Jan Mathew Mascardo

Module 8 – Structural Functionalism

Qualitative Approaches in Tourism and Hospitality
8.1 MERTON
The concept of “function” in sociology is a fundamental one that plays a crucial role in understanding
how societies operate and maintain their cohesiveness. The readings explore the concept of function as
articulated by Merton. It delves into the distinctions between manifest and latent functions, as well as
the various connotations associated with the term “function” in different contexts. Manifest functions
are the more apparent and visible contributions that social institutions or cultural practices make to
society. These functions are often widely recognized and acknowledged by participants in the society. In
contrast, latent functions are the hidden or less obvious consequences of social institutions or
practices. Latent functions can have a significant impact on the functioning of society, even if they are
not consciously recognized. Merton highlights that the term “function” can have various connotations
in different contexts. To better understand its sociological significance, it is essential to distinguish it
from other meanings: 1. public gatherings and ceremonial functions, 2. occupations, 3. activities
assigned to social status, 4. mathematical meaning and 5. biological sciences inspired meaning. Merton
criticized what he saw as the three basic postulates of functional analysis as it was developed by
Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown. The first is the postulate of the functional unity of society. This
postulate holds that all standardized social and cultural beliefs and practices are functional for society
as a whole as well as for individuals in society. This view implies that the various parts of a social system
must show a high level of integration. However, Merton maintained that although it may be true of
small, primitive societies, this generalization cannot be extended to larger, more complex societies. The
second postulate is the universal functionalism. That is, it is argued that all standardized social and
cultural forms and structures have positive functions. Merton argued that this contradicts what we find
in the real world. It is clear that not every structure, custom, idea, belief, and so forth, has positive
functions. He suggests that functionalist analysis should proceed from assumption that any part of
society may be functional, dysfunctional or non-functional. The third is the postulate of indispensability.
The argument here is that all standardized aspects of society not only have positive functions but also
represent indispensable parts of the working whole. This postulate leads to the idea that all structures
and functions are functionally necessary for society. Functionalists have often seen religion in this light.

Merton raises an important question: “Who should determine the function of a social institution or
cultural practice—the participant or the observer?” He argues that the concept of function should be
viewed from the standpoint of the observer, focusing on objective consequences rather than subjective
motives. And Merton introduces the concept of dysfunction, which represents observed consequences
that reduce the adaptation or adjustment of a system. While functions contribute to the stability and
adaptation of a society, dysfunctions hinder these processes. Merton pointed out that a structure may
be dysfunctional for the system as a whole yet may continue to exist. One might make a good case that
discrimination against blacks, females, and other minority groups is dysfunctional for society, yet it
continues to exist because it is functional for a part of the social system; for example, discrimination
against females is generally functional for males. However, these forms of discrimination are not
without some dysfunctions, even for the group for which they are functional. Males do suffer from
their discrimination against females. One could argue that these forms of discrimination adversely
affect those who discriminate by keeping vast numbers of people underproductive and by increasing
the likelihood of social conflict. Merton argued that not all social system structures are indispensable,
overcoming conservative biases and promoting meaningful social change by acknowledging some
structures as expendable.
 Why, according to Merton, is the study of latent functions one of the important tasks of
sociologists and when do you think latent function do harm?
Perceived Time (Subjective Time)
It is the time that individual psychologically feels. It can be evaluated as shorter or longer than that of
real time. When individual gets bored, he/she feels like time passes too slowly. And when individual
enjoys the moment, he/she is living, time passes quickly. It is the time type that every living being
psychologically perceives, without depending on the real time. Perceived time may differ according to
individual, circumstance. It is situational and depends on subjective reality. Psychological perception of
time can be shorter than the real time when; individual is happy and can be longer than the real time
when he/she is unhappy. In this case, theory of relativity improved by Einstein, enables us to think
about connection between concept of time and place. Even though it is known that every hour includes
exactly sixty minutes and every minute includes sixty seconds, everyone might perceive these periods
differently. Sometimes we cannot notice how time passes, and sometimes time passes faster or slower
than we think; because time has psychology of its own.

Biological (instinctive) Time

It is the time that human body feels physically. It is established based on habits. Biological time must be
considered in order to increase cost and ensure outturn. It is the time that body is dependent on its own physical
program. For example; birds knowing the season of migration, animals knowing the time of hibernation. Some
plants blossom or drop leaves according to their biological hours, not depending to day and night or hot and
cold. The factor that makes all these automatic behaviors done, is biological time. Biological time is the rhythm
that is based on unique to individuals’ features, natal and enables to protect inner balances. For example; it is
accepted that every living being has a ‘’body clock’’ that regulates its live. It is quite important to consider this
rhythm, performing important works when performance is at peak and leaving unimportant ones for later, in
terms of using time effectively.

Time management concept has come into view in 1970s and starting from 1980s, time has been perceived as a
resource to be managed and researched. Time management had born in Denmark as a training tool in order to
help managers with busy schedule to organize their time much better, and spread across the world. And at the
present which is described as information age, it has become one of the most important factors of success
especially in professional business life.

Although there is no consensus about definition of time management concept; the definition that A. Lakein
suggested in his 1973 dated work “How to Get Control of your Time and Life”, of which many authors have taken
as reference and is one of the earliest definitions, is as below: “Time management includes; describing needs,
describing goals that meets these needs, priority queuing the required duties and making these duties
compatible with time and resources by putting them in planning, listing and time program. ”

Time management has been an important concept, subject and manner of rule that entered into literature of
management science and public administration in the recent years. For this reason, there are various time
management approaches. These approaches are as follows:

Get A Grip on Yourself Approach (Order): This approach argues that most of problems in time management
originates from disorder in our lives. The main problem in this approach is planlessness and untidiness. Often, we
cannot find what we seek when we seek. Some things consistently get lost in the shuffle. The solution is
installing a good system. This approach focuses on arrangement in three fields. These fields are arrangement of
objects (keys, files, paper cabinets etc.), arrangement of duties (queuing and putting in order of works to be
done, from simplest to the complicated) and arrangement of humans (such as defining works that everybody can
do, delegate and installing tracking system about activities). There are strong and weak sides of this approach.

-Strong Sides: This approach saves us time and makes us more productive. We do not waste time searching
objects (such as keys, clothes or missing reports). We do not waste our efforts. Arrangement illuminates and
makes tidiness.
-Weak Sides: Arrangement becomes a tool itself, rather than being a tool for greater purposes. This is the
dangerous one. Most part of time is spent for planning rather than production. Most of people think they are
doing their jobs while strive with plans. But in fact, they delay. When gone too far, planning power turns into
weakness. We might become over settled, hair splitting, away from elasticity and mechanical.

Warrior Approach (Survival and Independent Production):

In this approach individual focuses on protection of the time spared for him/her and production. According to
this approach time flies by in the day. For this reason, individual cannot be efficient and productive. Main theme
argues focusing on regulating time stealing environment and objects in life. This approach includes isolation,
being alone and delegation. This approach is human – being under pace and pressure of life, job environment -
gaining habit of doing works according to priority, rather than separating them as important and unimportant.
Warrior approach is eliminating traps. The individual fighting against time, tries to eliminate traps. Hence,
warrior approach focuses on self-protection, claiming time in order to work sufficiently efficient and
independent. There are strong and weak sides of this approach.

Target Approach (Success):

This approach is based on know what you want and make an effort to success. Individual must know where to
go, plan his/her targets. Targets need to be planned as long, middle and short termed. It also contains
techniques such as target distorting, visualizing, self-motivation and creating a positive mentality. There are
strong and weak sides of this approach.

-Strong Sides: This is the approach of those who performed performance worldwide and Olympic athletes. It is
the performance surpassing power of individuals with less talents, of much more talented ones; willing
compensate, meaning organizing forces, intensifying energy, not letting an obstacle intervene. It is a known fact
that individuals and institutions who set targets in front of them are more successful.

-Weak Sides: There are countless people who use Target Approach to climb success ladder. They set the targets
and make an extraordinary effort to achieve them. However, when they achieve what they want, they witness
that this does not bring the outcome they expected. Thus, there might be disappointment. If targets are not
based on principles and basic needs, achieved target take away somethings from personality.

ABC Approach (Putting Priorities in Order and Defining Values):

This approach is based on the idea of putting priorities in order and defining values. Putting priorities in order is
important. The most important and urgent works should be put forward, and put in order according to value
order. This approach states that "You can do whatever you want, however you can’t do everything". These are
the main principles of ABC approach: first of all, focus your efforts on your most important works. There are
weak and strong sides of this approach.

-Strong Sides: ABC Approach is the traditional "priority for important works" approach. It provides order and
consecutiveness. This approach ensures to understand the difference between to do works and the highest
priority missions.

Weak Sides: Its primary delusion is ignoring the fact that principles and natural laws determines the quality of
life, clarifying the values. This negligence often causes people to adopt principles contradictory with laws of
nature and follow them. These values only cause the feeling of obstructedness and failure.

Magical Tool Approach (Technology):

In this approach “good works are done by good tools” rule is followed and thus it is important to choose the
correct tool. Good usage of system and technological tools and correct tool choice provides saving on time. This
approach is based on the assumption that correct tool (correct calendar, correct planning, correct computer
program, correct computer) gives us the power of creating the quality of life. These tools indeed help us to watch
priorities, plan our works and easily access information.
-Strong Sides: Without doubt effective usage of tools is quite important. Correct tool enables to do the works
within shorter period of time and more efficiently. Improvement of technological devices is only performed to
finish the works within shorter period of time and more efficiently.

-Weak Sides: Assumption of the correct tool (Technology) is the answer for everything, is incorrect. Good tools
are required for “doing works correctly” however good tools are not sufficient “for correct works”. This requires
vision, mission, correct decision and strategy development skill. Even the most perfect tool cannot replace vision,
creativity, calculating, character or competence. A huge camera does not create a huge photographer. And
perfect planner does not create perfect life.

Time Management 101 Approach (Skill):

This approach is based on the paradigm that basically time management is a skill such as accounting or word
processing and upholds that for the effective usage of time, individuals must possess certain skills. These skills
are using a planner of appointment notebook, making correct decision, making to do list, defining target/goal,
smart delegation, planning, putting priorities in order. According to this approach, these basic skills are creating a
sort of social literacy which is required to be able to sustain life.

-Strong Sides: Excessive working might not be sufficient to become successful nowadays, even this will not be
necessary most of the time. Working effectively is required instead of this. And effective working can be only
possible with knowledge and skill. Skill enables to finish works spending less energy and time.

-Weak Sides: It is more dependent on the skill of making characters and behaviors of individuals compatible with
principles, rather than personal or institutive quality, skill and technique. Nowadays most of the time
management training programs are consist of a mixed package which is sprinkled one or two principles such as
planning and putting priorities in order, along with various techniques and time saving cheats. Skills themselves
do not form answer.