CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) is an annual legume belonging to the family
Fabaceae and is one of the most important leguminous crops grown extensively in the
tropics, particularly the savannah zone of West Africa (OECD, 2016). It is nutritious,
highly palatable, providing plant protein for humans and animals alike (Okosun and
Adedire, 2010; Amadi et al., 2018), and relatively free of anti-metabolites. In Nigeria,
Cowpea can be consumed,boiled as (porridge) or boiled and eaten with stew, it can also be
ground, processed into flour, and used to make many traditional food (Amadi et al., 2020).

Globally, cowpea production was estimated to cover up to 14.5 million hectares of land
with about 6.5 million metric tons annual production (Boukar et al., 2018). In 2017, cowpea
was grown on about 95.6% of agricultural land area in sub-Sahara Africa and Nigeria was
the largest producer followed by Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal (FAOSTAT, 2019).

The production of cowpea in Nigeria is often affected by pests and diseases which attack
the crop both on the field and in storage. These insect pests infest cowpea and severely
reduce the quantity and quality of both the grains and fodder yields; implying losses in
both grain and fodder. It is reported that the major insect pests which severely damage
cowpea during all growth stages are the cowpea aphids (Aphis craccivora Koch), foliage
beetles (Ootheca spp, Medythia spp), the flower bud thrips (Megalurothrips sjostedti
Trybom) the legume pod borer (Maruca vitrata Fabricius) and the sucking bug complex, of
which Clavigralla spp, Anoplocnemis spp, Riptortus spp, Mirperus spp, Nezara viridula
Fab and Aspavia armigera L are most important and are prevalent. Without adequate
control, reasonable grain yield cannot be obtained (Okolo and Iledun, 2019).

The need to curb this menace has necessitated the use of pesticides (Kareem et al., 2022).
One of the side effects of pesticides is their accumulation in the grains which has resulted
in the rejection of Nigerian grown cowpea in international markets. Field pests and
diseases account for about 80% to 100% losses in cowpea yields (Kareem et al., 2016,
Kamara et al., 2018). However, the use of inorganic insecticides is the most popular
method heavily relied upon for controlling this insect pest and other related pests of stored
products including organochlorines and organophosphates, but their use is eliciting much
concern due to their undesirable impact on the environment and humans such as soil and
water pollution, mammalian toxicity and pest resurgence (Rosulu et al., 2022).

1
Botanical insecticides are naturally occurring chemicals, extracted from plants which break
down readily in the soil and are not stored in plant or animal tissue. Often their effect are
not long lasting as those of synthetic pesticides (Arong et al., 2011; Okolo and Iledun,
2019). Botanical insecticides are generally pest–specific and are relatively harmless to non-
target organisms. These natural insecticides especially those of plant origin have proved to
be effective, bio-degradable, low cost, low technological base, selective and
environmentally friendly (Sultana, 2006). Also, the possibility of insect developing
resistance to botanical insecticide is less (Okolo and Iledun, 2019). Furthermore, plant
extracts act as mortality agents, repellents, anti-feedants, attractants, oviposition deterrents
and sterility agents (Okolo and Iledun, 2019).

Neem, (Azadirachta indica) is the most commonly used traditional medicinal plant. It has
been an integral part of the traditional Indian medicine and agriculture for centuries due to
its diverse therapeutic and pesticidal properties (Sinha et al., 2017). Neem is widely used in
organic farming as a natural pesticide and soil conditioner (Isman, 2006). Neem oil,
extracted from the seeds, acts as a biopesticide, repelling and inhibiting the growth of pests
(Thacker, 2002).

Turmeric, (Curcuma longa) is a flowering plant that belong to ginger family,

Zingiberaceae. It is native to Southeast Asia which is primarily cultivated in India,
accounting for about 78% of the global production (Prasad and Aggarwal, 2011). The
rhizomes of turmeric are widely used in cooking, imparting a warm, bitter flavor and a
golden yellow color to dishes. beyond its culinary applications, turmeric holds a significant
place in traditional medicine systems like Ayurveda, and it also play crucial role in pest
control (Aggarwal and Harikumar, 2009).

Probiotics are live microbial cultures used to promote host health and vigour. Plant
probiotics are microbial culture which shows plant growth-promoting and/or bio-control
potential by virtues of their diverse activities including nitrogen fixation, phosphate
solubilization, siderophore production and improved plant immunity against diseases and
pest ingestion (Sharma et al., 2012; Nadeem et al., 2015).

There are many studies involving the known and yet to be exploited plant species with
pesticidal properties (Jawalkar et al., 2016). Traditionally, farmers have used crop
protection products of plant origin in post-harvest pest management especially in
preservation of grains during storage but there is a lack of knowledge about their

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effectiveness against insect pests that affect cowpea on the field (Saxena et al., 2015).
Hence, this study aims to investigate the use of Azadirachta indica and Cucurma longa as
an alternative insecticide on the performance and pest management of cowpea.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
Broad Objective
The broad objective of the study is to evaluate the effect of Azadirachta indica and
Cucurma longa on the performance and pest management of cowpea
Specific Objectives
The specific objectives of the study are to:
i. identify the major insect pests of cowpea
ii. assess the impact of each plant extract on the growth and yield of cowpea
iii. evaluate the insecticidal properties and compare the efficacy of aqueous extract of
botanicals against major insect pests that affect cowpea
iv. access the phytotoxic effect of botanicals on cowpea
v. investigate the potential synergistic effects of combining plant extracts for
enhanced insect pest control

1.3 Justification of the Study

Agricultural crops are constantly exposed and or threatened by pests which affect their
growth and later quality. To protect the crops from pest attack, farmers usually rely on
quick pest management options, mainly synthetic chemicals (Nkechi et al., 2018). Despite
the efficacious attribute of synthetic pesticides, continuous usage has its challenges such as
development of pesticide resistant pests (Shabana et al., 2017). Overuse and misuse of
synthetic pesticides can result in harmful effects on humans and the environment and
toxicity to non-target organisms, thus impacting negatively on biodiversity (Sande et al.,
2011).
Constituent compounds of synthetic pesticides have been attributed to chronic human
ailments either due to consumption or exposure (Damalas and Koutroubas, 2015). Most of
the synthetic pesticides are not easily biodegradable thus accumulate in the environment
and cause pollution to soil and ground water in addition to depletion of the ozone layer
(Sande et al., 2011). The disadvantages associated with the misuse and overuses of
synthetic pesticides have stirred the need for alternative pest management options
(Mahmood et al., 2016).

3
Management of pests using plant-based products was practised over time until technology
took over and synthetic pesticides were developed (Mahmood et al., 2016). The synthetic
pesticides were immediately embraced due to their effectiveness and efficacy in managing
serious crop diseases such as rusts and blights (Raja, 2014). Consequently, the use of
natural products of plant origin slowly faded until recently when use of synthetic pesticides
started threatening human health and environmental safety (Nikkah et al., 2017). The
current global trend is towards consumption of food produced using safe and preferably
natural plant protection products. Detection of hazardous chemical pesticide residues in
foods and increased consumer awareness on food safety has resulted to ban of certain
pesticides in agricultural production and plant-based pesticides are gaining popularity in
organic agriculture (Mishra et al., 2018).
The importance of botanical pesticides is attributed to their efficacy, biodegradability,
varied modes of action, low toxicity as well as availability of source materials (Neerak et
al., 2016). They also have short pre-harvest and re-entry intervals. Commonly used
botanical pesticides are popular in organic farming where organically produced food
fetches premium prices (Srijita, 2015). Therefore, botanical pesticides are gaining
popularity because they are safe to use on crops produced for human consumption and
recently there is a lucrative market among consumers willing to pay more for organically
produced food (Misra, 2014). However, most research has focused on controlling storage
pests, with limited studies on field pest of cowpea. This knowledge gap highlights the need
to investigate the insecticidal properties of neem and tumeric against field insect pests of
cowpea. This research will provide valuable insights for developing sustainable pest
management practices.

4
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
The following topics will be reviewed:

Cowpea origin and diversity

Botany of cowpea
Agronomic practices (cultivation of cowpea)
Maturity, harvesting and post-harvest process of cowpea
Importance of cowpea in food security
Constraint to cowpea production
Pests and diseases of cowpea and their control
Economic importance of pests and diseases of cowpea
Adverse effect of pests and diseases of cowpea
Turmeric (Curcuma longa)
Phytochemical present in turmeric
Neem (Azadirachta indica),
Phytochemical present in neem
Probiotics Bio-pesticidal potential of turmeric and neem

5
 CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
EXPERIMENTAL SITE

The experimental site for this field study will be located at the Teaching and Research
Farm, Yaba College of Technology, Epe Campus (60380360N, 30580560E), situated
approximately 16 km along the Epe-Ijebu Ode road, Epe, Lagos, Nigeria. The site lies
within the lowland rainforest vegetation zone of South-Western Nigeria, at an elevation
above sea level. The experiment will be conducted during the wet season of 2024, utilizing
the site's natural conditions to investigate the effect of Azadirachta indica and Cucurma
longa on the performance and pest management of cowpea.
Soil analysis will be carried out before and after conducting the experiment to determine
the chemical properties and nutrients available in the soil.
3.1 RESEARCH MATERIALS
a. Cowpea seeds: the cowpea seeds (Ife Brown variety) will be purchased from the
Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (IAR & T), Moor plantation Ibadan..
b. Plant materials: tumeric rhizome will be purchased from the local market while neem
leaves will be from the Institution (Yaba College of Technology, Epe Campus) and her
environs.
c. Probiotics: will be prepared using rice, milk, molasses and water.
d. Synthetic insecticides: Insecticide (Cyperforce) which contains active ingredient
Cypermethrin at 10% will be included as a standard treatment for the control of leafy
vegetable insects. It will be purchased from a reputable agricultural hub.
e. Herbicide: Pre-emergence herbicide (Touchdown 360©) will be applied before planting
of seeds to control weeds.
f. Seed Dresser (Acti-seed): will be used for dressing seeds to guide against soil-borne
and fungal diseases.

3.3. PREPARATION OF AQUEOUS EXTRACT OF BOTANICALS

3.3.1. Neem leaf extract
The neem leaf will be collected, washed, air dried and processed into powder. 100g of the
leaves will be weighed and soaked into 1000 ml of water in plastic bucket for 24 hours. The
content in the bucket will be stirred vigorously and left for 24 hours before being strained
with muslin cloth to obtain pure leaf aqueous extract and then transferred into hand
spraying bottles.

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3.3.2. Turmeric rhizome extract
The turmeric rhizome will be washed and processed into paste. 100g of the paste will be
weighed and soaked into 1000 ml of water in plastic bucket for 24 hours. The content in the
bucket will be stirred vigorously and left for 24 hours before being strained with muslin
cloth to obtain pure leaf aqueous extract and then transferred into hand spraying bottles.

3.3.3 Probiotics
One cup of rice will be rinsed with 750 ml of water until the water becomes whitish and
opaquein colour. The rice water will then be poured into a container and kept for 3 days to
enable fermentation. In another container, 320g will be poured and then half of the rice
water (375 ml) will be added to the milk and it will be left for a week to allow fermentation
process occur. After fermentation, 100 ml of the rice water and milk mixture will be
measured and mix with 100ml of molasses, the mixture will be stirred properly to allow the
molasses dissolve. 1800ml of water will then be added to the mixture and will then be
transferred to a clean container and allowed to cool for a week. The mixture will then be
transferred into a spray bottle for spraying on plants.

3.3.4. Spraying of extracts and Synthetic Insecticide

The extracts will be sprayed on the plants between 10.00 am and 12 noon after insect
sampling till seedling maturity stage. Whenever it rained within 2 hours of spraying, the
extract and synthetic insecticide will be resprayed using knapsack sprayer (Opareke et al,
2005). Cyperforce (E.C 10% cypermethrin) (Synthetic pesticide) will be prepared according
to manufacturer’s specification (2 ml per 1 L of water per hectare) (Okunlola et al., 2008).

3.3.5. For the phytochemical constituents of plant botanicals to be determined

According to methods of AOAC, (2002) and as enunciated by Rosulu et al., (2023), the
extracts supernatants will be discarded and the residues will be stored in sterile bottles at
50C to ascertain levels of alkaloids, saponins, reducing sugar, steroids, terpenoids, etc for
all the treatments (except cypermethrin).

3.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROTOCOL

The experimental protocol will be carried out according to the procedure described by
Rosulu et al., (2023). The experimental site will undergo preparatory procedures, including
land clearing, stump removal, and debris disposal, followed by ploughing, harrowing, and
ridge formation for cowpea seed planting. The experiment will employ a Randomized
Complete Block Design (RCBD) with six (6) treatments, each replicated three times, in a
7
 randomized arrangement to minimize bias and ensure reliable results. The treatments will
be arranged as follows:
T1 - Control
T2 - Synthetic Insecticide
T3 - Neem leaf extract
T4 - Tumeric rhizome extract
T5 - Probiotics
T6 - Mixture of tumeric rhizomes and neem leaves extract
1.5m
5m

T1R1 T2R1 T3R1 T4R1 T5R1 T6R1

6.75m

1.5m T4R2 T5R2 1.5m T6R2 T1R2 T2R2

T3R2
1.5m

T2R3 T3R3 T4R3 T5R3 T6R3 T1R3

Figure 1: Field layout

The experimental design will consist of treatment plots measuring 5m x 6.75m (33.75m²),
with five ridges spaced 0.75m apart. Each treatment will be replicated three times, with a
1.5m furrow spacing between blocks and plots, resulting in a total of 90 experimental plots.
The sole cowpea cropping treatment will have an intra-row spacing of 30cm, with two
seeds planted per hole.

8
3.5 DATA COLLECTION
20 cowpea plants which will be randomly selected and tagged for each experimental plot.
Data will be collected from the 20 tagged plants from each plot based on the following
parameters:
i. Growth parameters of cowpea at 2, 4, 6 and 8 weeks after planting
The number of leaves will be counted visually at 2, 4, 6 and 8 weeks after planting,
vine length will be measured using tape rule, taking from the soil level to the top of
the last leaf (apical bud) while leaf area will be measured also using a tape rule.
ii. Pest population
Pest population will be sampled very early in the morning (6:30am – 9:00am) when
the insect pests are less active one day before and one day after spaying from 1
week after transplanting. The number of insects and insects identified on tagged
plants per plot will be recorded.
iii. Assessment of thrips (Megalothrips sjostedti) and Legume pod borer (Maruca
vitrata)
This will be done by removing 20 flowers from plants in each plot. The flowers will
be placed in vials containing 30% alcohol and taken to the laboratory where the
flowers will be dissected the next day. The number of thrips and legume pod borers
found will be recorded.
iv. Assessment of both nymphs and adult of legume pod borer (Maruca vitrata)
and pod sucking bugs (Clavigralla tormentosicollis)
This will be based on visual observation of 3 plants randomly selected within 1.0m x
1.0m on quadrants randomly selected within the main ridges on each plot. Each
nymph and adults of pod borer and pod sucking bugs will be identified, counted and
recorded.
v. Pod Density
As described by Rosulu et al., (2023), a measure of efficacy of insecticide against
thrips, borers and bug larvae infestation on cowpea, will be accessed at 10 weeks
after spraying by counting pods produced from a random sample of 20 plants per
plot.

9
vi. Pod Damage
Shrivelling, twisting, stunting and constriction will be accessed by counting the
number of damaged pods per plant and divided by the total number of pods
produced per plant in a random sample of 20 plants per plot. This will be expresses
in % by multiplying by 100 as described by Rosulu et al., (2023).

vii. Grain yield

Grain yield will be recorded from each plot after harvesting, threshing and
winnowing. Grain yield data will be converted to kg/ha before ANOVA using the
Rehaja, (1976) formula as enunciated by Rosulu et al., (2023)
Yield (kg/ha) =

Where: a = plot yield

b = not plot size

viii. Yield loss

Yield loss will be calculated using the Judenko (1973) formula as enunciated by
Rosulu et al., (2023):
AL = (a – b) x NAT

Where: AL = Actual loss

a = mean yield of the unattacked plant

b = mean yield of the attacked plant

NAT = Number of attacked plant

ix. Assessment of phytotoxicity signs

Discoloration, burning, wilting and terminal bud stunting will be accessed by
randomly inspecting virtually the 20 plants selected per plot 2 days after each
spraying.
3.6 DATA ANALYSIS
Data collected will be subjected to Two Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using SAS
GLM Procedure and significant difference that occur will be separated using Least
Significant Difference.

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