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 Implementing
Reverse
Engineering

The Real Practice of x86 Internals, Code Calling

Conventions, Ransomware Decryption, Application
Cracking, Assembly Language, and Proven
Cybersecurity Open Source Tools

Jitender Narula

www.bpbonline.com
FIRST EDITION 2022

Copyright © BPB Publications, India

ISBN: 978-93-91030-377

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced, distributed or transmitted in any form or by any
means or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the
prior written permission of the publisher with the exception to the
program listings which may be entered, stored and executed in a
computer system, but they can not be reproduced by the means
of publication, photocopy, recording, or by any electronic and
mechanical means.

LIMITS OF LIABILITY AND DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY

The information contained in this book is true to correct and the

best of author’s and publisher’s knowledge. The author has made
every effort to ensure the accuracy of these publications, but
publisher cannot be held responsible for any loss or damage
arising from any information in this book.

All trademarks referred to in the book are acknowledged as

properties of their respective owners but BPB Publications cannot
guarantee the accuracy of this information.

sanet.st
www.bpbonline.com
 Dedicated to

My parents

Always seen God in them

 About the Author

Jitender Narula is an experienced Cyber Security Specialist currently

associated with International Institute of Cyber Security having over
18 years of industry experience. He has many years of cyber
security experience with governments and corporate world. In
India, he has worked with government entities like Delhi Police,
ICAI (Institute of Chartered Accountants of India), Delhi University
and other private organizations.

He has worked on the projects of AT&T, Citrix, Google, Conexant,

IPolicy Networks (Tech Mahindra now), Narus (a wholly owned
subsidiary of The Boeing Company) and HFCL. Apart from this,
he has conducted training programs for various corporate and
government officials in India and Mexico.

He has published articles, research information and interviews in

the area of cyber security for Information Security Newspaper
Noticias de seguridad informática Cibertip - Noticias de Hacking
Exploit One iicybersecurity blog and also contributed to the
Vishvas News, which is part of Dainik Jagran (Indian language
daily newspaper).
 About the Reviewer

Sanil Nadkarni is CISO /CRO/DPO in an MNC. He has worked

for organizations and clients such as Microsoft, Symantec,
MphasiS, Capita, SLK and has supported International Banks and
Financial Organizations.

He is an international speaker, author and trainer. Sanil has

published over 100 articles online and also for various magazines.

His certifications include CFE, CISSP, CISA, CISM, Security+, ISO

27001 LA, ISO 22301 LA, A+, N+, MCP, MCSA, CCNA, SCSA, ISO
10012 (GDPR), RHCE, CEH,CBCP, ISO 31000 Risk and Microsoft
Azure Architect.

Sanil has received honors and awards such as CISO TOP 100
Award, Dynamic CISO Award, Top 100 CIO award and many
more.

He has published a book on Fundamentals on Information

Security which is available on Amazon.
 Acknowledgement

First and foremost, praises and thanks to my Dad, Mom and God
for showering blessings throughout my work to complete the book
successfully.

I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to Atul

Narula, my colleague at International Institute of Cyber Security,
Mexico for helping with the review process of this book. I am
extremely grateful for what he has offered me. I would also like to
thank him for his friendship, empathy and great sense of humor.

I am extremely grateful to my parents (Ramesh Narula and

Mohini Narula) for their love, prayers, care and sacrifices for
educating and preparing me for my future. I am very much
thankful to my wife and son for their love, understanding, prayers
and continuing support to complete this book. Also, I would like
to express my thanks to Dr. Shilpi Sahi and Om Narula for their
support and motivation throughout this process of writing. Once
again, I would like to thank my family for putting up with me
while I was spending many nights writing—I could have never
completed this book without their support.

Finally, I would like to thanks BPB Publications for giving me the

opportunity to write my first book for them.
 Preface

Reverse Engineering (RE) is an art of understanding any program

code when no source code is available. This book provides step-
by-step explanation of the essential concepts and practical
examples to understand and implement Reverse Engineering. It will
enable the readers to understand the application code flow to
identify vulnerabilities and bugs in the application.

This book is for the readers who want to start learning Reverse
Engineering from basics in a step-by-step manner. The book is
divided into three parts:

Exploring Reverse Engineering

Reverse Engineering Applications

Real World Examples with Solutions

The first part Exploring Reverse Engineering starts with the basic
concepts of Computing System and Data Building Blocks of the
Computing System. This part also enlists open-source tools
required for RE applications and the programming instructions of
RE. The second part Reverse Engineering Applications walks us
through the different applications/programs to understand the
implementation of RE. This part covers various practicals, which
give the users a hands-on experience. All the
applications/programs mentioned in this part are aligned in a
systematic manner; from reverse engineering of basic C/C++
programs to complex C/C++ programs. In the third part Real
World Examples and Solutions of this book, RE of well-known
Windows application along with different exercises are
demonstrated in a step-by-step manner. Over the 18 chapters in
this book, you will learn the following:

PART 1: Exploring Reverse Engineering

In this part, the readers will understand the impact of RE on

industry, building blocks of x86 computing system and the role of
each in the overall functioning of x86 system.

Chapter 1 talks about the impact of RE on IT industry and how it

originated as an area.

Chapter 2 talks about the building blocks of a computing system

and the role of each building block in the overall functioning of
the system. This chapter is important in order to understand the
core concept behind the working of x86 computing systems.

Chapter 3 focuses on the open-source tools used in RE and how

these tools are used for debugging and analysis. These tools will
be used in all illustrations shown in this book.

Chapter 4 explains about the major assembly instructions used

and also about how different instructions are segmented in
various sections for easy understanding along with examples.
Chapter 5 helps us understand the different calling conventions
along with practical illustrations.

PART 2: Reverse Engineering Applications

This is where the strategic way of learning RE

applications/programs is explained with different illustrations. Every
case is the outcome of research explained in a very simplified and
step-by-step manner.

Chapter 6 gives a step-by-step understanding of the assembly code

generated from basic C/C++ program.

Chapter 7 provides a step-by-step understanding of the assembly

code generated from printf() function in C/C++ program.

Chapter 8 gives a step-by-step understanding of the assembly code

generated from pointers in C/C++ program.

Chapter 9 provides a step-by-step understanding of the assembly

code generated from decision control structure in C/C++ program.

Chapter 10 gives a step-by-step understanding of the assembly

code generated from loop control structure in C/C++ program.

PART 3: Real World Examples and Solutions

In this part, understanding of whatever learned in the previous
chapters is explained with real world exercises with solutions and
also reversing of Windows well-known application is demonstrated.

Chapter 11 covers RE exercise of an array code along with the

solution used in the RE process.

Chapter 12 covers RE exercise of a structure code along with the

solution used in the RE process.

Chapter 13 explains RE exercise of a Scanf program along with the

solution used in the RE process.

Chapter 14 explains RE exercise of a strcpy program along with

the solution used in the RE process.

Chapter 15 covers RE exercise of a simple interest code along with

the solution used in the RE process.

Chapter 16 explains RE exercise of breaking Wannacry ransomware

with Ghidra.

Chapter 17 covers RE exercise using Cutter tool.

Chapter 18 demonstrates the process of RE of Windows Calculator

in a step-by-step manner.
This book is to educate the learners on the topic of Reverse
Engineering on x86 platform. This will be a good book for
beginners and computer graduates in the area of RE. Professionals
who want to switch their career to RE can also use this book.
Other readers can be from schools, universities or those who are
passionate to get into the area of cyber security.
 Downloading the code
bundle and coloured images:

Please follow the link to download the

Code Bundle and the Coloured Images of the book:

https://rebrand.ly/b2fe9c

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
604.
A. S., III, 96, 223-4; Ascon. in Corn., p. 61, Orelli; Drumann. Op. cit. III,
138 seg.; IV, 391 seg.

605.
Drumann. Op. cit. V, 221.

606.
Cic. Pro. Sex. Roscio Am., 2, 6.

607. Drumann. Op. cit. V, 244.

608.
Cic. Pro. A. Caec., 33, 97.

609.
Cic. in Verr. A. S., III, 3-4, 7-8.

610.
Brut., 64, 229.

611.
Cic. Pro. P. Quinct.; Gell. 15, 28, 3 ed. Hertz.

612.
Ps. Ascon. in Div. in Caec. arg.; A. I, 1.

613.
A. S., III, 66-7, 154-7.

614.
A. S., III, 53-5, 123-8.

615.
A. S., II, 25, 62.

616.
A. S., II, 26, 63.

617. A. S., II, 26, 64.

618.
A. S., III, 64, 152.
619.
Ps. Asc. Argum. in Divin.; Cic. Divinat. in Q. Caecil., 2, 4.

620.
In Q. Caecil. Divin., 17, 55-7.

621.
In Q. Caecil. Divin., 18, 58.

622.
A. S., I, 6, 15.

623.
A. S., II, 8, 23.

624.
A. S., II, 4, 11; A. S., IV, 65, 146.

625.
A. S., I, 11, 30; Zumpt A. W. Der Criminalprocess der römischen
Republik. Leipzig, 1871, pp. 187-91.

626.
A. S., III, 18, 45.

627. A. S., I, 11, 30.

628.
In Q. Caecil. Divin., 4, 14.

629.
In Q. Caecil. Divin., 4, 12.

630.
In Q. Caecil. Divin., 7, 23-4.

631.
In Q. Caecil. Divin., 2, 4.

632.
Tusc., 5, 23.

633.
Ps. Ascon. in Divin. argum.; Divin. in Q. Caecil., 1-2, 2, 4.
634.
Gell. II, 4, 1-6, ed. Hertz; Pseud. Ascon. p. 99, Orelli; Zumpt Cr. proc., p.
136.

635.
In Q. Caecil. Divin., 4, 14.

636.
In Q. Caecil. Divin., 19, 62-3.

637. In Q. Caecil. Divin., 9-10, 29-33.

638.
A. I., 2, 6.

639.
p. 128, Orelli; A. I., 2, 6.

640.
A. I., 9, 26.

641.
A. I., 2, 5.

642.
Pro M. Aem. Scauro fragm., XI, 23-6, ed. Klotz.

643.
A. S., 25-6, 62-64; 57, 140.

644.
A. S., III, 73, 170; IV, 11, 25; 61, 137; 65, 145; Drumann. Op. cit. V, p.
215, 314.

645.
A. S., III, 18, 41-7.

646.
Pro M. Aem. Scauro fragm., XI, 25.

647. A. S., II, 65-158.

648.
Pro. M. Aem. Scaur., XI, 26.
649.
A. S., IV, 66, 148.

650.
A. S., III, 68, 158.

651.
A. S., V, 21, 55.

652.
A. S., II, 25, 62.

653.
A. S., II, 56, 139.

654.
A. S., II, 57, 140.

655.
A. S., II, 67-8, 162, 164.

656.
A. S., III, 65, 152.

657. A. S., IV, 63, 141.

658.
A. S., II, 26, 64.

659.
A. S., II, 4, 11.

660.
A. S., III, 65, 152.

661.
A. S., IV, 66, 148.

662.
A. S., IV, 11, 25.

663.
A. S., II, 26, 64.
664.
A. S., IV, 50, 110.

665.
A. S., V, 49, 129.

666.
A. I., 2, 6.

667. A. S., III, 47, 112.

668.
A. S., III, 66, 154.

669.
A. S., III, 7, 3, 170-1.

670.
A. S., III, 87, 200.

671.
A. S., III, 46, 109.

672.
A. S., III, 49, 116 sg.

673.
A. S., II, 76-8, 186-91.

674.
In Q. Caecil. divin., 4, 14.

675.
A. S., IV, 61, 136.

676.
A. S., IV, 62, 138.

677. A. S., IV, 61-6, 136-49.

678.
A. I., 2, 6; A. S., I, 6, 16.

679.
A. S., II, 40, 39.
680.
Zumpt D. Criminalprocess d. röm. Repub., p. 189.

681.
A. S., II, 27, 65.

682.
A. S., I, 11, 80; Ps. Asc. p. 128, ed. Orelli; Zumpt Op. cit. p. 190-1.

683.
C. I. L., I2, pp. 27, 154.

684.
A. S., I, 23, 60-1.

685.
A. S., II, 70, 169-71; 74,182.

686.
A. S., III, 71, 167.

687. A., I. 6, 16.

688.
A. S., I, 6, 17.

689.
A. S., I, 7, 18.

690.
Cic. in Verr., ed. Zumpt, p. 284 sg.; Geib. Gesch. d. röm. Criminalpr.,
Leipzig, 1842, pp. 186-95, 307; Zumpt Der Criminalpr. d. röm. Rep.

691.
Geib. Gesch. d. röm. Criminalpr., pp. 213-5.

692.
A. S., I, 61, 158.

693.
A. S., I, 16, 49.

694.
Ad Att. 1, 1, 1.
695.
A., I, 10, 29.

696.
Ps. Asc. p. 140-1, Orelli.

697. A. I., 10, 30; pro Cluent. 13, 38.

698.
A. I., 10, 30; Ascon. in or. in tog. cand., p. 82, Or.

699.
A. I., 10, 30.

700.
A. S., IV, 42, 90.

701.
A. S., II, 31, 77; Zumpt in Cic. p. 318.

702.
A. S., V, 44, 114.

703.
A. S., IV, 54, 142.

704.
Plut. Caes. 14.

705.
Cic. pro A. Cluent., 38, 107.

706.
A. S., III, 41, 97; Cic. pro A. Cluent., 49; pro lege Manil., 23.

707. A. S., I, 55, 143 sg; 61, 157.

708.
A. S., I, 7, 18; pro Mar. 8, 17.

709.
A. S., I, 7, 18.
710.
A. S., V, 52, 136. Questo P. Galba suol essere creduto lo stesso che il P.
Sulpicio, di cui in A. I., 10, 30 (Bröcker in Pauly, VI, p. 1497, n. 40 e
Klotz. Indices in Cic. script., V, p. 37-8) ma a torto; perchè P. Sulpicio
prendeva parte al giudizio, mentre P. Galba fu ricusato.

711.
A. I., 6, 17.

712.
Ps. Ascon. p. 141, Orelli; Schol. Gron. p. 395, Or.

713.
Ascon. in tog. cand., p. 82, Or.

714.
A. I., 10, 30.

715.
p. 141 Or.

716.
Rein in Pauly, Real-Encyclopëdie d. class. Alterthumw. VI, 1497, 40,
2115.

717. Schol. Gronov. p. 395 Or.; Mommsen. St. R., I3, p. 498.

718.
A. I., 10, 30.

719.
Val. Max. III, 7, 9; Cic. in Verr. A. S., III, 60, 137; 63, 146.

720.
A. I. 10, 30.

721.
Ad Att., V, 4, 2; VI, 1, 13; VII, 1, 8.

722.
Varro. R. R., I, 2, 10, ed. Keil; Colum., 1, 1, 12.

723.
A. S., III, 90, 210; pro dom., 47, 123.
724.
A. S., III, 71, 167-8.

725.
Plut. Pomp., 16.

726.
A. I., 15, 44.

727. Liv. XXXV, 8; Cic. pro Cluent., 56, 153.

728.
A. S., I, 49, 128.

729.
Klein. Op. cit. p. 69.

730.
A. S., IV, 41, 89; 42, 91.

731.
Cic. Ad fam., XV, 7, 8; Drumann. Op. cit. II, 399, 15, IV, 49, 52.

732.
A. S., I, 7, 18; Ps. Asc. p. 161, Or.

733.
Cic. pro Cluent. 27, 74; Zumpt D. Criminalproz. p. 351.

734.
A. S., V, 52, 136.

735.
Humbert. Comitia in Daremberg et Saglio Dict. d'antiq. grecques et
romaines, p. 1393; A. I., 6, 17.

736.
A. I., 7, 8-20.

737. A. I., 8, 21.

738.
A. I., 8-9, 22-5.
739.
A. S., I, 6, 16-17.

740.
A. S., I, 36, 97; A. S., IV, 12, 29; 20, 43-4; 42, 92.

741.
A. S., III, 25, 63.

742.
A. I., 9, 25.

743.
A. I., 9, 27.

744.
Divin. in Q. Caecil., 13, 41-2.

745.
A. I., 2, 3; 5, 15; A. S., III, 34, 80; V, 59, 143; 58, 150; A. S., I, 59, 154;
A. S., III, 16, 41.

746.
A. I., 2, 5.

747. A. I., 6, 15.

748.
A. S., II, 44, 108.

749.
A. S., III, 25, 62.

750.
A. S., II, 45, 110; IV, 20, 43.

751.
Klein. Op. cit. p. 70.

752.
A. S., IV, 36, 79 seg.; Ps. Asc. Arg. in Divin., Zumpt R. Criminalprocess,
pag. 82.

753.
Drumann. Op. cit. III, pp. 78-81.
754.
Cic. ad fam., II, 16, 3.

755.
Macrob. Sat., III, 15, 6 ed. Ian.

756.
Bernoulli. Röm. Iconographie, Stuttgart, 1882, I, pp. 98-9 tav. VI.

757. Cic. Brutus, 95, 825.

758.
Gell. 1, 5, 3; Cic. Brut. 88, 303; Val. Max. 8, 10, 12 ediz. Halm; Macrob.
Sat., III, 13, 4-5.

759.
In Q. Caecil. Divinat., 7, 24; Ps. Ascon. pp. 109-10 Or.

760.
Drumann. Op. cit. 3, 104-7.

761.
Meyer. Orat. Rom. Fragm., Turici, 1842, p. 361.

762.
Cic. pro Plancio, 26-7, 65, 6.

763.
Cic. de off., III, 18, 73.

764.
A. S., III, 4, 7-9.

765.
A. S., III, 62, 145-6.

766.
A. I., 10, 29, 30.

767. A. S., I, 11, 31.

768.
A. I., 10, 30.
769.
l. c., Ps. Asc. p. 142, Or.

770.
C. I. L., I2, pp. 299, 300, 333, 335.

771.
Cic. Brutus, 93, 320; 95, 325.

772.
Cic. Brutus, 95, 322.

773.
Geib. Gesch. d. röm. Criminalprocess, Leipzig, 1842, p. 318 seg.; Zumpt
A. W. Der Criminalprocess d. röm. Republik, Leipzig, 1871, p. 215 sg.

774.
A. I., 11, 32; Geib. Op. cit. 325.

775.
A. S., I, 9, 24-5; Cic. pro Flacc., 33, 52; Sch. Gronov. p. 396 Or.

776.
A. I., 4-5, 11-5.

777. A. I., 1, 1-3; 3, 8; 8, 20; 12, 36; 13, 38-9; 14, 41, 15-17; 43-51.

778.
A. S., I, 9, 24-5.

779.
A. S., I, 9, 24-6.

780.
Plut. Cic. 7.

781.
A. S., I, 11, 31; Meyer. Orat. rom. frag., Turici, 1842, p. 369.

782.
Zumpt A. W. der Criminalprocess d. römischen Republik, pp. 202, 348.

783.
A. I., 18, 56.
784.
A. S., III, 16, 40; V, 56, 145.

785.
A. S., IV, 41, 88; Est pecuniarum captarum..... est majestatis... est
sceleris..... est crudelitatis.

786.
A. S., III, 72, 168; 76, 177.

787. A. S., III, 36, 83-4.

788.
A. S., V, 30, 79.

789.
A. S., I, 5, 13-4; V, 68, 173.

790.
A. S., V, 59, 153.

791.
A. S., V, 18, 45-7; 52, 137-8.

792.
A. S., III, 16, 40.

793.
A. S., III, 30, 71.

794.
A. S., III, 94, 218.

795.
A. S., IV, 38, 82; V, 48, 127.... pecunias, quo nomine iudicium hoc
appellatur, non repetunt.

796.
A. S., V, 53, 139.

797. A. I., 18, 56; A. S., I, 10, 27.

798.
5, 19.
799.
A. S., III, 57, 131; 90, 210-211; IV, 30, 67-8; 31, 69; 38, 82; 56,134.

800.
A. S., III, 52-5, 122-8; 62, 144; 78, 182; 87, 205; 97, 226; IV, 24, 54;
32, 71; 38, 83; 50, 112; V, 55, 144; 60 sg.

801.
A. S., IV, 41, 89.

802.
A. S., III, 41, 94-7.

803.
A. S., IV, 44, 97.

804.
A. S., IV, 37, 81.

805.
A. S., V, 69, 177-8.

806.
A. S., III, 16, 42.

807. A. I., 16, 48; 18, 56.

808.
A. S., I, 3, 7; 7, 20; 11, 33, 4, 10; II, 4, 11, 6, 16; 7, 20; 59, 146; III,
27, 66; 52, 122; V, 29, 74; 16, 40; 39, 103.

809.
A. S., I, 20, 52.

810.
A. S., I, 28, 71.

811.
A. S., I, 31, 78; 33, 83-4.

812.
A. S., I, 37, 93-4.

813.
A. S., I, 38-9, 95-8.
814.
A. S., I, 48, 126-7.

815.
A. S., I, 49, 127-8; 50, 130; IV, 13, 31.

816.
A. S., I, 52, 53, 139; 55, 145; 57, 150; 58, 151.

817. A. S., I, 10, 28; II, 8, 23-4.

818.
A. S., II, 42, 102-3.

819.
A. S., II, 39, 95, 41, 100; 42, 103; 43, 106; 46, 112, 114; 47, 115.

820.
A. S., II, 9, 25; 10, 26.

821.
A. S., II, 27, 66.

822.
A. S., II, 33, 80.

823.
A. S., IV, 27, 62; 31, 70.

824.
A. S., II, 48, 119.

825.
A. S., II, 48, 120; 49,120-1.

826.
A. S., II, 28, 69; 53, 133.

827. A. S., III, 19, 49.

828.
A. S., III, 27, 66.

829.
A. S., III, 31, 73; 51, 120.
830.
A. S., III. 34, 80.

831.
A. S., III, 44, 105.

832.
A. S., III, 46, 109.

833.
A. S., III, 56, 129.

834.
A. S., IV, 7, 15-6; 8, 19; 12, 27; V, 18, 47.

835.
A. S., IV, 21, 46.

836.
A. S., IV, 12, 29.

837. A. S., IV, 20, 44.

838.
A. S., IV, 23, 50.

839.
A. S., IV, 23, 50.

840.
A. S., IV, 23, 51-3.

841.
A. S., IV, 39, 84-8.

842.
A. S., 40, 86.

843.
A. S., IV, 42-92.

844.
A. S., IV, 35, 79.
845.
A. S., IV, 51, 113.

846.
A. S., IV, 56, 125.

847. A. S., V, 7, 15.

848.
A. S., V, 29, 73; 60, 156; I, 5, 14.

849.
A. S., V, 34, 90; A. S., V, 46, 122.

850.
A. S., V, 45, 120.

851.
A. S., V, 57, 147.

852.
A. S., V, 63, 163; 64, 165; A. S., I, 5, 13.

853.
A. S., I, 5, 14.

854.
A. S., IV, 22, 48, 25, 55; 31, 70.

855.
A. S., I, 34, 86; 35, 89.

856.
A. S., I, 39, 100.

857. A. S., II, 33, 80.

858.
A. S., II, 42, 102.

859.
A. S., II, 48, 119.

860.
A. S., II, 71, 175; 74, 182.
861.
A. S., II, 76, 186.

862.
A. S., III, 19, 49.

863.
A. S., III, 25, 63.

864.
A. S., III, 27, 66.

865.
A. S., III, 41, 97.

866.
A. S., III, 43; 103; 87, 200.

867. A. S., III, 45, 108.

868.
A. S., III, 75, 175.

869.
A. S., IV, 42, 92.

870.
A. S., V, 7, 15.

871.
A. S., V, 57, 147; 59, 154.

872.
A. S., V, 63, 164.

873.
A. S., IV, 47, 104.

874.
A. S., III, 45, 108.

875.
A. S., III, 42, 99, 100; 39, 89.
876.
A. S., III, 37, 85.

877. A. S., III, 38, 87.

878.
A. S., III, 31, 73-4.

879.
Zumpt Crim. proc., 290.

880.
A. S., V, 46, 122.

881.
A. S., I, 45.

882.
A. S., I, 46, 119.

883.
A. S., II, 57, 141; 59, 146.

884.
A. S., II, 74, 182-3.

885.
A. S., II, 76, 186.

886.
A. S., III, 10, 26 sg.

887. A. S., III, 36, 83.

888.
A. S., V, 22, 54-6.

889.
A. S., V, 19, 48.

890.
A. S., III, 40, 92-3.

891.
A. S., III, 81, 189.
892.
A. S., III, 71, 167.

893.
A. S., III, 64, 164 sg.

894.
A. S., III, 40, 92-3.

895.
A. S., II, 56, 138-9; III, 18, 45; 53, 123 sg.

896.
A. S., V, 43, 112-3.

897. A. S., III, 61, 142; 57, 130; A. S., I, 59, 154; V, 53, 139.

898.
A. S., V, 63, 164.

899.
A. S., V, 59, 155.

900.
A. S., II, 5, 14.

901.
A. S., V, 22, 57.

902.
A. S., II, 18, 45.

903.
A. S., II, 5, 15.

904.
A. S., II, 5, 13; IV, 7, 15; V, 22, 57.

905.
A. S., II, 5, 15.

906.
A. S., I, 28, 71.

907. A. S., II, 6, 15, 61, 149; 69, 105-6.

908.
A. S., III, 16, 41; V, 59, 154-5.

909.
A. S., I, 28, 71.

910.
A. S., III, 10, 26.

911.
A. S., IV, 29, 73.

912.
A. S., V, 39, 101.

913.
A. S., I, 10, 28; III, 5, 10; 34, 80.

914.
A. S., I, 58, 151.

915.
A. S., II, 64, 156.

916.
A. S., III, 34, 80.

917. A. S., IV, 56, 125.

918.
A. S., IV, 12, 27.

919.
A. S., I, 53, 139.

920.
A. S., V. 63, 163.

921.
A. S., I, 60, 156.

922.
A. S., I, 7, 20.
923.
A. I., 11, 34.

924.
Festus s. v. res comperendinata; Cic. Brut. 22, 87; Geib. Op. cit. 374.

925.
A. S., II, 78, 191-2; III, 45, 107; IV, 16, 35-6, 47, 104.

926.
pro M. Fonteio, 17, 38-9.

927. Vell. Pat. II, 13, 2.

928.
A. S., I, 30, 75-6; 38-9, 95-100.

929.
A. S., II, 69, 165-6.

930.
Cic. pro L. Flacco, 35, 87; cfr, 3, 6; 7, 18.

931.
A. S., III, 77, 186.

932.
Cic. pro M. Fonteio, 11, 23-4.

933.
Cic. pro M. Fonteio, 12, 27.

934.
pro L. Flacco, 5, 11-2; 8, 23; 11, 24; 27, 65.

935.
Cic. in Verr., A. S., II, 3, 7.

936.
A. S., I, 20, 52.

937. A. S., I, 37, 93.

938.
A. S., I, 48, 126-7; II, 8, 24.
939.
A. S., I, 49, 128; 50, 130; 53, 139; 58, 151-3.

940.
A. S., II, 33, 80; III, 64, 149.

941.
A. S., II, 8, 23.

942.
A. S., II, 38, 68.

943.
A. S., II, 38, 68.

944.
Cic. pro L. Flacco, 6, 14.

945.
Mommsen. Die Stadtrechte der latinischen Gemeinden Salpensa und
Malaca in der Provinz. Baetica (Abhandl. d. K. S. Ges. d. Wissensch., III,
27) pag. 393-4.

946.
A. S., II, 49, 121.

947. A. S., II, 49, 122; cfr. 50, 123, 125.

948.
A. S., II, 13, 33: Si qui perperam iudicasset, se cogniturum: cum
cognosset, animadversurum.

949.
A. S., II, 12, 31.

950.
A. S., II, 6, 19-20; 10, 26-8; 11, 29.

951.
Zumpt C. T.; Ciceronis Verrinarum libri septem, Beroli 1831, p. 276-7.

952.
A. S., II, 13, 32.
953.
vs., 56-7.

954.
Meir. u. Schömann. Der attische Process neu bearb. von I. Lipsius, Berlin
1883-7, p. 971 sg.; Puchta. Institutionen, Leipzig 1857, II, § 175-7, p.
215 sg.

955.
A. S., II, 26, 63.

956.
pro L. Flacco, 32, 78.

957. Zumpt A. W. Der Criminalprocess, pag. 153 sgg.; Studia Romana, p. 172;
Geib. Op. cit. p. 271-2.

958.
A. S., II, 39, 95-6; 42, 102.

959.
A. S., II, 41, 100.

960.
Mommsen. St. R., II3, p. 268.

961.
Zumpt A. W. Der Criminalprocess d. röm. Rep., p. 34.

962.
Geib. Op. cit. p. 290. n. 95; Plut. Syll. 5, ἀπέστη τῆς χατηγορίας.

963.
Gai. 3, 78; Cic. pro Quint., 19, 60; Lenel. Das Edictum perpetuum,
Leipzig 1883, pp. 58, 333-4.

964.
A. S., II, 25, 61.

965.
Walter. R. Rechtsgesch. Bonn. 1845, I, p. 273.

966.
Cic. Ad Att., VI, 2, 5; Ad fam., III, 8, 5.
967. Weber M. Die römische Agrargeschichte in ihrer Bedeutung für das
Staats und Privatrecht. Stuttgart 1891, pp. 181-2.

968.
A. S., II, 58, 142.

969.
Macrob. Sat, I, 13, 21; Suet. Caes. 40.

970.
E. ad Att., 5, 9, 2.

971.
Unger. Zeitrechnung der Griechen und Römer (in Iw. Mullers Hdb. I2,
pp. 770-1).

972.
Schmidt. A. Handbuch der griechischen Chronol. Iena 1888, p. 182 sg.

973.
L. 203, D. L., 16; Cod. Theod., IV, 12, 2, 3, ed. Haenel.

974.
Degenkolb. Op. cit. 80-1.

975.
A. S., III, 15, 38-9; 47, 112-3; Degenkolb. Op. cit. pp. 46-7.

976.
Pernice. Parerga S. 11 in Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für
Rechtsgeschichte, Bd. V, 1884.

977. Weber. Die Römische Agrargeschichte etc. p. 146, A., 37.

978.
Pernice. Op. cit. 15.

979.
A. S., III, 10, 25-6.

980.
A. S., III, 8, 20; Degenkolb. Op. cit. p. 48 sg.
981.
A. S., III, 11, 27. Cum omnibus in aliis vectigalibus Asiae, Macedoniae,
Hispaniae, Galliae, Africae, Sardiniae, ipsius Italiae, quae vectigalia sunt,
cum in his inquam, rebus omnibus publicanus petitor aut pignerator...
Degenkolb. Op. cit. 52 sg.

982.
Degenkolb. Op. cit. pag. 33, 101, sg.

983.
Matthiass. Die Römische Grundsteuer und das Vectigalrecht. Erlangen
1882, pp. 60, 68.

984.
Pernice. Op. cit. 2; Mommsen. St. R., I3, 162 sg; 227 sg.

985.
Degenkolb. Op. cit. p. 134.

986.
Degenkolb. Op. cit. p. 136.

987. A. S., II, 13, 34.

988.
A. S., II, 29, 71.

989.
A. S., III, 28, 69.

990.
Appian. d. bel. civ., 1, 100.

991.
A. S., III, 13, 32.

992.
Mommsen. St. R., I3, 315-8.

993.
Kornemann. De civibus romanis in provinciis imperii consistentibus.
Berolini 1882, p. 44, n. 2.

994.
Degenkolb. Op. cit. pp. 50-1.
995.
A. S., III, 64, 150.

996.
A. S., III, 49, 116-7; 64, 148 sg.

997. Klein. Op. cit. p. 60.

998.
Diod. Sic., V, 2, 4.

999.
Inchiesta agraria italiana, XIII, P. I., p. 88, Roma 1884-5.

1000.

N. H., 18, 21, 95, ed. Ian.

1001.

Xenoph. Oeconom., 17, 8; Magerstedt. Bilder aus der römischen

Landwirtfischaft. Sonderhausen 1861, Bd. 5, 6, 179; Inchiesta agraria
italiana, XIII, P. I., p. 88.

1002.

Pallad. de re rust., 2, 4.

1003.

Inchiesta agraria italiana, XIII, P. I, p. 625.

1004.

C. I. L., X, P. II, p. 714.

1005.

Studî di storia antica pubblic. da G. Beloch. Roma 1893, fasc. II:

Corsetti. Sul prezzo de' grani nell'antichità classica, p. 73. Cfr. anche
D'Avenel G. Hist. économ. de la propriété, des salaires, des denrées dep.
l'an. 1200 jusqu'en l'an. 1800. Paris 1894, II, p. 413 sg.
1006.

Op. cit. p. 82.

1007.

Verri. Meditazioni sull'economia politica. Bibl. dell'Econom. Serie I, vol.

3, p. 573.

1008.

Corsetti. Op. cit. p. 68.

1009.

A. S., III, 92, 214.

1010.

A. S., III, 51, 120.

1011.

Diod. Sic. XIII, 81, 5; Beloch. Die Bevölkerung der griech. röm. Welt,
Leipzig, 1886, p. 284-5.

1012.

A. S., II, 65, 168.

1013.

A. S., IV, 51, 114.

1014.

A. S., III, 80, 186.

1015.

De bell. Mit., 93.

1016.

Atti della giunta per l'inchiesta agraria, Roma, 1884, I, p. 78.

1017.

XXXIV, 4.

1018.

Weber. Agrargeschichte, p. 139, n. 30; Cic. in Verr. A. S., III, 46, 109.

1019.

A. S., II, 53, 123 sg.

1020.

A. S., III, 54, 125.

1021.

Liv. XXVI, 40, 15.

1022.

Liv. XXVII, 8, 18.

1023.

A. S., IV, 4, 8.

1024.

A. S., IV, 4, 8; 6, 12; 16, 35; 17, 37; 20, 43; 21, 46; 24, 53.

1025.

A. S., IV, 34, 76; 40, 87.

1026.

Friedlander. Darstellungen der Sittengeschichte Roms. Leipzig 1881, III,

259 sg.
1027.

Friedlander, Op. cit. p. 273 sg.

1028.

Brunn. Geschichte der griechischen Künstler. Stuttgart 1889, I2, 239,

245, 388; Roscher, Ausfuhr. Lexicon d. griech. u. röm. Myth., p. 1358;
Denkmäler d. Klass. Alterth., p. 1401.

1029.

Brunn. Op. cit. I2, 102.

1030.

Brunn. l. c.

1031.

Malleson. The life of Warren Hastings, the first governor of India,

London, 1894; Revue de deux mondes, 1 Mars 1895: Valbert. Le dernier
biographe de Warren Hastings.

1032.

A. S., II, 20, 49.

1033.

A. S., III, 97, 225.

1034.

In Q. Caecil. divin., 10, 32-3.

1035.

A. S., II, 23, 56; 25, 61; 33, 80; III, 20, 51; 30, 71; 32, 75; 38, 87; 39,
89; 58-9.

1036.

Act. sec. lib. sec. argumentum.