierarchical needs

M a s lo w 's h ie r a r c hy is a co nt e nt - ba s e d mo t iva t io na l t heo r y. I t o ut l ine s a fe w
ba s ic ne e d s a pe r so n w a nt s t o fu l f i l be f o r e p r o gr e s s ing t o mo r e co mp le x
ne e d s . T hi s h ie r a r c hy c at e go r is e s ne e d s int o fi ve le ve ls :
P h ys io lo g ic a l: An i nd iv id u a l 's ba s ic p hys io lo g ic a l ne e d s a r e w at e r , s he lt er ,
c lo t h ing a nd fo o d. I n a wo r k s et t ing , a n e mp lo ye e 's s a la r y ma y fu l f i l t he ir
p h ys io lo g ic a l ne e d s .
S a fe t y: T his le ve l r e fe r s t o a fe e l i ng o f p r o t e ct io n t hat ind i v id u a ls
e xp e r ie nc e . T his ne e d ma y a l ig n w it h an e mp lo ye e 's e xp e ct at io n o f jo b
s e c u r it y.
S o c ia l is a t io n: T o me e t so c ia l i s a t io n ne ed s , e mp lo ye e s ma y d e ve lo p
fr ie nd s h ip s at wo r k t o cr e at e a s e ns e o f be lo ng i ng fo r t he ms e lve s .
M a na g e me nt c a n fu l f i l t his ne e d b y c r eat ing o p po r t u nit ie s fo r e mp lo ye e s t o
bo nd , by ho st ing co mp a n y lu nc he s a nd t e a m- bu i ld i ng a ct iv it ie s .
E st ee m: E mp lo ye e s o ft e n r e a c h t his le v e l b y r e c e i v i ng r eco g nit io n, w hic h
c a n he lp t he m fe e l c o nf id e nt in t he ir wo r k a nd inc r e a s e t he ir s e l f - e st e e m.
R e co g nis i ng a p r o fe s s io na l's a c h ie ve me nt s a nd pr o vid i ng po s it ive fe e d ba c k
a r e t wo me t ho d s t hat c a n he lp bu i ld t he ir s e l f - e s t e e m.
S e l f- a ct u a l is a t io n: T o r e ac h t his le ve l, e mp lo ye e s ma y t r y t o a c hie ve
co mp le x, lo ng - t er m p r o fe s s io na l o r p er so na l go a ls . S e l f - a ct ua l i s e d

15
e mp lo ye e s c a n mo t iva t e t he ms e lve s t o co mp le t e wo r kp la c e go a ls
e f fe c t i ve l y.
An a d m i n i s t r at ive pr o fe s s io na l c a n u s e M a s lo w 's t heo r y o f hie r a r c h ic a l
ne e d s t o u nd er st a nd t he a s p ir at io ns o f t he ir t ea m a nd wo r k t o wa r d s
fu l f i l l i ng t he m. T he y c a n o r g a nis e p r o fe s s io na l d e ve lo p me nt a nd t e a m -
bu i ld i ng p r o gr a m me s in a d d it io n t o t he p a y, be ne f it s a nd p e r k s t hat a n
e mp lo ye e e ar ns . M a na g er s c a n be g in b y p er io d ic a l l y c o m m u n i c a t ing w it h
e mp lo ye e s a bo ut p la ns o r o p er at io ns t o ma k e t he m fe e l t hat t he y ar e a p ar t
o f a n o r g a nis a t io n. T he y c a n cr e at e a n env ir o n me nt t hat is nat ur a l l y
co nd u c ive t o co o p er at io n a nd co l la bo r at io n. T he q u a l it y o f pr o je ct s, gr o wt h
o p po r t u nit ie s a nd wo r k - l i fe ba la nc e a r e fa c t o r s t hat c a n mo t iva t e a n
e mp lo ye e t o e xc e l i n a r o le .

2. McClelland's theory of needs

T his is a co nt e nt - ba s e d t heo r y a nd it a ff ir ms t hat hu ma ns ha v e t hr ee
mo t iva t io na l d r ive r s , r eg a r d le s s o f a g e o r ge nd e r . O ne o f t he t hr ee dr i ve r s
ma y be do m i na nt in e ve r y hu ma n be i ng , d ep e nd ing o n t he ir l i fe
e xp e r ie nc e s . T he t hr e e dr ive r s ar e :
Ac h ie ve me nt : P eo p le w ho t hr i ve o n a c hie ve me nt ma y ha ve a po w er fu l u r g e
t o s et a nd a c hie ve go a ls a nd t a k e c a lc u l at e d r is k s d ur ing t he pr o c e s s. T he y
ma y e xp e ct fe e d ba c k , a ck no w le d g e me nt a nd a pp r e c ia t io n fo r t he ir wo r k a nd
ma y p r e fe r t o wo r k a lo ne.
A f f i l i a t i on : P eo p le w ho t hr ive o n a f f i l i at io n fa vo ur co l la bo r at io n a nd ma y
p r e fe r t o wo r k in a gr o u p. T he y w o u ld w a nt t e a m me m be r s a nd co l le a g u e s
t o lik e t he m a nd ma y s id e w it h t he ma jo r it y t o do w hat a la r g e r po r t io n o f
t he gr o u p ins i s t s o n.
P o w er : P eo p le w ho t hr ive o n po w er ma y s ho w t e nd e nc ie s t o co nt r o l a nd
i n f l u e nc e o t he r s a nd w in a r g u me nt s . T he y ma y be h ig h l y c o mp e t it ive a nd
ma y e n jo y s t at u s a nd r e co g n it io n.
An a d m i n i s t r at ive pr o fe s s io na l c a n u s e M c C le l l a nd 's t heo r y t o id e nt i f y t he
p r i ma r y mo t i va t io na l d r ive r s o f t e a m m e m be r s a nd u s e t he in fo r ma t io n t o
bu i ld a t e a m w it h d ive r s e co mp et e nc ie s a nd c ha r act er t r a it s. T his t heo r y
he lp s t e a m ma na g e r s a nd h ir i ng ma na g e r s id e nt i f y t he r ig ht ca nd id a t e s fo r a
jo b r o le . E mp lo ye e s w ho e njo y po we r ma y be c o me go o d le a d e r s , me nt o r s
a nd s up e r vis o r s. E mp lo ye e s w ho t hr i ve o n a f f i l i a t io n ma y no t be e ffe c t i ve
ma na g e r s a s t he y ma y s t r u gg le w it h t o ug h d e c is io ns w hi le t r yi ng t o c at er t o
t he int e r e st s o f a l l c o nc er ne d p ar t ie s .

3. Incentive theory
T he inc e nt i ve t heo r y s u gg e st s t hat ma na g e me nt c a n i nvo k e mo t iva t io n b y
r e in fo r c e me nt , r e co g nit io n, t hr o u g h inc e nt ive s a nd r e w ar d s. T he inc e nt i ve
t heo r y a ls o p r o po se s t hat p eo p le d is p la y c e r t a in be ha v io u r s t o a c hie ve a
s p e c i f ic r e s u lt , inc it e a p ar t ic u la r a ct io n o r r e ce i ve a r ew ar d. H er e ar e a fe w
e xa mp le s o f inc e nt i ve s i n t he wo r kp la c e :
B on u s : A bo nu s is a mo ne t ar y r e w ar d t ha t a co mp a n y ma y g i ve a n e mp lo ye e

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ba s e d o n t he ir p er fo r ma nc e .
P r a is e : P r a is e c a n be u s e fu l fo r o ne - o n- o ne s it u at io ns , s u c h a s q u ar t e r l y
e mp lo ye e r e vie w s . P r a is i ng a nd ap pr e c iat ing a n e mp lo ye e b y g iv i ng
po s it ive fe e d ba c k a bo ut t he ir p er fo r ma n c e he lp s bu i ld t r u st a nd
s ig n i f i c a nt l y r e d u c e at t r it io n.
T ra i n i n g an d e d u c at i o n :
P r o vid ing o p po r t u nit ie s s u c h a s p a id t r ai n i ng o r co nt inu ing e d u c at io n ma y
g i ve a t e a m a n inc e nt i ve t o inc r e a s e t heir k no w le d g e in a s p e c if i c f ie ld o r
d e ve lo p a sk i l l s e t .
P ro m o t i on : P r o vid i ng a n o p po r t u nit y f o r c ar e er ad va nc e me nt is o ft e n o ne
o f t he mo st in f lu e nt ia l i nc e nt ive s a ma n a g e r c a n o ffe r be c a u s e it c a n g ive
a n e mp lo ye e a fe e l i ng o f i mp o r t a nc e a nd g r o wt h. A pr o mo t io n ma y inc lu d e
a n a d va nc e d r o le , a ne w jo b t it le a nd a s a la r y inc r e a s e .
S a la r y o r w a g e hik e : M a na g e me nt t ea ms f i nd t hat o ffe r ing a pa y r a is e o r a
s a la r y inc r e a s e c a n be e ffe c t i ve mo t iva t o r s. Fo r o pt ima l r e s u lt s , ma na g e r s
u s e s a la r y o r wa g e inc e nt i ve s fo r ind i v i d u a l e mp lo ye e s , r at he r t ha n fo r a l l
e mp lo ye e s a nd d e p ar t me nt s w it hi n a bus ine s s .
P a id va c at io n o r t i me o f f: Co ns id e r o ffe r ing e mp lo ye e s co mp e ns a t io n fo r
t a k ing d a ys o ff o r g ive t he m a d d it io na l va c a t i o n d a ys e ve r y q u ar t er o r ye a r .
E mp lo ye e s ma y va lu e t his inc e nt ive i f t he y p la n fo r a fa m i l y va c a t io n o r
d e s ir e so me e xt r a t ime t o r e st at ho me .
M a na g e r s c a n u s e inc e nt ive t heo r ie s t o he lp e mp lo ye e s t o wo r k o n t o u g h o r
c ha l le ng ing t a sk s t hat ma n y p r o fe s s io n a l s a vo id . S o me po pu la r inc e nt i ve s
a r e c a s h, pr o du ct s, e xp er ie nc e s , g ift c ar d s a nd t ic k et s t o po p u la r s po r t ing
a nd e nt er t a in me nt e ve nt s. I t is i mp o r t a nt t hat a ma na g e r u s e s t he s e
i nc e nt i ve s a s r e w ar d s o nl y fo r a c hie v i n g go a ls a nd no t w it ho ut r e a so n.

4. Herzberg's two-factor theory

H e r z ber g 's t wo - fa ct o r t heo r y i s a co nt ent - ba s e d t heo r y. I t d e sc r ibe s t wo s et s
o f fa ct o r s t hat ma y le a d t o e it he r s at is f a ct io n o r d is s a t is fa c t io n. H er z be r g
d e f i ne s t he fa ct o r s t hat le a d t o s at is fa c t io n o r d is s a t is fa c t io n a s h yg i e ne a nd
mo t iva t ing fa c t o r s :
H yg ie ne fa c t o r s : T he s e a r e fa ct o r s a ffe c t ing s at is fa c t io n, r e la t ing t o
wo r k ing c o nd it io ns , pr o fe s s io na l r e la t io ns h ip s , o ff ic e po l ic i e s , r u le s o f
co nd u ct a nd at t it u d e s o f s up er v is o r s. I mp r o vi ng a fe w o r a l l h yg i e ne fa c t o r s
c a n he lp d e c r e a s e d is s a t is fa c t io n a nd imp r o ve mo t iva t io n a mo ng e mp lo ye e s .
M o t iva t ing fa c t o r s: F a ct o r s l ik e p r o fe s s io na l a c h ie ve m e nt s , r e co g nit io n,
r e s po ns ib i l it y a nd c ar e er a nd p er so na l gr o wt h ar e mo t iva t ing fa c t o r s fo r
p r o fe s s io na ls . Ad dr e s s i ng t he s e fa c t o r s i n c r e a s e s jo b s at is fa c t io n.
M a na g e me nt c a n i mp le me nt H er z be r g 's t wo - fa c t o r t heo r y by r e fo r m ing
co mp a n y p o l ic ie s , o f fe r i ng co mp et it i ve w a g e s a nd pr o vid i ng e f fe c t ive
s u p er v is io n, jo b s e c ur it y a nd mo r e a ut ono m y. Ad m i n i s t r at ive pr o fe s s io na ls
c a n t ak e a pr o act ive r o le in e mp lo ye e w e l fa r e i n it ia t i ve s . A co mp a ny c a n
r e du c e d is s a t is fa c t io n by o ffe r ing p r o fe s s io na ls w a ys t o f ind a s e ns e o f
p u r po s e, bo t h pr o fe s s io na l l y a nd p er so na l l y.

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5. Vroom's expectancy theory
V r o o m's e xp e ct a nc y t heo r y is a pr o c e s s - ba s e d mo t iva t io n t heo r y w h ic h
a s s u me s t hat a n ind i v id u a l 's be ha v io u r r e s u lt s fr o m t he co ns c io u s c ho ic e s
t he y ma k e fr o m mu lt ip le a va i la b le a lt er na t ive s . I nd i v id u a ls ma k e s p ec i f ic
c ho ic e s be l i e v i ng t hat t he y ma y g u a r a nt e e mo r e s at is fa c t io n a nd co m fo r t .
V r o o m's t he o r y s u g g e st s t hat a n ind i v id u a l g et s mo t iva t io n fr o m t he
fo l lo w ing t hr e e fa c t o r s:
E xp e ct a nc y is a n i nd i v id u a l's be l i e f t hat t he har d er t he y wo r k, t he ir c ha nc e s
o f s u cc e s s i nc r e a s e s.
I nst r u me nt a l it y i s a n ind i v id u a l 's be l ie f t hat t he y ma y r e c e ive a r e w ar d i f
t he y me e t p er fo r ma nc e e xp e ct at io ns .
V a le nc e is t he i mp o r t a nc e a n ind i v id u a l p la c e s o n a n e xp e ct ed o ut co me .
V r o o m's e xp e ct a nc y t heo r y st at e s t hat if a n e mp lo ye e be l i e ve s t hat t he y c a n
a c co mp l is h a t a s k, it ma y mo t iva t e t hem t o wo r k ha r de r . An u nr e a l is t ic o r
u na t t a ina b l e go a l c a n de mo t iva t e pr o fe s s io na ls . M a na g e r s ca n a s s e s s ho w
w e l l e mp lo ye e s u nd e r st a nd t he ir r o le in a c hie v i ng o r g a nis a t io na l g o a ls . I f
a n e mp lo ye e is u ns u r e o f t he ir ca p a bi l it y o r fe e ls t hat a go a l is c ha l le ng i ng ,
ma na g e r s c a n t r a in t he m t o a l ig n t he ir pe r fo r ma nc e w it h o r g a nis a t io na l
go a ls .

Why Is Motivation in Education Important?

Motivation is the state that can maintain students’ attention and behavior as well as provides with
more energy to needed to lead tasks to completion. Thus, it can help sustain activities over a
period of time. In education, motivation can have a variety of effects on students’ behavior,
preferences, and results. For instance, motivation can:
help us direct our attention toward tasks that need to be done,
allow us to do these tasks in shorter periods of time as well as maintain attention during a longer
time,
minimize distractions and resist them better,
affect how much information we retain and store,
influence the perception of how easy or difficult tasks can appear.
Most importantly, motivation urges to us perform an action. Without it, completing the action
can be hard or even impossible.

Comparison Table between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Parameters ofComparison Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation

Meaning The kind of motivation that an The kind of motivation that an

individual gets from oneself and individual gets to gain rewards
their motivationfrom within is after doing an activity is known
known as as extrinsic
intrinsic motivation. motivation.
Emphasis Action Reward

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 Process Value-driven Reward-driven
Elements Acquiring happiness and Rewards and prizes are
satisfaction while performing considered significant for the
the activity. completion of the activity.
Examples 1. A person taking up a job 1. A person taking up a job to
he/she likes to gain earn money.
experience and satisfaction.
A person cleaning his or her A person cleaning up his/her
room just because he/she likes it room so his/her parents won’t
tidy. punish him/her.
A person trying to study a A person trying to study a
subject because it is fascinating. subject to gain good scores.
A person participating in asport A person participating in a sport
to gain experience and enjoy it. to gain rewards or prize.
A person trying to contact A person trying to contact
another person to have good another person just to gain
times. attention and personal
advantage.

 Main Differences between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

The kind of motivation that an individual gets from oneself and the motivation that theyacquire
from within is known as intrinsic motivation.
On the other hand, the kind of motivation that an individual gets to gain rewards after doing an
activity is known as extrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic motivation is reward-driven motivation. On the contrary, intrinsic motivation is value-
oriented motivation.
In intrinsic motivation, action is emphasized. On the other hand, in extrinsic motivation, the
reward is emphasized.
The elements included in intrinsic motivation includes achieving joy, content, and happiness
while doing a certain activity. On the other hand, the elements included in extrinsic motivation
includes the completion of an activity where rewards, prizes, and outcomes are considered
significant.
An example of intrinsic motivation includes a teacher teaching student to instill values and
attributes in them for their happiness and satisfaction. On the other hand, an example of extrinsic
motivation includes a teacher teaching student to earn money.
An individual can have both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, but it is quite rare as one kind of
motivation often overshadows the other.
An individual can have both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, but it is quite rare as one kind of
motivation often overshadows the other.
Both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation helps an individual to complete a task or an activity that is
assigned. It helps us to gain many things and results in shaping our personalities.

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 7 Ways to Help Your Child When They Have Lack of
Motivation
1. Get to the Root of the Problem
In order to effectively help your child with a lack of motivation, you need to know what’s
causing it. Therefore, communicating to identify the cause should be the first action step.
Make sure to be mindful of your tone when you talk to your child. Avoid demonstrating negative
emotions such as blame or disappointment as those can cause your child to become defensive.
Instead, in a friendly manner, mention that you’ve noticed that something is going on, ask how
they are feeling and if anything is bothering them.
Don’t pry, that too can result in resistance. Ensure that you are available and open to talk
whenever they are ready.

2. Help Them Define the Why

Often, the lack of motivation comes with the inability to see the practical use of something.
Therefore, you may need to help your child identify why a specific subject or topic is needed.
Sometimes, it may be simply passing a specific test.
Other times, you may be able to show how the subject matter can be practically applied in real-
life situations. For instance, teach how math can help your child to save for something they’d
like to buy. Or how learning chemistry can help them perform safe experiments at home.
These do not need to be fancy. Cooking can also be a great activity to demonstrate different
chemical properties and reactions and different products.

3. Make Sure Your Child Gets Enough Rest and Eats Healthy Food

A lack of sleep and an unhealthy diet can make your child feel tired and sluggish As a result,
they may not be able to perform at their full capacity, especially if they already lack
the motivation to study.
Ensure that your child doesn’t skip breakfast and eats a balanced diet with plenty of healthy fats
and proteins as well as fresh fruits and vegetables. Cut our soda and commercially produced
juices. While often labeled as healthy, they contain high amounts of sugar. They cause spikes
and, consequently, drops in energy. Those can negatively impact their wellbeing as well as the
ability to stay alert and motivated.

4. Get Your Child to Move

While younger usually move quite a lot, teenagers may be less physically active. Encourage your
child to go for a walk, jog, dance, or do some other light form of exercise that they enjoy. With
younger children, you can suggest them to take a break and play for a few minutes. Make sure

20
that they move and play with actual toys rather than spend time in front of a tablet or a computer
Exercise, especially if it’s outside, has a multitude of positive effects of exercise. It helps
produce endorphins and bring more oxygen to the brain. Approximately 30 minutes outdoors can
also help produce Vitamin D and boost mood and energy levels.
Research also shows that exercise also improves neuroplasticity. This is vital for learning and
retaining new information.

5. Provide Extra Help or Challenge

Children frequently lose motivation if the subject matter is too easy or too complicated. In the
case of the former, they may eventually fall behind. The latter, however, will prevent them from
successfully continuing the learning process. In either case, aim to address it quickly to provide
your child with the support that they need.
If you are unable or too busy to do this yourself, you can hire a professional tutor or enroll your
child in extracurricular classes. They can help with a more personalized approach that addresses
the specific need of your child.

6. Provide Hands-on Learning Opportunities

In public school, subjects are often taught in a direct manner. This is a traditional teaching
method when a teacher is guiding students through the material and the students remain passive.
While this is the easiest method for the teacher and allows teaching large classes, students are
more likely to become disinterested and develop a lack of motivation.
Hands-on-activities can help prevent students from losing interest and motivation.
For science subjects, you can opt for STEM toys that teach and develop different skills. You can
also enroll your child into a STEM learning center. This will not only help them stay motivated
but will also help work on skills which can be vital in their future career.

7. Help Establish Good Study Habits

Even adults struggle with straying productive and motivated. However, good study habits can
help children not only overcome the lack of motivation and improve their performance in school
but also succeed later in life.
First of all, teach your child how to properly plan their time. This can include allocating specific
periods of time for each subject as well as rest. While often overlooked, breaks are crucial to
remaining productive. They also break down unpleasant or challenging tasks into more
manageable pieces.
For younger children, encourage alternating 15 minutes of studying with 5-minute breaks. For
teenagers, the study periods can be longer – up to 25 minutes. Encourage getting up and moving
during break times.
Another successful approach to curbing the lack of motivation is keeping study area clean and
organized. Suggest personalizing and decorating the study area with objects that can motivate
your child.
You can even make this into a bonding activity. Look up study area décor ideas on Pinterest, let

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your child choose what they like, and go shopping together. This can reinsure your child that
you’re on their side and doing what you can to help them get over the lack of motivation without
blaming or criticizing them.

 Emphasize Intrinsic Motivation

Therefore, leveraging students’ intrinsic motivation should be the primary focus of parents and
educators. Intrinsic motivation has been repeatedly linked to:
improved results,
increased interest in learning,
a greater ratio of successfully accomplished goals, as well as
more autonomy.
A study by a group of Swiss and French university professors looked at the effects of standard
grades, high grades and no grades on the students’ motivation and interest in learning.
They found that extrinsic motivators, in this specific case – higher grades, can give a short boost
in interest and motivation. Yet, they lose their effectiveness overtime.
Curiously, the researchers also discovered that having no external motivators (no grades) can
also have as much positive effect on interest and motivation as higher grades. How come?
Intrinsic motivation.
What we found particularly interesting about this study was that the standard grading system had
the worst effect on students’ motivation and interest in the learning process.

Finland’s education model.

In Finland, the first stages of the education system are based on unstructured play. Educators
emphasize building, creating, and developing students’ creativity and imagination. Standardized
testing is very limited and only done when students are older.

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As a result of such an approach, Finnish students have some of the highest high school
graduation rates and college attendance rates.

Is Extrinsic Motivation Always Bad?

Not necessarily. In certain situations, extrinsic motivators can be beneficial. It can give the boost
necessary to get over a hurdle, for instance, if the task is very difficult or unpleasant. Sometimes,
it can even help break the inertia with challenging tasks and help develop intrinsic motivation
over time.
The key to not overdoing it lies in finding the right balance.

Q.4 Define the term inquiry approach; list the methods that
come under the umbrella of this approach.
Inquiry is an approach to learning that engages our natural curiosity and desire to make
sense of the world.

Humans have an innate urge to explore. We are naturally curious and wonder how the world in
which we live works. When we come upon something that amazes us, puzzles us or causes us to
question what we believe to be true, our wondering nature provokes us to explore and investigate
in search of answers.

Inquiry is an approach to learning that engages our natural curiosity and desire to make sense
of the world. It encourages the asking of questions and the seeking of answers to those questions
through investigation and exploration. Sometimes those questions come spontaneously to our
own minds, and sometimes those questions come from the provocation of others, such as
educators.

Inquiry is often portrayed as a linear process (think “the scientific method”) with a specific,
prescribed set of steps. In reality, just as there is no single scientific method, Inquiry is not a
linear progression. Often it is more of an iterative or cyclical series of events influenced by
observations and discoveries.

There are, however, some actions and skills that regularly occur during inquiries. These include,
but are not limited to: asking questions; predicting; collaborating and communicating with
others; observing; sorting and classifying; comparing and contrasting; planning; recording;
analyzing and interpreting; reflecting; and making connections.

The stages that make up the Inquiry process are outlined in the diagram below. NOTE: Since this
is not a linear process, there are no arrows showing the progression of stages. Typically, an
Inquiry starts with a question (top centre). However, at each stage new questions may become
evident. These new questions may suggest a new line of inquiry and require going back to an
earlier stage. As with scientific investigation, questions are the driving force behind all inquiry.

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Inquiry is driven by curiosity, wonder, interest and/or a need to answer a question. Being able to
ask rich questions enables students to construct their knowledge and develop an understanding of
concepts and experiences.
It is important that educators create a classroom environment that supports and encourages
students’ questions. This means creating an environment that provides opportunities for students
to engage with others and to ask and respond to authentic, meaningful questions.
Students develop the ability to ask different kinds of questions for different purposes when they
observe questioning modeled by educators. Educators are encouraged to help students to ask
many different types of questions, including questions that inspire scientific inquiries.

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Predict :

Student thinking

Predicting is an important part of any Inquiry. Predictions are not guesses, but rather are
forecasts of what one thinks might happen based on observations and prior knowledge. The
ability to make logical predictions supports the development of the ability to formulate
hypotheses.

The ability to make good predictions relies on skills such as observing (using the senses to
collect information), sorting and classifying (grouping objects or events according to their
similarities or predetermined groups), and inferring (making assumptions based on prior
knowledge).

As with questioning, students develop the ability to make reliable predictions in a classroom
environment that accepts and respects students’ predictions and refrains from judging,
rewarding, acclaiming or condemning predictions and that encourages students to think for
themselves and to make predictions based on their unique experiences, thoughts and ideas.
Students develop the ability to make reliable predictions when this skill is modelled by
educators. Students also learn what a reliable prediction sounds like when opportunities are

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provided for them to share their predictions and the reasoning behind them as part of the Inquiry
process.

Plan:

Students planning

Once students have identified questions to explore and have made predictions about the outcome
of their explorations, they need to design ways to test their predictions.
When developing a plan for an Inquiry, students should ask themselves what they need to do to
find answers to their questions. This involves applying organization skills to identify the
methods, tools, materials and sequence of steps to follow. Another element of planning involves
thinking about where/how to get the information (data) needed and the most appropriate way(s)
to record their data.

Educators can model the planning process by having students brainstorm the steps that could be
taken to conduct a sample Inquiry and then collaboratively plan the order in which the tasks
should logically occur.

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Investigate:

Students and teacher working safely

The Investigation stage of the Inquiry process is the stage at which predictions are tested and
information and data are gathered.

Scientists (and other professionals) often test their predictions by conducting experiments. The
purpose of an experiment is to see if observations made about a given phenomenon agree or
conflict with the predictions made. When investigating, students may conduct what is known as
a fair test or controlled experiment in which one variable is changed while all other variables are
kept constant. Educators may wish to model fair testing for students who may not have been
introduced to this type of investigation.

When investigating, students develop and apply a number of skills such as observing, sorting and
classifying, comparing and contrasting, working collaboratively and working safely as they
explore objects, materials and/or events. Investigating may give rise to more questions and
wonderings to be considered.

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It is important that educators stress with students the need to observe only what they actually
see/hear/smell etc., and not make assumptions or inferences at this point in the Inquiry process.
“Just the facts” is a good motto to follow during the investigation stage.

Record:

Student recording data

As part of the Inquiry process, students consider appropriate ways in which to record the data
that they will be collecting. The preservation of data for later use is an important part of the
Inquiry process.

When planning for documenting and organizing data, students must consider the kinds of data
they will be gathering (e.g., qualitative, quantitative) and how best to document and organize the
data so that it will be useful for analysis and interpretation. The process of documenting and
organizing data promotes the development of a wide range of written, oral, visual and digital
communication skills such as sketching, labelling, note-taking, journaling, photographing,
videotaping, etc.

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Educators should encourage students to obtain as much information as possible when they record
observations and data gathered through inquiries (e.g., include units of measurement with
quantitative data, label apparatus, and take photographs with date and time stamps).

Analyze and Interpret:

Students analyzing and interpreting

Analyzing involves organizing data and looking for patterns in the data that was collected during
an Inquiry. This can include looking for repeated results, upward and downward trends, etc.
Interpreting involves trying to explain the patterns that were discovered as well as trying to
explain unusual points or discrepancies in the data.

Analyzing and interpreting data may not always occur in a simple, linear way. Sometimes
additional data is needed, or the data needs to be recorded and displayed in a different way, in
order for the patterns to be discovered. In the Planning stage, students considered the ways in
which they would record the qualitative and quantitative data they would be collecting. In the
Analyzing and Interpreting stage they find out if the ways they chose to record the data make the
information easy to use, or if they need to rethink and revise their organization and recording
methods for future inquiries.

When making conclusions based on the analysis and interpretation of data, students should give

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reasons for their conclusions that are based on logic, personal experience and the results of
similar inquiries.
Connect:

Student presenting results

In the Connect stage of the Inquiry process, meaning is made of the Inquiry experience through
making connections between prior knowledge and new knowledge and experiences. These
connections can occur through individual reflection as well as through conversations with others.
Reflection is a process whereby students use critical thinking skills to look back on a learning
experience in terms of things that went well and areas where there may be room for
growth/change. Through conversations with peers and educators, students can compare their
experiences and their findings and discuss why there were similarities and differences in the
findings. Educators can provoke students thinking about who might be interested in the findings
from the Inquiries and how what was learned might be useful in future learning.

Connecting should not be seen as the final stage in the Inquiry process. Throughout their
Inquiries students may find that questions arise that can lead to further learning through Inquiry.
Educators should provide opportunities for students to share these questions and to encourage
students to use their questions to begin new Inquiries.

Misconceptions
 Inquiry is not a method of doing science, technology, engineering or math. Rather it is an
approach where the natural curiosity of students is encouraged and enhanced.
 Inquiry is not a fixed, linear, recipe-card sequence of steps to follow. Rather it is a
cyclical, flexible back and forth process that can be messy. Putting it down on paper

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 helps educators plan intentionally and purposefully for student learning.
 Hands-on experiences do not necessarily mean Inquiry is happening. Inquiry is driven by
students’ wonderings and questions and the opportunity to explore their wonderings
through experimentation and investigations.

Q.5 List some of social activities and illustrate their

importance for promoting the social skills among students.
Ans. Activity
Activity - the state of being active; "his sphere of activity"; "he is out of action" activeness,
action. State - the way something is with respect to its main attributes; "the current state of
knowledge"; "his state of health"; "in a weak financial state". The state of being active: behavior
or actions of a particular kind: something that is done as work or for a particular purpose:
something that is done for pleasure and that usually involves a group of people.

Classroom activities
The term “Classroom activities” applies to a wide range of skill-based games, strategies and
interactive activities that support student's educational development. The goal of all
activities is to enhance student's understanding, skill or effectiveness in a specific area by
engaging multiple styles of learning.

The activity method is a technique adopted by a teacher to emphasize his or her method of
teaching through activity in which the students participate rigorously and bring about efficient
learning experiences. • It is a child- centered approach.
It is a method in which child is actively involved in participating mentally and physically.
1. A teaching method comprises the principles and methods used by teachers to enable student
learning. For a particular teaching method to be appropriate & efficient it has to be in relation
with the characteristics of the leaner and type of learning it is supposed to bring about.
2.
3. OBJECTIVE
• Classroom transaction
• Methods of classroom transaction
• What is activity method
• Historical background
• Importance & Characteristics
• Organization
• Different types of activities

4. CLASSROOM TRANSACTION
• Classroom transaction is the process of creating situations whereby students are able to
interact with the material to be learned in order to construct knowledge.
• Classroom transactional practice includes teacher, content, environment, assessment, mode,

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 style etc.

5. METHODS
• Activity
• Group work
• Pair work
• Collaborative
• Cooperative
• Project

6. What is an activity method?

• The activity method is a technique adopted by a teacher to emphasize his or her method of
teaching through activity in which the students participate rigorously and bring about efficient
learning experiences.
• It is a child-centered approach. It is a method in which child is actively involved in participating
mentally and physically. Learning by doing is the main focus of this method.

So, activity method means any learning that is carried out with a purpose in a social
environment, involving physical and mental action, stimulating for active action or expression.

7. Historical background
8. • Activity based learning started sometime in 1944 around World War
II.
• David Horsburgh is considered as the pioneer of ABL.
He opened a school called Neel Bagh in Kolar. • School has diverse curriculum, which included
music, carpentry, sewing, gardening along with school subjects.
TLMs were systematically planned with different learning activities.

Importance
• It enhances creative aspect of experience.
• It gives reality for learning.
• Uses all available resources.
• Provides varied experiences to the students to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge,
experience, skills and values.
Builds the students self-confidence and develops understanding through work in his/her group.
Develops interest, enriches vocabulary and provides stimulus for reading.

1. Develops a healthy relationship among students and between students and teachers. • An
activity is said to be the language of the child. A child who lacks in verbal expression can
express his ideas through activities. • Most of the subjects can be taught through this
method. •This also provides an opportunity to develop good social relationships.
2. Characteristics of an effective activity • Active involvement • Confronting
misconception •Multiple representation • Iteration • Appropriate use of teaching.
3. How to organize an activity • Decide instructional goal. • Understand the learners‟
cognitive level • Consider the nature of the subject. • Know the time available and availability
of resourcesfor achieving the instructional goals. •

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Design suitable activity and implement that in the class. • Provide link between previous
knowledge and activity. • Guide the students during activity work and follow up it to
bringrequired changes for better use.
4. Different types of activities • Dramatization • Quizzes • Role
pay •Educational games • Brainstorming • Debates etc.
5. An example Topic: Fraction Exploration • Objective: To understand various fractions
and their comparison. • Material Required A set of 8 circular sheets of equal size which is
divided into 1,2,3,4,6,8,12 and 16 equal parts respectively.
Identification of activities for ABC
Meaning of Activities: Activities comprise of units of work or tasks. For example, purchase
ofmaterials is an activity consisting a series of tasks like purchase requisition, advertisement
inviting quotations, identification of suppliers, placement of purchase order, follow-up etc.

Types of Activities

Activities basically fall into four different categories, known as the manufacturing cost
hierarchy. These categories were first identified by Cooper in 1990 and help to determine
thetype of activity cost driver required. The categories are:
Unit level activities: These are activities for which the consumption of resources can be
identified with the number of units produced. It is performed each time a unit is produced. Use
ofindirect materials/consumables.

Unit level activities: These are activities for Use of indirect materials/consumables.
which the consumption of resources can be
identified with the number of units produced.
It is performed each time a unit is produced.
Batch level activities: The costs of some Material ordering, Inspection of Products.
activities are driven by the number of batches
of units produced. These are activities related
to setting up of a batch or a production run. It
is performed each time a batch is processed.
Product level activities: The cost of some Designing the product, producing parts
activities is driven by the creation of a new specifications and keeping technical drawings
product line and its maintenance. of products.
Facility Level Activities: It must be carried Plant Security, Production
out regardless of which products are Manager’s Salary and Maintenance of
produced. These are activities necessary for buildings.

sustaining the manufacturing process and

cannot be directly attributed to individual
products

Illustration 1
Auto lite Private Ltd. an auto repair business, uses activity-based costing and

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accumulatesoverhead costs in the following cost pools:
• Human Resources
• Parts management
• Purchasing
• Quality Control
• Equipment set-up
• Training employees
• Assembly department
• Receiving department
You are to find out for each cost pool whether the cost pool would be unit-level, batch- level,
andproduct-level or facility level.

ACTIVITY COST POOL HIERARCHY

Human Resources Facility-level
Parts management Product-level
Purchasing Batch-level
Quality Control Unit-level
Equipment set-up Unit-level
Training employees Facility-level
Assembly department Unit-level
Receiving department Batch-level

When teaching English, it’s important to keep your students (and yourself) engaged in the
subject and one of the best ways to do that is through little activities that you can
complete, whether it be solo, group, in-class, or as homework.
Most teachers will use the typical vocabulary and grammar exercises associated with English
lessons, but there are some more original and more effective ways to teach English and ensure
your students are having fun. (As a bonus, you’re also likely to have more fun.) These activities
will help to cement your student’s
English knowledge without them even realizing because they’ll be applying what they
alreadyknow to an exciting activity.

Why is that important?

Most people learn better through doing, which means practically applying the knowledge in
thereal world. It’s similar to learning to drive. You have a workbook packed with important
information that you need to study before you get behind the wheel. However, this alone isn’t
enough to help you pass your test; you actually need some practical driving experience.
Plus, using English in non-classroom settings will force the brain to work in new ways,
creatingnew pathways, and increasing the brain capacity of the individual.
(For those of you interested in the specifics, here’s the scientific
explanation.) Basically, it’s a win all-round.

Now, you still will often want to use your more traditional activities - so don’t throw out
that course book just yet – but some creative exercises can really help to complement them.

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Don’t worry, if you’re unsure what activities to choose or how to get your students involved;
we’ve rounded up some of the best for you below and we’ve gone over how to use them in
class.

1. Improve
This is actually a brilliant way to put your students‟ English skills into practice because it
relies on the student reacting to what someone else has said or done, just like in real life, and
there’s ahuge emphasis on reacting n the moment.
Students will have fun acting out silly skits, particularly if you can find some funny premises
andprops for them, and you’ll have fun watching. You could even make it harder by making
certain words off limits, so students will have to think up synonyms.
Top tip: You can also use this as a spoken English exam at the end of the term.

2. Cooking/Baking
This is perhaps the best activity on the list because you actually get to eat some delicious food
atthe end of it and the promise of freshly baked chocolate chip cookies would inspire anyone.
You might wonder how this will help you teach English to your students, but it’s a really
fantastic way to get them used to saying the English names for utensils and ingredients,
encompasses reading in English by following the recipe, and students can practice speaking in
English when giving instructions to their fellow students about what needs doing next. You
canalso test them by asking if the recipe calls for butter or margarine by holding up both from
the fridge and asking your student to pick which one you need.
Just as sugar, eggs, flour, and chocolate turn into cookies, the basic ingredients of the
Englishlanguage turn into fluency.

3. Researching
Every student has a favorite subject that they cannot step away from. For some, this might be
aschool lesson, like the Kings and Queens of France or Dinosaurs, but for others, it may be
something completely different, like Arianna Grande or your hometown football team.
Get them to do a research project on a topic of their choosing that they can present to the class.
Not only will they love the assignment because they get to learn more about their favorite
subject and call it homework, but it will also improve their reading, writing, and speaking
English skills. Depending on the subject, they may even learn English words that they’d never
have heard in theclassroom, i.e., brontosaurus.

4. Reading
Reading is a naturally immersive experience because the reader will delve into the fictional
world. This makes it the perfect activity for helping to teach English as your students will be so
eager to find out what happens next that they’ll forget they’re supposed to be learning and it
willall sink in unknown.
A great idea for a homework assignment is to choose a book for your students and get them all
toread it (or a chapter) in their own time. Tell them to prepare to discuss their thoughts on what
they read and then, in the next lesson, you hold a sort of proto book club, where everybody can
discuss (in English!) their thoughts on the book. This will combine learning written and spoken
English.

5. Scrapbooking

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This is a fun and unique way of practicing English that can also serve as a record of how far
students have come. Students will love it because they get to be creative, cut and stick images,
and express themselves. Don’t get too caught up in getting the “right” supplies. All you need is a
notebook, pens, glue, and photos or magazines.
Don’t be afraid to make these personal. You can have your students write about their favorite
bands, their family, a typical day in their lives, and even their hopes for the future. This will also
make a great keepsake for the student or their parents.

Starting off
We know that it can be difficult to start teaching outside-of-the-box as it were.
So, if you’re interested, but don’t know where to begin, here are some tips.

Start small
Take five minutes during your lesson to have your students complete a short task, i.e., read a
magazine article and then discuss it.

Talk to your students

Ask what exercises they’d be interested in trying and for feedback on the exercises you’ve
completed. Starting a dialogue on this will only get your students more invested and could help
you find some awesome new exercises you didn’t even think about.

Hand out responsibility

This could be assigning a homework assignment (read the blog for more information on making
homework fun), i.e., going to an English shop and talking to the clerk while making a purchase,
or it could be giving them roles in the exercises. For instance, one student could be responsible
for picking out the reading assignment and another could pick discussion questions.

Incorporate the five senses

Most English teachers will only rely on sight and sound for their lessons, but incorporating
touch, taste, and smell can be a massive boost. This is because the majority of people learn
through doing rather than seeing or hearing. Here are some ideas about doing that:
• Use “touch and feel” books (or have the students make their own)
• Have a blindfolded taste test of popular snacks and get your students to describe the taste.
(Check for food allergies first!)
• Place different smelling objects (i.e., flowers, popcorn, mints) into paper bags and have the
students describe the smell
Hopefully, this has helped you figure out some new and exciting ways to teach English to your
students. Remember, the only limit is your imagination.

THE END

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