3rd Sem Computer Graphics and Multimedia

Module-1

#Introduction to graphics:-It is difficult to display an image of any size on the

computer screen.
-This method is simplified by using Computer graphics.
-Graphics on the computer are produced by using various algorithms and techniques.
-In today life, computer graphics has now become a common element in user interfaces, T.V.
commercial motion pictures.
-It’s used in digital photography, film and television, video games, and on electronic devices
and is responsible for displaying images effectively to users.

*Applications of computer graphics (9 mark):-Some of the applications of computer

graphics are:
CAD (computer aided design), Presentation graphics, Computer Art ,
Entertainment, Education & training , Visualization , Image Processing ,
Graphical User Interface

1. CAD (computer aided design):-Computer graphics are used in building design, metro
projects, aircraft, automobiles, construction, Spacecraft, Optical system, chips, tools,
etc.
-A computer graph is made, before starting any projects.
-In some application, objects are first displayed in a wireframe outline form, that
shows the shape and internal features of the object.
-wireframe display allow designers to quickly understand.
-You can also design your project in 2D and 3D.
-TinkerCAD, FreeCAD, BlocksCAD, Creo, Fusion 360°, Solidworks, AutoCAD, CATIA,
OpenSCAD, Rhino are some popular Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software.
2. Presentation graphics :-It is used to summarize financial statistical scientific or
economic data.
-Presentation Graphics is commonly used to summarize
● Financial Reports
● Statistical Reports
● Mathematical Reports
● Scientific Reports
● Economic Data for research reports
● And other types of reports
-For example- Bar chart, Line chart.
-3D graphs can provide a more dramatic and more attractive representation of data
relationships.
3. Computer Art :-Using computer graphics we can create fine and commercial art
which include animation packages, paint packages.
-These packages provide facilities for designing object shapes and specifying object
motion.
-Cartoon drawing, paintings, logo design can also be done.
-A common graphical method is morphing.
Morphing:- one object is transformed into another object

4. Entertainment :-Computer graphics finds a major part of its utility in the movie
industry and game industry.
-Used for creating motion pictures , music video, television shows, cartoon animation
films.
-Final Draft, Studio Binder, The black list, Movie Magic, Gorilla, Share Grid, KitSplit,
Gofundme are some popular software for making entertainment.
5. Education & training :-Computer generated models are extremely useful for teaching
huge number of concepts and fundamentals in an easy to understand and learn
manner.
-Using computer graphics many educational models can be created through which
more interest can be generated among the students regarding the subject.
-Training:-Specialised system for training like simulators can be used for training the
candidates in a way that can be grasped in a short span of time with better
understanding.
-Creation of training modules using computer graphics is simple and very useful.
6. Visualization :-It is used for visualization of scientists, engineers, medical personnel,
business analysts for the study of a large amount of information.
-These works can be made easy with the help of graphics.
7. Image Processing :-In computer graphics a computer is used to create a picture.
-This image processing is used to modify photograph.
-The main applications of image processing are Improve picture quality.
-To apply image processing method first digitize a photograph.
-Then digital methods can be applied to rearrange pictureparts to enhance color
separation or to improve the quality of shading.
8. Graphical User Interface :-Computer Graphics is one of the main keys to the graphics
users’ interface.
-Computer graphics use to visual control items such as buttons, Menus, Mouse Scroll
bar, Icons, etc.
-You can easily do desktop publishing works through computer graphics.
-The attractive desktop and wallpaper that appear on your computer are due to
graphics only.
-With the help of GUI, you can easy to access and control a compute.
*Video Display Devices:-Typically, the primary output device in a graphics system is a
video monitor.
-The operation of most video monitors is based on the standard cathode-ray
tube (CRT) design, but several other technologies exist.
-This are the Categories of video display devices ;
● Cathode ray tube
● Raster-Scan Display
● Random-Scan Display
● Color CRT Monitors
● Direct View Storage tubes
● Flat-panel Display

1. Refresh Cathode ray tube (9 marks) :The fig illustrates the basic operation of a CRT.

- A beam of electrons (cathode rays), emitted by an electron gun, passes through

focusing and deflection systems that direct the beam toward specified positions on
the phosphor-coated screen.
-The phosphor then emits a small spot of light at each position contacted by the
electron beam.
-the light emitted by the phosphor fades very quickly, some method is needed for
maintaining the screen picture.
-One way to keep the phosphor glowing is to redraw the picture repeatedly by
quickly directing the electron beam back over the same points.
-This type of display is called a refresh CRT.

-The primary components of an electron gun in a CRT are the heated metal
cathode and a control grid.
-Heat is supplied to the cathode by direding a current through a coil of wire, called
the filament.
-This causes electrons to be “boiled off”.
-Negatively charged electrons are then accelerated toward the phosphor coating by a
high positive voltage.
-Intensity of the electron beam is controlled by setting voltage levels on the
control grid.
-A high negative voltage applied to the control grid will shut off the beam by repelling
electrons and stopping them from passing through the small hole at the end of the
control grid .
-The amount of light emitted by the phosphor coating depends on the number of
electrons striking the screen.
-we control the brightness of a display by varying the voltage on the control grid.
-The focusing system in a CRT is needed to force the electron beam to converge into
a small spot as it strikes the phosphor.
-Otherwise, the electrons would repel each other, and the beam would spread out as
it approaches the screen.
-Focusing is accomplished with either electric or magnetic fields.
-Focusing deflection of the electron beam can be controlled either with electric fields
or with magnetic fields.
-Two pairs of coils are used, with the coils in each pair mounted on opposite sides of
the neck of the CRT envelope.
-One pair is mounted on the top and bottom of the neck, and the other pair is
mounted on opposite sides of the neck.
-One pair of plates is mounted horizontally to control the vertical deflection, and the
other pair is mounted vertically to control horizontal deflection.

→Persistence:-Different type of phosphors are available for use in a CRT.

-Besides color, a major difference between phosphors is their persistence: how long
they continue to emit light after the CRT beam is removed.
 -Lower persistence phosphors require higher refresh rates to maintain a picture on
the screen without flicker.
-A phosphor with low persistence is useful for animation.
-High-persistence phosphor is useful for displaying highly complex, static pictures.
→Resolution:-The maximum number of points that can be displayed without overlap
on a CRT is called resolution.
-Resolution of high quality system is 1280 by 1024.
→Aspect Ratio:-It is a property of video monitors.
-This number gives the ratio of vertical points to horizontal points.
- An aspect ratio of 3/4 means that a vertical line plotted with three points has the
same length as a horizontal line plotted with four points.

2. Raster-Scan Display (9 marks) :-The most common type of graphics monitor employing
a CRT is the raster-scan display, based on television technology.
-In a raster-scan system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a
time from top to bottom.
-The beam intensity is turned on and off to create a pattern of illuminated spots.
-Picture definition is stored in a memory area called the refresh buffer or frame
buffer.
-This memory area holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points.
-Stored intensity values are then retrieved from the refresh buffer and "painted" on
the screen one row at a time (Fig. 2-7).
-Each screen point is referred to as a pixel or pel.
-The capability of a raster-scan system to store intensity information for each screen
point makes a realistic display of scenes.
-Intensity range for pixel positions depends on the capability of the raster
system.
In black-and-white system, each screen point is either on or off.
-one bit per pixel is needed to control the intensity of screen positions.
-For a bit level system, a bit value of 1 indicates that the electron beam is to be
turned on at that position, and a value of 0 indicates that the beam intensity is to be
off.
-On a black-and-white system with one bit per pixel, the frame buffer is commonly
called a bitmap.
-For systems with multiple bits per pixel, the frame buffer is referred to as a pixmap.
-At the end of each scan line, the
electron beam returns to the left
side of the screen to begin
displaying the next scan line.
Q)What is the horizontal retrace of the electron beam?(3 marks)
-At the end of each scan line, the electron beam returns to the left side of the screen to
begin displaying the next scan line.
-The return to the left of the screen After refreshing each scan line, is called the horizontal
retrace of the electron beam.
Q)What is vertical retrace of the electron beam?(3 marks)
- And at the end of each frame the electron beam returns (vertical retrace) to the top left
corner of the screen to begin the next frame.

3. Random-Scan Display (9 marks) :- The electron beam directed only to the parts of the
screen where a picture is to be drawn.
-Draw a picture one line at a time so it is also called vector displays or stroke-writing
or calligraphic display.
-Refresh rate on a random-scan system depends on the number of lines to be
displayed.
-Picture definition stored a set of line drawing commands in an area of memory
called refresh display file or refresh buffer.
-Random-scan displays are designed to draw all the component lines of a picture 30
to 60 times each second.
-Random-scan systems are designed for line drawing applications and cannot display
realistic shaded scenes.
-Since picture definition is stored as a set of Line drawing instructions and not as a
set of intensity values for all screen points,vector displays generally have higher
resolution than raster systems.
-Also, vector displays produce smooth line drawings because the CRT beam directly
follows the line path.
Q)Different tech for display color images in CRT (9 marks) ?
4. Color CRT Monitors (9 marks):- A CRT monitor displays color pictures by using a
combination of phosphors that emit different-colored light.
-By combining the emitted light from the different phosphors, a range of colors can
be generated.
-The two basic techniques for producing color displays with a CRT are
● Beam-penetration method
● Shadow-mask method

→Beam-penetration method :-The beam-penetration method for displaying color

pictures has been used with random-scan monitors.
-Two layers of phosphor, usually red and green, are located inside the CRT .
-And the displayed color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates into the
phosphor layers.
-A beam of slow electrons excites only the outer red layer.
-A beam of very fast electrons penetrates through the red layer and excites the inner
green layer.
-At intermediate beam speeds, combinations of red and green light are emitted to
show two additional colors, orange and yellow.
-The speed of the electrons, and hence the screen color at any point, is controlled by
the beam-acceleration voltage.
➢ Advantage
-Beam penetration has been an inexpensive way to produce color in
random-scan monitors.
➢ Disadvantage
-But only four colors are possible.
-And the quality of pictures is not as good as with other methods.

→Shadow-mask method :-Shadow-mask methods are commonly used in raster scan

systems (including color TV).
-Because they produce a much wider range of colors than the beam penetration
method.
-A shadow-mask CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel position.
-One phosphor dot emits a red light, another emits a green light, and the third emits
a blue light.
-This type of CRT has three electron guns, one for each color dot.
Operation of a delta-delta
shadow mask CRT figure —----------->

--The delta delta shadow-mask method, commonly used in color CRT systems.
-The three electron beams are deflected and focused as a group.
-When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a dot
triangle, which appears as a small color spot on the screen.
-The phosphor dots in the triangles are arranged so that each electron beam can
activate only its corresponding color dot when it passes through the shadow mask.
-Another configuration for the three electron guns is an in-line arrangement in which
the three electron guns, and the corresponding red-green-blue color dots on the
screen, are aligned along one scan line instead of in a triangular pattern.

-This in-line arrangement of electron guns is easier to keep in alignment and is

commonly used in high-resolution color CRTs.
-We obtain color variations in a shadow-mask CRT by varying the intensity
levels of the three electron beams.
➢ Advantage
-Realistic images.
-Millions of different color tables can be generated.
➢ Disadvantage
-Expensive
5. Direct View Storage tubes (DVST) (9 marks) :-
-An alternative method for maintaining a screen image is to store the picture
information inside the CRT instead of refreshing the screen.
-A direct-view storage tube (DVST) stores the picture information as a charge
distribution just behind the phosphor-coated screen.
-Two electron guns are used in a DVST.
➢ Primary gun:- is used to store the picture pattern.
➢ Second gun:- maintains the picture display. And also know as flood gun.
-A DVST monitor has both disadvantages and advantages compared to the
refresh CRT.
-Because no refreshing is needed, very complex pictures can be displayed at very
high resolutions without flicker.
-Disadvantages of DVST systems are that they ordinarily do not display color and that
selected parts of a picture cannot he erased.
-To eliminate a picture section, the entire screen must be erased and the modified
picture redrawn.
-The erasing and redrawing process can take several seconds for a complex picture.

“Fig important alla”

6. Flat-panel Display (9 marks) :-This devices that have reduced volume, weight, and
power requirements compared to a CRT.
-its significant feature of flat-panel displays is that they are thinner than CRTs, and we
can hang them on walls.
- Current uses for flat-panel displays include small TV monitors, calculators, pocket
video games, laptop computers etc…
-We can separate flat-panel displays into two categories:
➢ Emissive displays:-It is also known as emitters.
-This devices convert electrical energy into light.
-Plasma panels, thin-film electroluminescent displays, and Light-emitting
diodes are examples of emissive displays.
➢ Non emissive displays:-It is also known as non emitters.
-It convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns.
-The most important example of a non emissive flat-panel display is a
liquid-crystal device.
Q)plasma panel working (9 marks)?
→Plasma panels (9 marks) :-Plasma panels, also called gas-discharge displays,
-It is constructed by filling the region between two glass plates with a mixture of
gases that usually include neon.
-A series of vertical conducting ribbons is placed on one glass panel, and a set of
horizontal ribbons is in the other glass panel.
-Firing voltages applied to a pair of horizontal and vertical
conductors cause the gas at the intersection of the
two conductors to break down into a glowing plasma of
electrons and ions.
-Picture definition is stored in a refresh buffer,
and the firing voltages are applied to refresh the pixel
positions (at the intersections of the conductors)
60 times per second.
-AC current methods are used to provide faster application
of the firing voltages, and thus brighter displays.
-One disadvantage of plasma panels has been that they were
strictly monochromatic devices (black and white).
-The gas will slow when there is a significant voltage difference between horizontal
and vertical wires.
-The voltage level is kept between 90 volts to 120 volts.
-Plasma level does not require refreshing.
-Erasing is done by reducing the voltage to 90 volts.
-
➢ Advantages of Plasma Display Panel
-Plasma Display Panel are thin, lightweight and take up less space than other
displays which makes them easy to install anywhere.
-Plasma Display Panel offers uniform brightness.
-Plasma Display Panel capable of producing deeper blacks.
➢ Disadvantages of Plasma Display Panel
-Plasma Display Panel uses more electricity, as an overlay than an LCD TV.
-Earlier generation displays had phosphors that lost luminosity over time.

→Thin-film electroluminescent displays (9 mark):-Thin-film electroluminescent

displays are similar in construction to a plasma panel.
-The difference is that the region between the glass
plates is filled with a phosphor, such as zinc sulfide
doped with manganese, instead of a gas.
-When a sufficiently high voltage is applied to a pair
of crossing electrodes, the phosphor becomes a
Conductor.
-Electrical energy is then absorbed by the manganese atoms, which then release the
energy as a spot of light similar to the glowing plasma effect in a plasma panel.
- Electroluminescent displays require more power than plasma panels, and good
color.

→Light-emitting diode (LED):-A third type of emissive device is the light-emitting

diode (LED).
-A matrix of diodes is arranged to form the pixel positions in the display,
-and picture definition is stored in a refresh buffer.
-Information is read from the refresh buffer.
-It is converted to voltage levels that are applied to the diodes to produce the light
patterns in the display.

➢ Advantage
-Small, adaptable
-low cost.
Low power device.
➢ Disadvantage
-LED lighting can be dimmed.
-low quality led’s may cause pollution to the environment.
Q)LCD working (9 mark)
→Liquid-crystal display (LCD):-LCD are commonly used in small systems,such as
calculators,laptop computers etc..
-It is a non emissive device.
-It produce a picture by passing polarized light from surrounding or from an internal
light source through a liquid crystal.
-The term liquid crystal refers to the fact that these compounds have a crystalline
arrangement of molecules, yet they flow like a liquid.
-Flat-panel displays commonly use nematic (threadlike) liquid-crystal.
- Two Glass plates, each containing a light polarizer .

- Rows of horizontal transparent conductors are built into one glass plate, and
columns of vertical conductors are put into the other plate.
-The intersection of two conductors defines a pixel position.
-Normally, the molecules are aligned as shown in the "on state" .
- Polarized light passing through the material is twisted so that it will pass through
the opposite polarizer.
-The light is then reflected back to the viewer.
-To turn off the pixel, we apply a voltage to the two intersecting conductors to align
the molecules so that the light is not twisted.
➢ Light + voltage = twist
➢ Light = not twisted (not displayed)
-Picture definitions are stored in a refresh buffer.
-And the screen is refreshed at the rate of 60 frames per second, as in the emissive
devices.
-The transistors are used to control the voltage at pixel locations and to prevent
charge from gradually leaking out of the liquid-crystal cells.
*Three-Dimensional Viewing Device (9 marks):-Graphics monitors for the display of
three-dimensional scenes have been worked out using a technique that reflects a CRT image
from a vibrating, flexible mirror.
-The operation of such a system is demonstrated in below figure

-The varifocal mirror vibrates, it changes focal length.

-These vibrations are synchronized with the display of an object on a CRT.
-So that each point on the object is reflected from the mirror into a spatial (structural)
position corresponding to the distance of that point from a specified viewing position.
-This allows us to walk around an object or scene and view it from different sides.
-The Genisco Space Graph system, which uses a vibrating mirror to project
three-dimensional objects into a 25-cm by 25-cm by 25-cm volume.
-This system is also capable of displaying two-dimensional images.
-This systems have been used in medical applications to analyze data from ultrasonography
and CAT scan devices.

*Stereoscopic and Virtual-Reality Systems:- Another technique for representing

three-dimensional objects is displaying stereoscopic views.
-This method does not produce true three-dimensional images, but it does provide a
three-dimensional effect by presenting a different view to each eye of an observer.
-To obtain a stereoscopic projection, we first need to obtain
two views of a scene generated from a viewing direction
corresponding to each eye (left and right).
-We can construct the two views as computer-generated
scenes with different viewing positions, or we can use a
stereo camera pair to photograph some object or scene.
-When we simultaneous look at the left view with the left
eye and the right view with the right eye, the two views
merge into a single image and see a scene.
-To increase viewing comfort, the areas at the left and right edges of this scene that are
visible to only one eye have been eliminated.
-bakki venakill google ill nokkukaaa
*Frame buffer:- The portion of the memory used to hold the pixels is called frame buffer.
-The frame-buffer is a digital device, while CRT is an analog device, conversion from a digital
representation to an analog signal must take place when information is read from the frame
buffer and displayed on the raster CRT graphics device.
-This is accomplished by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
-Each pixel in the frame buffer must be accessed and converted by DAC before it is visible on
the raster CRT.

Q) Difference between color and greyscale images (3 marks)?

➢ Color:-General Purpose raster scan systems provide a variety of colors while random
scan monitors provide very few.
-Colors are represented by colors codes which are positive integers.
-Color information is stored in frame buffer or in separate table and use pixel values
as index to the color table.
-Two ways to store color information:
1. Direct
2. Indirect
➢ GrayScale:-Apply for monitor that have no color.
-Shades of grey (white->light grey->dark grey->black)
-Color code mapped onto grayscale codes
-2 bits can give 4 level of grayscale
-8 bits per pixel will allow 256 combination

*GrayScale methods (3 marks):-A grayscale image is simply one in which the only colors are
shades of gray.
-Grayscale is a group of shades without any visible color.
-On a monitor, each pixel of a grayscale display carries an amount of light, ranging from the
weakest amount of light, or black, to the strongest amount of light, or white.
-Grayscale only contains brightness information, not color.

___________________________________________________________________________

Module-2

#Output primitives

*Line drawing algorithm:-Line drawing on the computer means the computer screen is
dividing into two parts rows and columns.
-Those rows and columns are also known as Pixels.
- In case we have to draw a line on the computer, first of all, we need to know which pixels
should be on.
-A line is defined by two Endpoints.
-The formula for a line interception of the slope:
Y = mx + b
-In this formula,
➢ ‘m’ slope of the line
➢ ‘b’ as the intercept .
-We have two endpoints of positions (x1, y1) and (x2 , y2, as shown in Fig.
-The values for the slope m is

-It have 2 cases

1. M(slope) <= 1
2. M > 1
 1. In case 1
-Then we divide ‘x’ axis into unit interval. Or ‘x’ change with unit interval
Xk+1 =Xk + 1
-and ‘y’ change with deviation.
yK+1 = yk + M

To get next ‘x’ value we just add 1 with the

previous ‘x’ value
Xk+1 =Xk + 1
-and to find next value we add slope value
with previous y value
yK+1 = yk + M

-if we need to find right to left yK+1 value then the equation became
yK+1 = yk - M
2. In case 2
-Then we divide ‘y’ axis into unit interval Or ‘y’ change with unit interval
yK+1 = yk + 1
-And ‘x’ changes with deviation

Xk+1 =Xk +

-if we need to find right to left x value then the equation became
Xk+1 =Xk -

-This are the types of Line Drawing Algorithm

● Digital Differential Algorithm ( DDA)
● The Bresenham Line Algorithm
1. Digital Differential Algorithm ( DDA) (9 mark):-
-DDA Algorithm is the simplest line drawing algorithm.
-The starting and ending coordinates of a line are given and then DDA Algorithm
attempts to generate the points between the starting and ending coordinates.
-In this method calculation is performed at each step but by using results of previous
steps.

Algorithm aluppama

void line DDA (int xa, int ya, int xb, int yb)
{
int dx = xb - xa ,
dy = yb - ya, steps, k;
float x increment, y Increment,
x = xa, y = ya;

if (abs (dx) > abri (dy)

steps = abs (dx) ;
else
steps = abs dy);

x Increment = dx / (float) steps;

y Increment = dy / (float) steps

setPixel (ROUND(x), ROUND(y) );

for (k=O; k<steps; k++)

{
x += x Increment;
y += yIncrement;
setPixel (ROUND (x) , ROUND (y) );
}

(example bca short note book ill unde)

→Advantage of DDA:
● It is a faster method than method of using direct use of line equation.
● This method does not use multiplication theorem.
● It allows us to detect the change in the value of x and y ,so plotting of same point
twice is not possible.
● It is a simple and easy-to-implement algorithm.
● It is an easy method because each step involves just two additions.
→Disadvantage of DDA :
● floating point arithmetic is still time consuming.
● It is more suitable for generating line using the software.
-But it is less suited for hardware implementation.
● Not suitable for thick lines
● The points generated by this algorithm are not accurate

2. The Bresenham Line Algorithm (9) :-This algorithm is used for scan converting a line.
-It was developed by Bresenham.
-It is an efficient method because it involves only integer addition, subtractions, and
multiplication operations.
-It Given the starting and ending coordinates of a line, Bresenham Line Drawing
Algorithm attempts to generate the points between the starting and ending
coordinates.
-For example if the Given the coordinate of two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2).
-The task is to find all the intermediate points required for drawing line AB on the
computer screen of pixels.
-Note that every pixel has integer coordinates.

(xk,yk) next coordinate are (xk+1,yk) or (xk,yk+1)

Algorithm

1. Input the two line endpoints and store the left endpoint in (x0, y0)
2. Load (x0, y0) into the frame buffer; that is, plot the first point.
3. Calculate constants Δx, Δy, 2Δy, and 2Δy - 2Δx, and obtain the starting
value for the decision parameter as
p0 = 2Δy - Δx
4. At each xk along the line, starting at k = 0, perform the following test:
If Pk < 0, the next point to plot is (xk + 1, yk) and
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δy
Otherwise, the next point to plot is (xk + 1, yk + 1) and
Pk+1 = pk + 2Δy - 2Δx
5. Repeat step 4 Δx times.
Q) (10,5) to (15,9) question bank illa question

→Advantage of bresenham’s algorithm

● It involves only integer arithmetic, so it is simple.
● It avoids the generation of duplicate points.
● It can be implemented using hardware because it does not use multiplication and
division.
● It is faster as compared to DDA (Digital Differential Analyzer) because it does not
involve floating point calculations like DDA Algorithm.
● The points generated by this algorithm are more accurate than DDA Algorithm.
→Disadvantage of bresenham’s algorithm
● The drawn line is not smooth as a result.
● This algorithm is for the basic line drawing

Q) stair step effort (3 marks ) -google

*Difference between DDA Algorithm and Bresenham's Line Algorithm
(9 mark)
*Circle-Generating Algorithms :-Computer graphics provide a powerful tool for
creating and manipulating graphical objects such as lines, circles, and polygons.
-A circle is one of the fundamental shapes used in computer graphics and it is generated
through a circle generation algorithm.
-A circle generation algorithm is an algorithm used to create a circle on a computer screen.
-It is used in various applications such as computer-aided design (CAD) software, animation
software, games, and scientific visualization.
-Drawing a circle on the screen is a little complex than drawing a line.
-There are several algorithms used for generating circles on a computer screen they are;
- Midpoint circle algorithm matram explain cheythal mathi
● Midpoint Circle Algorithm (9):-The midpoint circle algorithm is the most commonly
used algorithm for circle generation.
-The mid-point circle drawing algorithm is an algorithm used to determine the points
needed for rasterizing a circle.
-We use the mid-point algorithm to calculate all the perimeter points of the circle in
the first octant and then print them along with their mirror points in the other
octants.
-For any given pixel (x, y), the next pixel to be plotted
is either (x, y+1) or (x-1, y+1).
-It have 3 cases
➢ (x , y) < 0 (green dot)
-The point is inside the circle.
➢ (x , y) = 0 (red dot)
-The point is on the circle boundary
➢ (x , y) > 0 (violet dot)
-The point is outside the circle.

Algorithm

1. Input radius r and circle center (xc, yc,), and obtain the first point on
the circumference of a circle centered on the origin as
 (x0,y0) = (0,r)
2. calculate the initial value of the decision parameter as

3. At each xk position, starting at k = 0, perform the following test:

If pk < 0, the next point along the circle centered on (0,0) is (xk+1, yk) and

pk+1 = pk+2xk+1+1

Otherwise, the next point along the circle is (xk + 1, yk - 1) and

pk+1 = pk+2xk+1+1-2yk+1

where 2xk+1, = 2xk + 2 and 2yk+1 = 2yk - 2

4. Determine symmetry points in the other seven octants.
5. Move each calculated pixel position (x, y) onto the circular path centered
on (xc, yc) and plot the coordinate values:
x = x+xc , y = y+yc

6. Repeat steps 3 through 5 until x ≥ y.

Q) given a circle radius r = 10

 -Here we stop the calculation because when x ≥ y then we stop the iteration.
-here x = 7 and y = 7 so we stop the calculation.
→Advantages of Mid Point Circle Drawing Algorithm
➢ It is a powerful and efficient algorithm.
➢ The entire algorithm is based on the simple equation of circle X2 + Y2 = R2.
➢ This algorithm is used to generate curves on raster displays.
→Disadvantages of Mid Point Circle Drawing Algorithm
➢ Accuracy of the generating points is an issue in this algorithm.
➢ The circle generated by this algorithm is not smooth.
➢ This algorithm is time consuming.

*DDA circle algorithm (3 marks) :-google

-This algorithm uses the incremental method to draw each point.
-The equation of circle x2 + y2 = r2 is use to draw circle.
-To calculate the value of E we have formula E =Ellipse
2n-1 ≤ r ≤ 2n
∴ E = 2-n = 1/2n

-Example if r=50
25 (32) ≤ 50 26 (64)
E = 2-6 =1/26 = 1/.64 = 0.0156

-E is used to calculate the value of circle point which help to draw circle as
x2 = x1 + Ey1 for x coordinate
Y2 = y1 - Ex2 for y coordinate

#Two dimensional transformations (9 marks) :-Transformation means changing

some graphics into something else by applying rules.
-We can have various types of transformations such as translation, rotation, etc.
-When a transformation takes place on a 2D plane, it is called 2D transformation.
-Transformations play an important role in computer graphics to reposition the graphics on
the screen and change their size or orientation.
Or
-Transformations are helpful in changing the position, size, orientation, shape etc of the
object.
-These transformations involve applying mathematical operations to the coordinates of
points or vertices in order to achieve the desired changes.
-Type of 2D Transformation are:
1. Translation
2. Rotation
3. Scaling
● Translation :-A translation moves an object to a different position on the screen.
-You can translate a point in 2D by adding translation coordinate (tx, ty) to the original
coordinate (X,Y) to get the new coordinate (X′,Y′).
-From the figure, you can write that

X’ = X + tx
Y’ = Y + ty

-The pair (tx, ty) is called the translation distance

or shift vector or Translation vector.
-We can write it as −

P’ = P + T

-In Matrix form, the above translation equations may be represented as

● Rotation :-In rotation, we rotate the object at particular angle θ theta

from its origin.
-From the following figure, we can see that the point P(X,Y) is located at angle φ with
distance r from the origin.
-Let us suppose you want to rotate it at the angle θ.
- After rotating it to a new location, you will get a new point P’ (X’,Y’).
-Using standard trigonometric the original coordinate of point P(X,Y)
can be represented as −

X= rcosφ......(1)
Y= rsinφ......(2)
-Same way we can represent the point P’( X′,Y′) as −

Note:
cos(a+b) = cosa cosb - sina sinb
sin(a+b) = cosa sinb + sina cosb
x′= rcos(φ+θ)
=r cosφ cosθ − r sinφ sinθ.......(3)
y′= rsin(φ+θ)
=r cosφ sinθ + r sinφ cosθ.......(4)

-Substituting equation 1 & 2 in 3 & 4 respectively, we will get

x′=x cosθ − ysinθ

y′=x sinθ + ycosθ

-Representing the above equation in matrix form,

→Rotation with respect to pivot

Note: evida x-xr and

Y-yr evida ennu
correct ayittu ariyathill
so athu remove cheythakkanma
 -It’s matrix representation is given below

Note:
Translation and rotation have rigid body transformation
.
-It means that no change in shape.

● Scaling :-To change the size of an object, scaling transformation is used.

-Scaling may be used to increase or reduce the size of an object.
-Scaling can be achieved by multiplying the original coordinates of the object with
the scaling factor (Sx,Sy) to get the desired result.
-If Sx and Sy have the same value then it is called uniform Scaling.
Eg: Sx = 5 & Sy = 5
-If Sx and Sy have different value then it is called differential Scaling.
Eg: Sx = 5 & Sy = 7 or Sx = 8 & Sy = 3
-Scaling factor determines whether the object size is to be increased or reduced.
➢ If scaling factor (Sx,Sy) = 1, then the object size has no change.
➢ If scaling factor (Sx,Sy) > 1, then the object size is increased.
➢ If scaling factor (Sx,Sy) < 1, then the object size is reduced.
Eg: 0.5 or 0.6 etc (only +ve values)

-Let us assume that the original coordinates are (X,Y) the scaling factors are (Sx, Sy),
and the produced coordinates are (X′,Y′).
-This can be mathematically represented as shown below −

X' = X . Sx and Y' = Y . Sy

-The above equations can also be represented in matrix

form as below
 Or

→Scaling with respect to pivot

X' = Xf + (X - Xf) Sx —1
Y' = Yf + (Y - Yf) Sy —-2
(bracket open cheythu)

X' = Xf + X.Sx - Xf.Sx

Y' = Yf + y.Sy - Yf.Sy

X' = X.Sx + Xf (1-Sx)

Y' = Y.Sy + Yf (1-Sy)

-Matrix representation of general pivot point is given below. (ethu import alla)

*Matrix representations and homogeneous coordinates:-To combine these three

transformations into a single transformation, homogeneous coordinates are used.
-In homogeneous coordinate system, two-dimensional coordinate positions (x, y) are
represented by triple-coordinates.
-Homogeneous coordinates are generally used in design and construction applications.
-Here we perform translations, rotations, scaling to fit the picture into proper position.
-Following are matrix for two-dimensional transformation in homogeneous coordinate:
➢ Translation

-The homogeneous coordinates representation of (X', Y') is (X', Y', 1).

-Through this representation, all the transformations can be performed using
matrix / vector multiplications.
-The above translation matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3 matrix as-

➢ Rotation

-For homogeneous coordinates, the above rotation matrix may be represented as a 3

x 3 matrix as-

➢ Scaling

-For homogeneous coordinates, the above scaling matrix may be represented as a 3 x

3 matrix as-
*Other transformations :-There are 2 other types of transformations they are;
1. Reflection
2. Shear

● Reflection:-Reflection is the mirror image of original object.

-In other words, we can say that it is a rotation operation with 180°.
-The reflected object is always formed on the other side of mirror.
-In reflection transformation, the size of the object does not change.
-It have 4 cases they are;
➢ Case 1 :-reflections with respect to X axis.

-here x coordinate have no change.

-And y coordinates have change .

X' = X
Y' = -Y
-Its matrix format is

➢ Case 2 :-reflections with respect to y axis.

--here x coordinate have change.

-And y coordinates have no change .

X' = -X
Y' = Y

-Its matrix format is

 ➢ Case 3 :-reflections with respect to origin.

-here x coordinate and

- y coordinates have change .

X' = -X
Y' = -Y

-Its matrix format is

➢ Case 4 :-reflections with respect to Y = X.

-x coordinate y um .
-y coordinate x um akumm
Just onnu opposite ayittu
Ezhuthiyal mathi.

X' = Y
Y' = X

-Its matrix format is

Q)What is Reflection? How do you reflect about the line y=mx+b? Explain (9 marks)
● Shear:-Shearing is an ideal technique to change the shape of an existing object in a
two dimensional plane.
-There are two shear transformations X-Shear and Y-Shear.
-One shifts X coordinates values and other shifts Y coordinate values.
-However; in both the cases only one coordinate changes its coordinates and other
preserves its values.
-Shearing is also termed as Skewing.
➢ Case 1 :-X-Shear
-The X-Shear preserves the Y coordinate and changes are made to X
coordinates.
-which causes the vertical lines to tilt right or left as shown in below figure.

X' = X+Shx . Y
Y' = Y

-The transformation matrix for X-Shear can be represented as −

➢ Case 2:-Y-Shear
-The Y-Shear preserves the X coordinates and changes the Y coordinates.
-which causes the horizontal lines to transform into lines which slopes up or
down as shown in the following figure.

Y’= Y + shy.X
X’ = X
 -The Y-Shear can be represented in matrix from as

*composite transformations:-As the name suggests itself Composition, here we

combine two or more transformations into one single transformation.
-If a transformation of the plane T1 is followed by a second plane transformation T2, then
the result itself may be represented by a single transformation T.
-which is the composition of T1 and T2 taken in that order.
-This is written as T = T1∙T2.
● Translation :-Translation equation in matrix representation is

PI =P . T (tx,ty)
-In composite transformation we represent (tx,ty) as (tx1,ty1) . (tx2,ty2)

∴PI = P [T (tx1,ty1)] .T (tx2,ty2)

= P [T (tx1,ty1) .T (tx2,ty2) ]

=T (tx1,ty1).T(tx2,ty2)
=T(tx1+tx2 , ty1+ty2)

-Above resultant matrix show that two successive translations are additive.
Q)p.t two successive translations are addictive (3)?

● Rotation :-Here two successive Rotations are addictive.

PI = [ P.R(θ1) ] . R(θ2)
= P . [ R(θ1) . R(θ2) ]
= P [ R(θ1 + θ2) ]
 ● Scaling :-Here two successive Scaling are multiplicative.

Q) Derive the composite transformation matrix for general pivot point scaling (9marks) ?
-youtube

___________________________________________________________________________
3-module

*Window to viewport transformation (9) :- Window to Viewport Transformation is

the process of transforming 2D world-coordinate objects to device coordinates.
-In particular, objects inside the world or clipping window are mapped to the viewport.
-The viewport is displayed in the interface window on the screen.
-In other words, the clipping window is used to select the part of the scene that is to be
displayed.
-The viewport is used to display selected portion of window on the output device.

-It may be possible that the size of the Viewport is much smaller or greater than the
Window.
-Here we need some mathematical calculations to map window and viewport.

● (xw, yw): A point on Window

● (xv, yv): Corresponding point on Viewport
-We have to calculate the point (xv, yv)

-The relative position of the object in Window and Viewport are the same.
● For x coordinate,

● For y coordinate,

-So, after calculating for x and y coordinate, we get

-Where Sx is the scaling factor of x coordinate and Sy is the scaling factor of y coordinate.
-Note ill unde nokkiyal mathii 👆
-For Example

*Filling (9) :-It is used to filling solid colors to an area or image or polygon.
-Filling the polygon means highlighting its pixel with different solid colors.
-Filling can be of boundary or interior region as shown in fig.

-There are 2 types of Filling algorithm they are;

1. Boundary fill algorithm :-Boundary Fill algorithms are used to fill the boundary.
2. Flood-Fill Algorithm :-flood-fill algorithm are used to fill the interior.

● Boundary fill algorithm :- The Boundary Fill Algorithm is a fundamental technique

used in computer graphics for coloring enclosed areas within a specified color.
-This algorithm works only if the color with which the region has to be filled and the
color of the boundary of the region are different.
-If the boundary is of one single color, tThis method moves outward, pixel by pixel,
until it reaches the boundary of the region.
- starting pixel called as the seed.
-It takes an interior point(x, y) or seed, a fill color, and a boundary color as the input.
-The algorithm starts by checking the color of (x, y).
-If it’s color is not equal to the fill color and the boundary color, then it is painted
with the fill color .
-The algorithm checks boundary pixel or adjacent pixels are colored or not.
-If the adjacent pixel is already filled or colored then leave it, otherwise fill it.
-The filling is done using 2 approaches they are;

1. Four connected approaches :-Four connected approaches is more suitable

than the eight connected approaches.
-After painting a pixel, the function is called for
four neighbouring points.
-These are the pixel positions that are right, left, above,
and below the current pixel.
-Areas filled by this method are called 4-connected.

2. Eight connected approaches :- In this configuration, a pixel is connected to its

neighbour located to the north, south, east, and west, as well as the
diagonals: northwest, northeast, southwest, and southeast.
-Areas filled by this method are called 8-connected.

→ Algorithm:
1. There are two defined colors: color of boundary (color_boundary) and color
that needs to be filled (color_fill)
2. Get color (say color1) of the current pixel
3. If color1 is equal to color_boundary or color_fill, nothing needs to be done as
correct color is already assigned.
 4. If color1 is not equal to the two values:
➢ Add color_fill to the current pixel.
➢ Do the same process for 4 adjacent pixel points: (x, y-1), (x+1, y), (x,
y+1), (x-1, y)

➢ If 8-connected fill is being done, do the same process for 4 diagonal

pixel points additionally: (x+1, y-1), (x+1, y+1), (x-1, y+1), (x-1, y-1).

5. Do the process for every pixel point.

→Pros and Cons of the Boundary Fill Algorithm

● Pros
➢ It is easy to understand and simple to use.
➢ It can be customized to fill bounded areas with various forms.
➢ It fills small to medium-sized spaces effectively.
➢ It is ideal for interactive applications in which the user can choose the
fill color and starting point.
➢ To create more complex effects, it can be coupled with other
algorithms like edge detection and smoothing.
● Cons
➢ It is unable to manage regions that overlap.
➢ Because it is recursive, it may be slow for large regions.
➢ It may fail to fill in case some interior pixels are already filled with
color.
 ● Flood-Fill Algorithm :-The Flood Fill algorithm is a popular technique used to fill an
area or an image with a specified color.
-The algorithm works by starting at a pixel location and then recursively checking its
neighbors until the entire area has been filled.
-The flood fill algorithm has many characters similar to boundary fill.
-But this method is more suitable.
-It is easier than boundary fill algorithm.
-In fill algorithm, we start from a specified interior point (x, y) and reassign all pixel
values are currently set to a given interior color with the desired color.
-its input are interior point (x, y) and a fill color.
-no need to specify the boundary color.
-Using either a 4-connected or 8-connected approaches, we then step through pixel
positions until all interior points have been repainted.

→Algorithm
1. Choose a starting pixel.
2. Check if the color of the starting pixel is the same as the target color.
3. If the color of the starting pixel is the same as the target color, fill it with the
replacement color and mark it as visited.
4. Recursively call the Flood Fill algorithm on each unvisited neighboring pixel
that has the same color as the starting pixel.
5. Repeat the step 3 and 4.

→Advantages:
-Simple Easy to implement.
-easy to understand and implement.
-The boundary fill method is incapable of handling objects with multi-color
boundaries, whereas flood fill is.
→Disadvantages:
-Extensive stacking is required.
-Slow in nature.
-Not suitable for large polygons

*Clipping Operation:-Clipping is a process of dividing an object into visible and invisible

portions and displaying the visible portion and discarding the invisible portion.
-Clipping is the process to identify the picture either inside or outside of the displaying area.
-This process is not easy.
-The viewing window (or viewport) often has a limited display area. Moreover, when
rendering complex scenes, it’s essential to optimize performance by discarding objects or
parts of objects that viewers can’t see.
-Furthermore, it guarantees the display of only the visible portions of objects, resulting in
faster rendering times and a more realistic representation of a scene.
-When we want to display a scene with only those objects within a particular rectangular
window, we should first specify the window’s coordinates (XMax,XMIn,YMax,YMin).

-Then. we clip the objects to show only their parts in the specified window.

→Types of Clipping
1. Point Clipping
2. Line Clipping
3. Area Clipping (Polygon)
4. Text Clipping

● Point Clipping :-Point Clipping is used to determining, whether the point is inside the
window or not.
-For this following conditions are checked.
➢ x ≤ Xmax
➢ x ≥ Xmin
➢ y ≤ Ymax
➢ y ≥ Ymin
 -The (x, y) is the coordinate of the point.
-If anyone of the condition is not satisfied , then the point will fall outside the
window and will not be considered to be visible.
Eg: here ( X1,Y1) is visible because it satisfies the above 4 conditions.
-But Coordinate (X2,Y2) is not visible because it can't satisfy the above conditions .

● Line Clipping :- The concept of line clipping is same as point clipping.

-In line clipping, we will cut the portion of line which is outside of window and keep
only the portion that is inside the window.
-It have 4 conditions
1. If both end points are inside the window the proceed and display it.

2. If both endpoints are completely outside the window, then discard.

 3. If one end point is outside the window then discard the line outside the
window and create a new endpoint within the window.

4. Both endpoints are located outside the clipping area and the line intersect
the clipping area.
-The two intersection points of the line with the clipping are must be
determined.
-Only the part of the line between these two intersection points should be
drawn.

-It is performed by using the line clipping algorithm.

-The line clipping algorithms are:
➢ Cohen Sutherland Line Clipping Algorithm :-This is one of the oldest and
most popular line-clipping procedures.
-In the algorithm, first of all, it is detected whether line lies inside the screen
or it is outside the screen.
-A 4 code is used to identify the position of the window , also called region
code.
-These 4 bits represent the Top, Bottom, Right, and Left of the region as
shown in the following figure.

-Here, the TOP and LEFT bit is set to 1 because it is the TOP-LEFT corner.
-It has 3 cases.
1. Visible :-if both endpoints have the 0000 code.
2. Not Visible :- if no endpoint has the 0000 code
3. Clipping Case :-If the line is neither visible case nor invisible case. It is
considered to be clipped case.
-Eg:

-Line AB is the visible case

-Line OP is an invisible case
-Line CD are clipping candidate, and we eliminate point D and we
select D’ as new point.
-Special case:
 -P1 and p2 are outside of the window.
-So, p1 is discarded from p1 to p’1.
-and we discard P2 to P’2 .
-Then as next step we discard P’2 to P‘’2.
-And at last we save P’1 and P’’2.-

➢ Midpoint Subdivision Line Clipping Algorithm :- ethu explain cheyandaa ,just

name matram mention cheythal mathi.

Note:To check a line is completely outside we perform AND operation.

-If any bit position contain value 1 then it is outside the window.

● Area Clipping /Polygon Clipping :-polygon clipping to determine which portions of

the polygon are visible to the viewer and to discard any parts of the polygon that are
outside of the viewing area

-Sutherland Hodgeman polygon clipping algorithm is used for polygon clipping.

-It have 4 stages
1. L - left clip 2. R - right clip Original polygon
3. T - Top clip 4. B - Bottom clip
-It have 4 cases /conditions
1. Out -in
-If edge move from out to in .
-Then save intersection point (P’1) and
Reject starting point (P1)
2. In - In
-Save P3.

3. In - Out
-Save intersection point (P’4).
-And reject end point (P4)

4. Out - Out
-Save none

-The final output is

 - Weiler atherton polygon clipping :- explain cheyanda

● Text Clipping :- It is a process where a string or word that falls outside the window is
removed.
-This method is also called as all or none.
-It have 3 cases:
1. All or none string clipping :-In all or none string clipping method, either we
keep the entire string or we reject entire string based on the clipping window.
-As shown in the above figure, STRING2 is entirely inside the clipping window
-so we keep it and STRING1 being only partially inside the window, we reject.

2. All or none character clipping (no overlap):-This clipping method is based on

characters rather than entire string.
-In this method if the string is entirely inside the clipping window, then we
keep it.
-If the character is on the boundary of the clipping window, then we discard
that outside character and keep the rest of the character.
-overlapping character will also discard.

3. Component of individual character (overlap):-here we discard outside

character and save the rest character .
-And also save the overlapped character portion which is inside the window
Not entire character.
Note: 9 mark inu chothichal 2d uda concept um koodi ezhuthukaaa

*Three dimensional geometric transformations :-The geometric transformations

play an important role in generating 3D images.
-The z coordinate is taken into account when expanding two-dimensional geometric
transformation techniques to three dimensions.
-3D Transformations are important and a bit
more complex than 2D Transformations.

→Transformation Techniques/Types:-In computer graphics, There are various

transformation techniques they are;
1. Translation :-It is the movement of an object from one position to another position.
-Translation is done using translation vectors.
-There are three vectors in 3D instead of two.
-These vectors are in x, y, and z directions.
-Translation in the x-direction is represented using Tx.
-The translation is y-direction is represented using Ty.
-The translation in the z- direction is represented using Tz.
-If P is a point having co-ordinates in three directions (x, y, z) is translated, then after
translation its coordinates will be (x1, y1, z1) after translation.
-The translation is achieved by adding the translation coordinates (Tx,Ty,Tz) to the old
coordinates (x,y,z) of the object.
x1=x+ Tx
y1=y+Ty
z1=z+ Tz
-Three-dimensional transformations are performed by transforming each vertex of
the object.
-If an object has five corners, then the translation will be accomplished by translating
all five points to new locations.
-Following figure 1 shows the translation of point figure 2 shows the translation of
the cube.
 -In Matrix form, the above translation equations may be represented as

2. Rotation :- 3D Rotation is a process of rotating an object with respect to an angle.

-3D rotation is complex as compared to the 2D rotation.
-Rotation can be anticlockwise or clockwise.
-In 3 dimensions, there are 3 possible types of rotation-
➢ X-axis Rotation
➢ Y-axis Rotation
➢ Z-axis Rotation

IMPORTANT: note ill nokkanma cycle rotation na kurichu oka onnu just nokkanm

→Rotation with respect to x-axis

-This rotation is achieved by using the following rotation equations-
X' = X
Y' = Y cosθ – Z sinθ
Z' = Y sinθ + Z cosθ
-In Matrix form, the above rotation equations may be represented as-

→ Rotation with respect to y-axis

-This rotation is achieved by using the following rotation equations-
X' = Z sinθ + X cosθ
Y' = Y
Z' = Y cosθ – X sinθ
 -In Matrix form, the above rotation equations may be represented as-

→Rotation with respect to z-axis

-This rotation is achieved by using the following rotation equations-
x' = x cosθ - y sinθ
y' = x sinθ + y cosθ
Z' = Z
-In Matrix form, the above rotation equations may be represented as-

3. Scaling :- Scaling is used to change the size of an object.

-The size can be increased or decreased.
-Scaling can be achieved by multiplying the original coordinates of the object with
the scaling factor to get the desired result.
-In scaling, these three Scaling factors are required Sx Sy and Sz.
➢ Sx=Scaling factor in x- direction
➢ Sy=Scaling factor in y-direction
➢ Sz=Scaling factor in z-direction
 -In 3D scaling operation, three coordinates are used.
-Let us assume that the original coordinates are (X,Y,Z) and scaling factors are
(Sx,Sy,Sz)respectively,
-And the produced coordinates are (X′,Y′,Z′)
-Scaling factor determines whether the object size is to be increased or reduced.
-If scaling factor > 1, then the object size is increased.
-If scaling factor < 1, then the object size is reduced.
-This scaling is achieved by using the following scaling equations-
X' = X . Sx
Y' = Y . Sy
Z' = Z . Sz

-In Matrix form, the above scaling equations may be represented as-

Q)3D Scaling with respect to a fixed point (9 marks) :-youtube

*Projection :-It is the process of converting a 3D object into a 2D object.

-It is also defined as mapping .
-we represent a 3D object on a 2D plane {(x,y,z)->(x,y)}.
→Types of Projections:
1. Parallel projections :-Parallel Projection use to display picture in its
true shape and size.
-The parallel projection is formed by extending parallel lines
from each vertex on the object until they intersect the plane
of the screen.
-The point of intersection is the projection of vertex.
-Parallel projections are used by architects and engineers for creating working
drawing of the object, for complete representations require two or more views of an
object using different planes.

-Parallel projection is divided into two parts they are;

➢ Orthographic Projections (3) :- Projectors are

perpendicular to the projection plane.
-Orthographic projections are most often
used to procedure the front, side, and top views of an object.
-Front and side view are called elevation.
-Top view is called Plain view.
-Engineering and architectural drawings commonly employ these
orthographic projections.
-Transformation equations for an orthographic parallel projection as straight
forward.
 -To get a 3D picture into 2D then we take,
Xp = x
Yp = y

-Here Z value is used to calculate depth value.

➢ Oblique Projections (3) :- Projectors are not necessarily

perpendicular to the projection plane.
-An oblique projection shows the front and top
surfaces of the object.
-Note ill unde important annu

2. Perspective projections :-Perspective projection works by projecting the 3D object to

a reduced size on the view plane.
-Additionally, we can also refer to the viewpoint as the center of projection.

-It can an be further classified as one-point, two-point, and three-point.

-This is based on the number of vanishing points possible on the view plane.
-Vanishing Point ,It is the point where all lines will appear to meet.
-This projection produces realistic views.
-In perspective projection, the lines of projection are not parallel.
-Instead, At a single place, they all meet called the center of projection (View point).
-The perspective projection technique is used by artists in preparing drawings of
three-dimensional objects and scenes.

*Visible surface detection algorithms :-A major consideration in the generation of

realistic graphics displays is identifying the parts that are visible from a chosen viewing
position.
-There are many approaches we can take to solve this problem, and numerous algorithms
have been developed for efficient identification of visible objects for different types of
Applications.
-Some methods require more memory, some involve more processing time, and some apply
only to special types of objects.
-Deciding upon a method for a
particular application can depend on such factors as the complexity of the scene, type of
objects to be displayed, available equipment, and whether static or animated displays
are to be generated.
-The various algorithms are referred to as visible-surface detection methods.
-Sometimes these methods are also referred to as hidden-surface elimination methods.
-Visible-surface detection algorithms are classified into two types they are;
● Object-space methods :- The Object-space method is implemented in physical
coordinate system
eg:-Back face detection.
● Image-space methods :- image-space method is implemented in screen coordinate
system.
Eg: Depth buffer method, A-buffer method.
-Most visible-surface algorithms use image-space methods, although object space methods
can be used effectively to locate visible surfaces in some cases.
-Different Visible surface detection algorithms are;
1. Back Face Detection (9) :-The back face detection method is also called as plane
equation method,
-it is used to check visible surfaces whenever an object is projected from 3D space to
a 2D plane.
-With the help of this method, it is possible to detect, which parts of an object will be
visible.
-The idea here is to find out if a surface is facing away from the user or not.
- If its face is away from the user then discard the current frame and move on to the
next one.
-This method will remove 50% of polygons from the scene if the parallel projection is
used.
-If the perspective projection is used then more than 50% of the invisible area will be
removed.
- If the object is pointing in the direction of the center of projection, then it is a front
face and can be seen by the viewer.
- If the object is pointing away from the center of projection, then it is a back face
and can not be seen by the viewer.
-The Back-face detection method is very simple.
→For Example
-A point (x,y,z) is inside a polygon surface with plane parameters A,B,C and D.
-Plane equation is Ax + By + Cz + D < 0
-To find a point (x,y,z) inside or outside the polygon.
-we put values of A,B,C ,D and x,y,z values into the plane equation.
 -If the result is less than 0 ,it means that the point taken is inside the polygon
-Otherwise it is outside the polygon.
-And check that the inside point is along with the line of sight of the surface ,then
the polygon must be a back face.

2. Depth buffer method (9) :-A commonly used image-space approach to detecting
visible surfaces is the depth-buffer method.
-It is also referred to as Z-buffer.
-It is the simplest image space algorithm.
-The Z-buffer method compares surface depths at each pixel position on the
projection plane.
- Normally z-axis is represented as the depth.
-For example
-if one or more image are overlapped then
we store only nearest visible surface.
-And discard remaining images
-Two buffers are used to store nearest visible
surface they are;
1. Depth buffer - 0
2. Refresh buffer - 1
-Depth value is calculated to find the visible surface.
-if the depth value is greater than the value in the depth buffer ,then it will store in
the buffer otherwise discard.
-Depth value are calculated by using the concept of a plane equation.
Plane equation = Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 (z- Depth value)

next position
(x + 1, y)
along the scan line
 3. A-buffer method (3) :-The A-buffer method is an extension of the depth-buffer
method.
-the depth buffer method can only be used for opaque object but not for
transparent object.
-A buffer method requires more memory.
-Each position in the A buffer has 2 fields :

1. Depth field
2. Surface data field or Intensity field
-A depth field stores a positive or negative real number.
-A surface data field can stores surface intensity information.

-On applying the A-buffer method on all the six surfaces indicated below, the
corresponding colors are as

#Surface Rendering :-Surface rendering involves the careful collection of data on a

given object in order to create a three-dimensional image of that object on a computer.
-construct an image using surface rendering is with illumination.
-A surface-rendering algorithm uses the intensity calculations from an illumination model to
determine the light intensity for all projected pixel positions
-Surface rendering is used in a number of industries, such as in health care.
-There, parts of the body are rendered so doctors can closely examine specific areas of a
patient or wounds they may have incurred.
-Archaeologists also use rendering to make an image of very fragile objects in order to
examine them without harming them.

*light sources:-important alla

*shading methods (9) :-The use of the illumination model at the pixel locations is known as
shading.
-Shading model is used to compute the intensities and colors
to display the surface.
-Shading caused by different angles with light,camera
at different points.
-Shading is a method used to create or enhance the
illusion of depth in an image by varying the amount of darkness
in the image.
-It can also be used to make some objects appear to be in
front of or behind other objects in the image.
-Following are the various types of shading
● Flat Shading :-Simple shading algorithm.
-It is a fast method for specifying the color for an object.
-Using an illumination model to determine the corresponding
intensity value for the incident light.
-Then shade the entire object according to the value.
-In flat shading, no textures are used and only one colour tone
is used for the entire object, with different amounts of white
or black added to each face of the object to simulate shading.
-The resulting model appears flat and unrealistic.

● Gouraud Shading :-Gouraud shading is a method used to simulate the differing effect
of light and color to an object.
- Interpolation technique is used to develop Gouraud shading.
-By interpolation, the intensity of each and every pixel is calculated.
-By Gouraud shading, we can overcome the discontinue intensity
values for each polygon that are matched with the values of
adjacent polygons along the common edges.
-This eliminates the intensity discontinuities that can occur
in flat shading.
 ● Phong Shading :-A more accurate interpolation based approach for rendering a
polygon was developed by Phong Bui Tuong .
-It is also known as normal vector Interpolation Shading.
-t displays more realistic highlights on a surface and greatly reduces the Match-band
effect.
-It is more accurate as compared to the Gourand Shading.
-It is slower as compared to the Gourand Shading.
-It requires more calculation, hence it increases the cost of shading at each
successive step.

● Fast Phong Shading (9) :- youtube

___________________________________________________________________________
4-Module

*Multimedia system usage :-Multimedia uses various forms of media, such as text,
audio, video, image and graphics,etc.
-It has become an integral part of our daily lives and is used in various contexts, including
education, entertainment, and business.
-Multimedia has become an important part of modern communication and entertainment,
and it is used in a wide range of applications, including the internet, television, film, and
video games.
→Features of Multimedia :-Here are some common features of multimedia:
● Text: Multimedia can include text in the form of written words, captions, or subtitles.
● Audio: Multimedia can include audio in the form of music, sound effects, or spoken
words.
● Video: Multimedia can include video in the form of full-motion footage or animated
sequences.
● Images: Multimedia can include static or animated images, such as photographs,
drawings, or graphics.
● Adaptability: Multimedia can be adapted to different devices and platforms, such as
computers, smartphones, and tablets.

-Multimedia has had a significant impact on society.

-From education and entertainment to advertising and news, multimedia has become
essential to modern life.
-One of multimedia's main impacts on society is improved learning, Multimedia
presentations, which combine text, audio, video, and other elements, are more effective at
engaging students and helping them to retain information than traditional methods such as
lectures or textbooks.
-These features had a significant impact on education and have changed the way that
information is delivered and consumed.
-Multimedia has also greatly impacted how we communicate and access information.
-With the rise of the internet and social media, multimedia has become essential for sharing
ideas and connecting with others.
-It has also made it easier for people to access a wide range of information and resources.
-In addition to its impact on education and communication, multimedia has significantly
influenced the entertainment industry.
-The rise of streaming platforms and online video has transformed how we consume
entertainment and has made it easier for people to access a wide range of content.
-Overall, the impact of multimedia on society has been significant, and it has transformed
how we communicate, learn, and access information.
-multimedia is an important part of modern society and is used in various applications to
communicate, entertain, educate, and advertise.
→Advantages of Multimedia
➢ Improved Learning:-One of the main advantages of multimedia is its ability to
improve learning .
-Research has shown that multimedia presentations are more effective at engaging
students and helping them to retain information than traditional methods such as
lectures or textbooks.
➢ Increased efficiency:-Multimedia can save time and improve efficiency in a variety of
contexts. For example, in business, multimedia presentations can be used to
communicate complex ideas or products to clients more efficiently.
➢ Privacy
➢ Immediate feedback
→Disadvantages of Multimedia
➢ Cost :-The production of multimedia materials can be expensive, as it requires
specialized equipment and skills.
➢ Technical issues:-One disadvantage of multimedia is that it can be complex to create
and use.
-There is a risk of technical issues occurring when using multimedia, such as
problems with audio or video quality or compatibility issues with different devices.
-These issues can be frustrating for users
➢ Limited accessibility:-Multimedia can also be limited by the quality of the audio and
video, which can affect the overall experience for the user.
-For example, poor-quality audio or video can make it difficult for people to
understand the content, reducing its effectiveness.
➢ Security concerns:-Finally, there are also security and privacy concerns to consider
when using multimedia, particularly when it is shared online.

-Q)Uses of multimedia in the area of Information kiosk ? -google nokkanam

*Multimedia presentation :-A multimedia presentation is a standalone presentation

that includes information presented with slides, video, or digital representations and
includes sound which might be a narrative, music or sound effects.
-Multimedia presentations can be used in various areas such as in business, education,
home and public place.
-In business, applications for multimedia includes presentation, training, advertisement,
video, conference, among others.
-For example, a sales person can learn and provide poster with the help of multimedia.
-In education, multimedia presentations are great ways to introduce new concepts or
explain a new technology.
- For example, videos that show how acid rain occurs.
-Public places such as hotels, train stations, malls, museum, libraries and grocery store uses
multimedia at stand-alone terminals or kiosks, providing information and help for consumers
in the interactive manner and reduce the personal work or manual work.
-For example, a hotel may provide following information like a city map schedule of airlines
services available in that hotel.
-There are 5 multimedia elements they are;
● Text
● Image / graphics
● Audio
● Video
● Animation

→Characteristics of Multimedia presentation

1. Multiple media :- Multimedia presentations combine various forms of media such as
text, images, audio, and video .
2. Enhanced learning: Multimedia presentations can enhance learning by making
complex concepts more accessible and engaging.
-They can also help learners retain information better than traditional text-based
presentations
3. Accessibility: Multimedia presentations can be accessed from a variety of devices,
including computers, tablets, and smartphones, making them more convenient and
flexible for learners.
4. Customization: Multimedia presentations can be customized to suit different
learning styles and preferences, making them more inclusive and accommodating for
diverse audiences.
5. Interactivity: Multimedia presentations allow for interactivity, which means that the
audience can engage with the content in a more dynamic and personalized way.
*Multimedia production (3) :-Multimedia production refers to the process of creating
content that combines multiple forms of media, such as text, images, audio, and video, to
deliver a message or tell a story.
-Here are some steps involved in multimedia production:
1. Define the objective: The first step in multimedia production is to define the
objective of the project.
-What message do you want to convey? Who is your target audience? What action
do you want your audience to take?
2. Research and planning: Once you have defined the objective, you need to research
and plan your project.
-This involves gathering information about your topic, identifying the key messages
you want to convey, and developing a storyboard or outline for your project.
3. Scriptwriting: If your project involves audio or video content, you need to write a
script that conveys your key messages in a clear and concise manner.
-Your script should be engaging and easy to understand, and it should be tailored to
your target audience.
4. Design and development: Once you have a script, you can begin designing and
developing your project.
-This involves creating visuals, such as images and infographics, as well as developing
interactive elements, such as quizzes and games.
5. Production: Once your design is complete, you can begin producing your project.
-This involves recording audio, filming video, and editing your content to create a
polished final product.
6. Testing and quality assurance: Before launching your project, you need to test it
thoroughly to ensure that it works properly and meets your quality standards.
-This involves testing your project on different devices and platforms to ensure that it
is compatible with all major browsers and operating systems.
7. Launch and distribution: Once your project is complete and has passed quality
assurance, you can launch it and distribute it through various channels, such as social
media, email marketing, and search engine optimization (SEO).
-You should also provide ongoing support and maintenance to ensure that your
project continues to perform well over time.

*multimedia device (3 marks) :-Multimedia devices are electronic gadgets that can play
and display multiple forms of media, such as text, images, audio, and video.
-Here are some examples of popular multimedia devices:
● Smartphones and Tablets: Smartphones and tablets are the most popular
multimedia devices today.
-They allow users to access a wide range of multimedia content, such as music,
videos, and games, on the go.
 ● Laptops and Desktops: Laptops and desktops are traditional computing devices that
can also be used as multimedia devices.
-They offer larger screens and more powerful processors than smartphones and
tablets, making them ideal for creating and editing multimedia content.
● Smart TVs: Smart TVs are TV sets that can connect to the internet and stream
multimedia content from various sources, such as Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, and
YouTube.
-They also offer built-in apps for gaming and social media.
● Digital Cameras: Digital cameras allow users to capture high-quality images and
videos that can be easily shared on social media or edited using multimedia
software.
● E-Readers: E-readers are dedicated devices for reading digital books and magazines.
-They offer long battery life, adjustable font sizes, and built-in lighting for reading in
low-light conditions.
● Virtual Reality Headsets: Virtual reality (VR) headsets allow users to immerse
themselves in a simulated environment using a head-mounted display (HMD).

→hardware requirements of multimedia (3 marks) :-This Hardware components of a

multimedia computer system can be divided into some categories:
● CPU
● Input devices
● Output devices
● Storage devices
● Communication device, etc.

→software requirements of multimedia (3 marks) :- The software requirements for

multimedia production and consumption depend on the specific type of multimedia content
being created or consumed.
-Here are some general software requirements:
● Painting and Drawing tools :- You can create almost all kinds of possible shapes and
resize them.
-Drawing file can be imported or exported in many images formats like .gif, .jpg etc.0
● Image editing tools :-These tools are used to edit existing images and pictures.
-They are similar to paint and drawing tools as they can also create images from
scratch.
● Sound editing tools :-Sound editing tool let you hear sound as well as visualize it.
● Security Software: Antivirus and antimalware software are essential to protect
multimedia devices from malware and other security threats that can compromise
the device's performance and data integrity.
*Text format :-A text file is a computer file that is a kind of non-executable, digital file and
has only text.
-Text files contain textual data and may be saved in plain text or rich text formats.
-It can have numbers, letters, symbols, and/or a combination.
-most text files are documents created and saved by users, they can also be used by
software developers to store program data.
-Type of text format are;
1. DOC / DOCX :- Microsoft's Word (word processing) software saves documents using
the .doc filename extension.
-These files contain special formatting codes that identify how the text with look
(bold, italic, color, typeface, etc.) as well as how the page lays out (margins,
indentation, pagination, etc.)
-DOCX files incorporate XML (EXtensible Markup Language) coding rules that help
integrate a document with Internet applications
2. RTF :- Stands for Rich Text Format.
-RTF documents are designed to transfer documents between word processing
software
-RTF files have limited page layout options.
-For example, you cannot create columns, add page numbers, headers, or footers.
-The WordPad word processor included with Windows defaults to creating RTF
documents
3. TXT :-TXT documents only contain text.
-Any computer can read a TXT file, but don't expect it to look pretty
-The individual characters in the document (letters, punctuation, newlines etc.) are
each encoded into bytes using the ASCII encoding and stored in a simple sequence.
-This format only stores the text itself, with no information about formatting, fonts,
page size, or anything like that.
-It is portable across all computer systems and can be read and modified by a huge
range of software applications.
4. HTML :-Stands for Hyper Text Markup Language.
-It use either.htm or html filename extensions
-HTML files contain codes that browsers, like Internet Explorer or Safari, translate
into Web pages
-This format is freely available and controlled by a public.
-The document can be viewed in any web browser
-It can be edited in a text editor .
5. PDF :-Stands for Portable Document Format.
-PDF files use a .pdf filename extension
-This software converts files created by other softwares, like Microsoft's Word, into a
read-only PDF file
 -While the details of this encoding are freely available, the format is owned by Adobe
and can be changed by them at any time, for any reason.
-The document can be viewed and printed on all major platforms, using free
software provided by Adobe (or others).
-PDF documents cannot be readily edited

→Text compression :-Text compression is the process of reducing the size of text data
without losing its original meaning.
-This technique is commonly used in various applications such as file storage, data
transmission, and search engines to improve efficiency and reduce costs.
-Here are some popular text compression methods:
1. Run-Length Encoding (RLE): RLE is a simple lossless compression algorithm that
replaces continuous repeated characters into a single count.
-For example,
"WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW" would be
compressed to "W200".
-RLE is useful for compressing large blocks of repeated characters, such as white
spaces in documents or images.
2. Huffman Coding:It is a popular method for compression.
-Huffman coding is a variable-length coding algorithm that assigns shorter codes to
more frequently occurring symbols and longer codes to less frequently occurring
symbols.
-This method reduces the average number of bits required to represent a symbol,
resulting in better compression ratios.
-For example, in English text, the letter 'e' occurs more frequently than 'z', so it would
be assigned a shorter code length than 'z'.
3. LZW (Lempel-Ziv-Welch):-LZW is a lossless data compression algorithm that uses a
dictionary to replace repeated patterns with shorter codes.
-The dictionary starts with a small set of values and grows as the input data is
processed.
-This method can achieve high compression ratios .
4. Zlib:-Zlib is a widely used compression algorithm that combines both Huffman coding
and LZW to achieve high compression ratios with low computational complexity.
-Zlib is commonly used in web browsers, email clients, and operating systems for
compressing data during transmission or storage.
5. Gzip:-Gzip is an open-source file format that uses the DEFLATE algorithm, which
combines LZ77 (a variation of LZW) and Huffman coding, to achieve high
compression ratios for text files
- Gzip is commonly used in web servers and email clients to compress data before
transmission over the network, resulting in faster transfer times .
-These text compression methods can significantly reduce the size of text data while
preserving its original meaning.

*Image :-An image consists of a rectangular array of dots called pixels.

-The size of the image is specified in terms of width X height.
-The size of the image, is depends on the resolution of the device on which the image is
displayed.
-The resolution is usually measured in DPI (Dots Per Inch).
-An image will appear smaller on a device with a higher resolution than on one with a lower
resolution.
-Following are the Image format
● GIF :- Stands for Graphic Interchange Format.
-Uses lossless compression technique
-Supports 8 bit colors
-Supported by all browsers
-Suitable for text, artwork, icons and cartoons
-Large File Size
-Extension is .gif
● JPEG :-Stands for Joint Photographic Experts Group
-Uses lossy compression technique
-Supports 24-bit colors
-Supported by all browser
-Suitable for photographs
-Smaller File Size as compared to GIF
-Extension is .jpg or .jpeg
● PNG :-Stands for Portable Network Graphics
-Uses lossless compression technique which supports 24-bits colors but not
-supported by all browsers
-Suitable for text, icons etc.
-Smaller File Size as compared to GIF and JPEG
-Extension is .png

→Image Types (I) :-Computers deal with different “types” of images based on their function
representations they are;
1. Binary Image :- Images that have only two unique values of pixel intensity- 0
(representing black) and 1 (representing white) are called binary images.
- Binary images are also called bi-level or two-level.
-Such images are generally used to highlight a portion of a colored image.
-Binary images are generated using threshold operation.
-When a pixel is above the threshold value, then it is turned white('1')
and which are below the threshold value then they are turned black('0')
 2. Grayscale Image :- Grayscale are composed of 256 unique colors.
-where a pixel intensity of 0 represents the black color and pixel intensity of 255
represents the white color.
-All the other 254 values in between are the different shades of gray.
-Grayscale images are monochrome images, Means they have only
one color.
-Grayscale images do not contain any information about color.
3. RGB Color Image :- The images we are used to in the modern world are RGB or
colored images which are 16-bit matrices to computers.
-That is, 65,536 different colors are possible for each pixel.
-“RGB” represents the Red, Green, and Blue “channels” of an image.
-Thus, a pixel in an RGB image will be of color black when the pixel
value is (0, 0, 0) and white when it is (255, 255, 255).
-Any combination of numbers in between gives rise to all the
different colors existing in nature.
-For example, (255, 0, 0) is the color red (since only the red channel
is activated for this pixel).
-Similarly, (0, 255, 0) is green and (0, 0, 255) is blue.

→bit depth (3) :-Bit depth refers to the color information stored in an image.
-The higher the bit depth of an image, the more colors it can store.
-The simplest image, a 1 bit image, can only show two colors, black and white.
-That is because the 1 bit can only store one of two values, 0 (white) and 1 (black).
-As the bit depth increases, the file size of the image also increases because more color
information has to be stored for each pixel in the image.

→Image Processing :-Image processing is the process of manipulating digital images.

-It is an essential preprocessing step in many applications, such as face recognition, object
detection, and image compression.
-Image processing is done to enhance an existing image or to get
important information from it.

-Image Processing steps (I)

1. Image Acquisition :- This is the process of capturing an image using a camera,
scanner, or other imaging devices.
-The image is then digitized and stored in a computer in a specific format.
2. Image Preprocessing :- This stage involves various operations to enhance the quality
of the image, such as noise reduction, contrast enhancement, and color correction.
-Preprocessing helps to remove unwanted objects and improve the overall
appearance of the image.
 3. Image Segmentation :- This step involves splitting up an image into different key
parts to simplify and/or change the representation of an image into something that is
more meaningful and easier to analyze.
-Image segmentation allows for computers to put attention on the more important
parts of the image, discarding the rest, which enables automated systems to have
improved performance.

4. Image Restoration :- This stage involves restoring an image to its original condition
by removing any distortions or objects that may have occurred during acquisition or
transmission.
-Restoration techniques include deblurring, denoising etc...
5. Image Synthesis :- This stage involves generating new images from existing ones
using various techniques such as morphing, compositing, and rendering.
-Synthesis is commonly used in computer graphics and special effects in movies and
TV shows.
6. Image Compression :- This stage involves reducing the size of an image without
significantly affecting its quality using various compression algorithms such as JPEG,
PNG, and WebP.
-Compression is essential for transmitting images over networks and storing them on
storage devices with limited capacity.

*multisensory perceptions (I) :-Multisensory perceptions are increasingly being used in

multi media to create more immersive and engaging experiences for users.
-Here are some examples of how multisensory perceptions are being used in multi media:

multisensory perceptions refer to the way our senses work .

Eg are;seeing, hearing, tasing, smelling, touching etc

1. Virtual Reality: Virtual reality (VR) technology allows users to immerse themselves in
a simulated environment using a head-mounted display (HMD).
-VR experiences often incorporate multisensory perceptions, such as 3D audio,
haptic feedback, and aromatherapy, to create a more immersive and realistic
experience for the user.
2. Augmented Reality: Augmented reality (AR) technology allows users to overlay
digital content onto the real world using a smartphone or tablet.
-AR experiences often incorporate multisensory perceptions, such as audio and
haptic feedback, to create a more immersive and interactive experience for the user.
3. Interactive Advertising: Interactive advertising is being used by companies to engage
users in more immersive and memorable ways.
 -Interactive ads often incorporate multisensory perceptions, such as touch screens,
audio, and video, to create a more engaging and interactive experience for the user.

4. Educational Content: Educational content is being enhanced by the use of

multisensory perceptions to make learning more engaging and interactive.
-Multimedia educational content often incorporates audio, video, and interactive
elements to help students better understand complex concepts and ideas.
5. Gaming: Gaming is being transformed by the use of multisensory perceptions to
create more immersive and realistic experiences for players.
-Multiplayer games often incorporate audio, video, and haptic feedback to create a
more immersive and interactive experience for players.

*Analog Representation And Digital Representation :- Google

An Analog signal is a continuous signal in which information is encoded as the continuous
variable.
-For example, in an analog audio signal, the voltage of the signal varies continuously
with the pressure of the sound waves.
-An analog signal transmits its information
by using a medium.
-Any information can be expressed by an analog signal.
-such signal, is a measured response to changes in
physical phenomena, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or pressure.
-google

*sampling (3) :- To use sound in a multimedia application, the sound waves must be
converted from analog to digital form.
-This conversion is called sampling .
-every fraction of a second a sample the of sound is recorded in digital bits
-Two factors affect the quality of digitized sound.
1. Sample rate - the number of times the sample is taken
2. Sample size - the amount of information stored about the sample

*Quantization (3) :-Quantization is opposite to sampling.

-Quantization is a process to convert the continuous analog signal to the series of discrete
values.
-A quantizer is a device known to perform the quantization process.
-The signals during transmission over long distances suffer from noise and interference.
-To overcome this, the quantization process creates a signal that is approximately equal to
the message signal.
-Quantization creates a series of discrete value from the analog signal.
-It separates the analog signal into N number of discrete sets.
-Each set has an equal size of S, which refers to the step size.

Q) Quantization error (3) ?

-The difference between sampled signal to quantized signal is called quantization error.
-It can reduce by increasing quantisation level or number of bit.

___________________________________________________________________________
Join for more MCA short note : https://t.me/mgu_mca_shortnote