DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 1

UNIT -I

INTRODUCTION TO DBMS:

What is data?
• Data is nothing but facts and statistics stored or free flowing over a network, generally
it's raw and unprocessed.
• Data becomes information when it is processed, turning it into something meaningful.
• What is database: The database is a collection of inter-related data which is used to
retrieve, insert and delete the data efficiently.
• It is also used to organize the data in the form of a table, schema, views, and reports,
etc.
• Using the database, you can easily retrieve, insert, and delete the information.
• For example: The college Database organizes the data about the admin, staff, students
and faculty etc.

What is dbms?

DBMS File System

DBMS is a collection of data. In DBMS, the File system is a collection of data. In this system, the
user is not required to write the procedures. user has to write the procedures for managing the
database.

Searching data is easy in Dbms Searching is difficult in File System

Dbms is structured data Files are unstructured data

No data redundancy in Dbms Data redundancy is there in file system

Memory utilisation well in dbms Memory utilisation poor in file system

No data inconsistency in dbms Inconsistency in file system

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DBMS gives an abstract view of data that hides File system provides the detail of the data
the details. representation and storage of data.

DBMS provides a crash recovery mechanism, File system doesn't have a crash mechanism, i.e., if
i.e., DBMS protects the user from the system the system crashes while entering some data, then the
failure. content of the file will lost.

DBMS provides a good protection mechanism. It is very difficult to protect a file under the file
system.

DBMS contains a wide variety of sophisticated File system can't efficiently store and retrieve the
techniques to store and retrieve the data. data.

DBMS takes care of Concurrent access of data In the File system, concurrent access has many
using some form of locking. problems like redirecting the file while other deleting
some information or updating some information.

• A DBMS is software that allows creation, definition and manipulation of database,

allowing users to store, process and analyse data easily.
• DBMS provides us with an interface or a tool, to perform various operations like
creating database, storing data in it, updating data, creating tables in the database and
a lot more.
• DBMS also provides protection and security to the databases.
• It also maintains data consistency in case of multiple users.
Here are some examples of popular DBMS used these days:
• MySql
• Oracle
• SQL Server
• IBM DB2
DATABASE APPLICATIONS – DBMS:
• Applications where we use Database Management Systems are:
• Telecom: There is a database to keeps track of the information regarding calls made,
network usage, customer details etc.

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 • Industry: Where it is a manufacturing unit, warehouse or distribution centre, each one
needs a database to keep the records of ins and outs
• Banking System: For storing customer info, tracking day to day credit and debit
transactions, generating bank statements etc.
• Sales: To store customer information, production information and invoice details.
• Airlines: To travel though airlines, we make early reservations; this reservation
information along with flight schedule is stored in database.
• Education sector: Database systems are frequently used in schools and colleges to
store and retrieve the data regarding student details, staff details, course details, exam
details, payroll data, attendance details, fees details etc.

PURPOSE OF DATABASE SYSTEMS

• The main purpose of database systems is to manage the data. Consider a university
that keeps the data of students, teachers, courses, books etc. To manage this data we
need to store this data somewhere where we can add new data, delete unused data,
update outdated data, retrieve data, to perform these operations on data we need a
Database management system that allows us to store the data in such a way so that all
these operations can be performed on the data efficiently.
Characteristics of DBMS
• Data stored into Tables: Data is never directly stored into the database. Data is stored
into tables, created inside the database.
• Reduced Redundancy: In the modern world hard drives are very cheap, but earlier
when hard drives were too expensive, unnecessary repetition of data in database was a
big problem. But DBMS follows Normalisation which divides the data in such a way
that repetition is minimum.
• Data Consistency: On Live data, i.e. data that is being continuosly updated and added,
maintaining the consistency of data can become a challenge. But DBMS handles it all
by itself.
• Support Multiple user and Concurrent Access: DBMS allows multiple users to work
on it(update, insert, delete data) at the same time and still manages to maintain the
data consistency.

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 • Query Language: DBMS provides users with a simple Query language, using which
data can be easily fetched, inserted, deleted and updated in a database.

Advantages of DBMS

• Controls database redundancy: It can control data redundancy because it stores all the
data in one single database file and that recorded data is placed in the database.
• Data sharing: In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can share the data
among multiple users.
• Easily Maintenance: It can be easily maintainable due to the centralized nature of the
database system.
• Reduce time: It reduces development time and maintenance need.
• Backup: It provides backup and recovery subsystems which create automatic backup
of data from hardware and software failures and restores the data if required.
• multiple user interface: It provides different types of user interfaces like graphical
user interfaces, application program interfaces

Disadvantages of DBMS

• Cost of Hardware and Software: It requires a high speed of data processor and large
memory size to run DBMS software.
• Size: It occupies a large space of disks and large memory to run them efficiently.
• Complexity: Database system creates additional complexity and requirements.
• Higher impact of failure: Failure is highly impacted the database because in most of
the organization, all the data stored in a single database and if the database is damaged
due to electric failure or database corruption then the data may be lost forever.

View of Data in DBMS

• Abstraction is one of the main features of database systems.
• Hiding irrelevant details from user and providing abstract view of data to users, helps
in easy and efficient user-database interaction.
• the three level of DBMS architecture, The top level of that architecture is “view
level”. The view level provides the “view of data” to the users and hides the irrelevant

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 details such as data relationship, database schema, constraints, security etc from the
user.

Data Abstraction in DBMS

Database systems are made-up of complex data structures. To ease the user interaction with
database, the developers hide internal irrelevant details from users. This process of hiding
irrelevant details from user is called data abstraction.

We have three levels of abstraction:

Physical level: This is the lowest level of data abstraction. It describes how data is actually
stored in database. You can get the complex data structure details at this level.

Logical level: This is the middle level of 3-level data abstraction architecture. It describes
what data is stored in database.

View level: Highest level of data abstraction. This level describes the user interaction with
database system.
Instance and schema in DBMS

• Definition of schema: Design of a database is called the schema. Schema is of three

types: Physical schema, logical schema and view schema.

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 • The design of a database at physical level is called physical schema, how the data
stored in blocks of storage is described at this level.
• Design of database at logical level is called logical schema, programmers and
database administrators work at this level, at this level data can be described as certain
types of data records gets stored in data structures, however the internal details such
as implementation of data structure is hidden at this level (available at physical level).
• Design of database at view level is called view schema. This generally describes end
user interaction with database systems.

Definition of instance:
The data stored in database at a particular moment of time is called instance of
database. Database schema defines the variable declarations in tables that belong to a
particular database; the value of these variables at a moment of time is called the instance of
that database.

DBMS ARCHITECTURE:
• Database management systems architecture will help us understand the components of
database system and the relation among them.
• The architecture of DBMS depends on the computer system on which it runs.
• the basic client/server architecture is used to deal with a large number of PCs, web
servers, database servers and other components that are connected with networks.
• The client/server architecture consists of many PCs and a workstation which are
connected via the network.
• DBMS architecture depends upon how users are connected to the database to get their
request done.

TYPES OF DBMS ARCHITECTURE

There are three types of DBMS architecture:

1. Single tier architecture
2. Two tier architecture
3.Three tier architecture

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1- Tier Architecture
• In this type of architecture, the database is readily available on the client machine, any
request made by client doesn’t require a network connection to perform the action on
the database.
• Any changes done here will directly be done on the database itself. It doesn't provide
a handy tool for end users.
• The 1-Tier architecture is used for development of the local application, where
programmers can directly communicate with the database for the quick response.

2. Two tier architecture

• In two-tier architecture, the Database system is present at the server machine and the
DBMS application is present at the client machine, these two machines are connected
with each other through a reliable network.
• Whenever client machine makes a request to access the database present at server
using a query language like sql, the server perform the request on the database and
returns the result back to the client.
• The application connection interface such as JDBC, ODBC are used for the
interaction between server and client.

3- Tier Architecture
• In three-tier architecture, another layer is present between the client machine and
server machine.
• In this architecture, the client application doesn’t communicate directly with the
database systems present at the server machine, rather the client application

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 communicates with server application and the server application internally
communicates with the database system present at the server.

DATA MODELS:
• Data Model is the modeling of the data description, data semantics, and consistency
constraints of the data.
• It provides the conceptual tools for describing the design of a database at each level of
data abstraction.
• Therefore, there are following four data models used for understanding the structure
of the database:

Four Types of DBMS systems are:

• Hierarchical database
• Network database
• Relational database
• ER model database

Hierarchical DBMS
In a Hierarchical database, model data is organized in a tree-like structure. Data is Stored
Hierarchically (top down or bottom up) format. Data is represented using a parent-child

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relationship. In Hierarchical DBMS parent may have many children, but children have only
one parent.

Network Model
The network database model allows each child to have multiple parents. It helps you to
address the need to model more complex relationships like as the orders/parts many-to-many
relationship. In this model, entities are organized in a graph which can be accessed through
several paths.

Relational model
Relational DBMS is the most widely used DBMS model because it is one of the easiest. This
model is based on normalizing data in the rows and columns of the tables. Relational model
stored in fixed structures and manipulated using SQL.

Entity-Relationship Model
Entity-Relationship (ER) Model is based on the notion of real-world entities and relationships
among them. While formulating real-world scenario into the database model, the ER Model
creates entity set, relationship set, general attributes and constraints.

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DBMS languages

Database languages are used to read, update and store data in a database. There are several
such languages that can be used for this purpose; one of them is SQL (Structured Query
Language).

• DDL – Data Definition Language:

(CREATE,DROP,ALTER,TRUNCATE,COMMENT,RENAME)
• DML – Data Manipulation Language: (INSERT, UPDATE,DELETE)
• DCL – Data Control Language: (GRANT,REVOKE)
• TCL-Transaction Control Language: (COMMIT,ROLLBACK)

1. DDL(Data Definition Language) : DDL or Data Definition Language actually consists of

the SQL commands that can be used to define the database schema. It simply deals with
descriptions of the database schema and is used to create and modify the structure of database
objects in the database.
CREATE – it is used to create the database or its objects (like table, index, function, views,
store procedure and triggers).
There are two CREATE statements available in SQL:
• CREATE DATABASE
• CREATE TABLE
CREATE DATABASE
A Database is defined as a structured set of data. So, in SQL the very first step to store the
data in a well structured manner is to create a database. The CREATE
DATABASE statement is used to create a new database in SQL.
Syntax:
CREATE DATABASE database_name;

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Example:
SQL> CREATE DATABASE Employee;
In order to get the list of all the databases, you can use SHOW DATABASES statement.
Example –
SQL> SHOW DATABASES;

CREATE TABLE:
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table in SQL. We know that a table
comprises of rows and columns. So while creating tables we have to provide all the
information to SQL about the names of the columns, type of data to be stored in columns,
size of the data etc. Let us now dive into details on how to use CREATE TABLE statement to
create tables in SQL.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column1 data_type(size),
column2 data_type(size),
column3 data_type(size),
....
);
Example Query:
This query will create a table named Students with three columns, ROLL_NO, NAME and
SUBJECT.
CREATE TABLE Students
(
ROLL_NO int(3),
NAME varchar(20),
SUBJECT varchar(20),
);

DROP:
DROP is used to delete a whole database or just a table.The DROP statement destroys the
objects like an existing database, table, index, or view.

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A DROP statement in SQL removes a component from a relational database management
system (RDBMS).
Syntax:
DROP object object_name;
Examples:
DROP TABLE table_name;
table_name: Name of the table to be deleted.
DROP DATABASE database_name;
database_name: Name of the database to be deleted.
TRUNCATE
It is used to remove all records from a table, including all spaces
The TRUNCATE TABLE mytable statement is logically (though not physically) equivalent
to the DELETE FROM mytable statement (without a WHERE clause).
Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
DROP vs TRUNCATE
• Truncate is normally ultra-fast and its ideal for deleting data from a temporary table.
• Truncate preserves the structure of the table for future use, unlike drop table where
the table is deleted with its full structure.
• Table or Database deletion using DROP statement cannot be rolled back, so it must be
used wisely.

To delete the whole database

DROP DATABASE student_data;
After running the above query whole database will be deleted.
To truncate Student_details table from student_data database.
TRUNCATE TABLE Student_details;
ALTER (ADD, DROP, MODIFY)
ALTER TABLE is used to add, delete/drop or modify columns in the existing table. It is also
used to add and drop various constraints on the existing table.
ALTER TABLE – ADD:

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ADD is used to add columns into the existing table. Sometimes we may require to add
additional information, in that case we do not require to create the whole database
again, ADD comes to our rescue.
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD (Columnname_1 datatype,
Columnname_2 datatype,
…
Columnname_n datatype);

ALTER TABLE – DROP

DROP COLUMN is used to drop column in a table. Deleting the unwanted columns from the
table.
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP COLUMN column_name;
ALTER TABLE-MODIFY
It is used to modify the existing columns in a table. Multiple columns can also be modified at
once.
ALTER TABLE table_name
MODIFY column_name column_type;
QUERY:
To ADD 2 columns AGE and COURSE to table Student.
ALTER TABLE Student ADD (AGE number(3),COURSE varchar(40));
MODIFY column COURSE in table Student
ALTER TABLE Student MODIFY COURSE varchar(20);
Comments
As is any programming languages comments matter a lot in SQL also. In this set we will
learn about writing comments in any SQL snippet.
Comments can be written in the following three formats:
• Single line comments.
• Multi line comments
• In line comments

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DML(Data Manipulation Language) : The SQL commands that deals with the
manipulation of data present in the database belong to DML or Data Manipulation Language
and this includes most of the SQL statements.
SELECT Statement
select statement is used to fetch data from relational database. A relational database is
organized collection of data. As we know that data is stored inside tables in a database. SQL
select statement or SQL select query is used to fetch data from one or more than one tables.

SELECT Syntax
One column:
Here column_name is the name of the column for which we need to fetch data and
table_name is the name of the table in the database.
SELECT column_name FROM table_name;
More than one columns:
SELECT column_name_1, column_name_2, ... FROM table_name;
To fetch the entire table or all the fields in the table:
SELECT * FROM table_name;
Example:
SELECT EMP_NAME FROM EMPLOYEES;
To fetch the entire EMPLOYEES table:
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEES;
Query to fetch the fields ROLL_NO, NAME, AGE from the table Student:
SELECT ROLL_NO, NAME, AGE FROM Student;
INSERT INTO Statement
The INSERT INTO statement of SQL is used to insert a new row in a table. There are two
ways of using INSERT INTO statement for inserting rows:
Only values: First method is to specify only the value of data to be inserted without the
column names.

INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1, value2, value3,…);

Column names and values both: In the second method we will specify both the columns
which we want to fill and their corresponding values as shown below:

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INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,..) VALUES ( value1, value2,
value3,..);
Example:
Method 1 (Inserting only values) :
INSERT INTO Student VALUES (‘5′,’HARSH’,’WEST
BENGAL’,’XXXXXXXXXX’,’19’);
Method 2 (Inserting values in only specified columns):
INSERT INTO Student (ROLL_NO, NAME, Age) VALUES (‘5′,’PRATIK’,’19’);
UPDATE Statement
The UPDATE statement in SQL is used to update the data of an existing table in database.
We can update single columns as well as multiple columns using UPDATE statement as per
our requirement.
Basic Syntax:
UPDATE TableName
SET column_name1 = value, column_name2 = value....
WHERE condition;
EX1:
SQL> UPDATE EMPLOYEES
SET EMP_SALARY = 10000
WHERE EMP_AGE > 25;

EX2;
SQL> UPDATE EMPLOYEES
SET EMP_SALARY = 120000
WHERE EMP_NAME = 'Apoorv';
DELETE Statement
The DELETE Statement in SQL is used to delete existing records from a table. We can delete
a single record or multiple records depending on the condition we specify in the WHERE
clause.
Basic Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE some_condition;
Deleting single record: Delete the rows where NAME = ‘Ram’. This will delete only the first
row.
DELETE FROM Student WHERE NAME = 'Ram';

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Deleting multiple records: Delete the rows from the table Student where Age is 20. This will
delete 2 rows(third row and fifth row).
DELETE FROM Student WHERE Age = 20;
Delete all of the records: There are two queries to do this as shown below,
query1: "DELETE FROM Student";
query2: "DELETE * FROM Student";
DCL(Data Control Language) : DCL includes commands such as GRANT and REVOKE
which mainly deals with the rights, permissions and other controls of the database system.
Examples of DCL commands:
GRANT-gives user’s access privileges to database.
REVOKE-withdraw user’s access privileges given by using the GRANT command.

TCL(transaction Control Language) : TCL commands deals with the transaction within the
database.
Examples of TCL commands:
COMMIT– commits a Transaction.
ROLLBACK– rollbacks a transaction in case of any error occurs.
SAVEPOINT–sets a savepoint within a transaction.
SET TRANSACTION–specify characteristics for the transaction.

What is the Procedure for Database Access?

• Any access to the stored data is done by the data manager. A user’s request for data
is-received by the data manager, which detern1ines the physical record required. The
decision as 10 which physical record is needed may require some preliminary
consultation of the database and/or the data dictionary prior to the access of the actual
data itself.
• The data manager sends the request for a specific physical record to the file manager.
The file manager decides which physical block of secondary storage devices contains
the required record and sends the request for the appropriate block to the disk
manager. A block is a unit of physical input/output operations between primary and
secondary storage. The disk manager retrieves the block and sends it to the file
manager, which sends the required record to the data manager.

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DATA BASE USERS AND ADMINISTRATORS:
Database users are the persons who interact with the database and take the benefits of
database.
They are differentiated into different types based on the way they expect to interact with the
system.
Naive users: They are the unsophisticated users who interact with the system by using
permanent applications that already exist. Example: Online Library Management System,
ATMs (Automated Teller Machine), etc.
Application programmers: They are the computer professionals who interact with system
through DML. They write application programs.
Sophisticated users: They interact with the system by writing SQL queries directly through
the query processor without writing application programs.
Specialized users: They are also sophisticated users who write specialized database
applications that do not fit into the traditional data processing framework. Example: Expert
System, Knowledge Based System, etc.

Database Administrators

The life cycle of database starts from designing, implementing to administration of it. A
database for any kind of requirement needs to be designed perfectly so that it should work
without any issues. Once all the design is complete, it needs to be installed. Once this step is
complete, users start using the database. The database grows as the data grows in the
database. When the database becomes huge, its performance comes down. Also accessing the
data from the database becomes challenge. There will be unused memory in database, making
the memory inevitably huge. These administration and maintenance of database is taken care

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by database Administrator – DBA.
A DBA has many responsibilities. A good performing database is in the hands of DBA.
Database Administrators coordinate all the activities of the database system. They have all
the permissions.

Tasks of DBA

• Creatingtheschema
• Specifying integrity constraints
• Storage structure and access method definition
• Granting permission to other users.
• Monitoring performance
• Routine Maintenance

Transaction Management?

• A Database Transaction is a logical unit of processing in a DBMS which entails one

or more database access operation. In a nutshell, database transactions represent real-
world events of any enterprise.
• All types of database access operation which are held between the beginning and end
transaction statements are considered as a single logical transaction in DBMS. During
the transaction the database is inconsistent. Only once the database is committed the
state is changed from one consistent state to another.

What are ACID Properties?

ACID Properties are used for maintaining the integrity of database during transaction
processing. ACID in DBMS stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability.
• Atomicity: A transaction is a single unit of operation. You either execute it entirely or
do not execute it at all. There cannot be partial execution.
• Consistency: Once the transaction is executed, it should move from one consistent
state to another.

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 • Isolation: Transaction should be executed in isolation from other transactions (no
Locks). During concurrent transaction execution, intermediate transaction results from
simultaneously executed transactions should not be made available to each other.
(Level 0,1,2,3)
• Durability: · After successful completion of a transaction, the changes in the
database should persist. Even in the case of system failures.

Storage Manager In DBMS

• A storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the
lowlevel data stored in the database and the application programs and queries
submitted to the system.
• The storage manager is responsible for the interaction with the file manager.
• The raw data are stored on the disk using the file system, which is usually provided by
a conventional operating system.
• The storage manager translates the various DML statements into low-level file-system
commands. Thus, the storage manager is responsible for storing, retrieving, and
updating data in the database.
The storage manager components include:
1. Authorization and integrity manager, which tests for the satisfaction of integrity constraints
and checks the authority of users to access data.
2. Transaction manager, which ensures that the database remains in a consistent (correct)
state despite system failures, and that concurrent transaction executions proceed without
conflicting.
3. File manager, which manages the allocation of space on disk storage and the data
structures used to represent information stored on disk.
4. Buffer manager, which is responsible for fetching data from disk storage into main
memory, and deciding what data to cache in main memory. The buffer manager is a critical
part of the database system, since it enables the database to handle data sizes that are much
larger than the size of main memory.The storage manager implements several data structures
as part of the physical system implementation:

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Query Processing in DBMS

A query processor is one of the major components of a relational database or an electronic

database in which data is stored in tables of rows and columns. It complements the storage
engine, which writes and reads data to and from storage media.

Parsing and Translation

As query processing includes certain activities for data retrieval. Initially, the given user
queries get translated in high-level database languages such as SQL. It gets translated into
expressions that can be further used at the physical level of the file system. After this, the
actual evaluation of the queries and a variety of query -optimizing transformations and takes
place.

Query Evaluation Plan

o In order to fully evaluate a query, the system needs to construct a query evaluation
plan.
o The annotations in the evaluation plan may refer to the algorithms to be used for the
particular index or the specific operations.
o Such relational algebra with annotations is referred to as Evaluation Primitives. The
evaluation primitives carry the instructions needed for the evaluation of the operation.

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 o Thus, a query evaluation plan defines a sequence of primitive operations used for
evaluating a query. The query evaluation plan is also referred to as the query
execution plan.

o A query execution engine is responsible for generating the output of the given query.
It takes the query execution plan, executes it, and finally makes the output for the user
query.

Optimization
o The cost of the query evaluation can vary for different types of queries. Although the
system is responsible for constructing the evaluation plan, the user does need not to
write their query efficiently.

o Usually, a database system generates an efficient query evaluation plan, which

minimizes its cost. This type of task performed by the database system and is known
as Query Optimization.

o For optimizing a query, the query optimizer should have an estimated cost analysis of
each operation. It is because the overall operation cost depends on the memory
allocations to several operations, execution costs, and so on.

What is Relational Model?

Relational Model (RM) represents the database as a collection of relations. A relation is

nothing but a table of values. Every row in the table represents a collection of related data
values. These rows in the table denote a real-world entity or relationship.

The table name and column names are helpful to interpret the meaning of values in each row.
The data are represented as a set of relations. In the relational model, data are stored as tables.
However, the physical storage of the data is independent of the way the data are logically
organized.

Relational Model Concepts

1. Attribute: Each column in a Table. Attributes are the properties which define a
relation. e.g., Student_Rollno, NAME,etc.

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 2. Tables – In the Relational model the, relations are saved in the table format. It is
stored along with its entities. A table has two properties rows and columns. Rows
represent records and columns represent attributes.
3. Tuple – It is nothing but a single row of a table, which contains a single record.
4. Relation Schema: A relation schema represents the name of the relation with its
attributes.
5. Degree: The total number of attributes which in the relation is called the degree of the
relation.
6. Cardinality: Total number of rows present in the Table.
7. Column: The column represents the set of values for a specific attribute.
8. Relation instance – Relation instance is a finite set of tuples in the RDBMS system.
Relation instances never have duplicate tuples.
9. Relation key - Every row has one, two or multiple attributes, which is called relation
key.
10. Attribute domain – Every attribute has some pre-defined value and scope which is
known as attribute domain
Keys in DBMS
KEYS in DBMS is an attribute or set of attributes which helps you to identify a row(tuple) in
a relation(table). They allow you to find the relation between two tables. Keys help you
uniquely identify a row in a table by a combination of one or more columns in that table. Key
is also helpful for finding unique record or row from the table. Database key is also helpful
for finding unique record or row from the table.

Why we need a Key?

Here are some reasons for using sql key in the DBMS system.

• Keys help you to identify any row of data in a table. In a real-world application, a
table could contain thousands of records. Moreover, the records could be duplicated.
Keys ensure that you can uniquely identify a table record despite these challenges.
• Allows you to establish a relationship between and identify the relation between
tables
• Help you to enforce identity and integrity in the relationship.

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Types of Keys in Database Management System

There are mainly seven different types of Keys in DBMS and each key has its different
functionality:

• Super Key - A super key is a group of single or multiple keys which identifies rows
in a table.
• Primary Key - is a column or group of columns in a table that uniquely identify
every row in that table.
• Candidate Key - is a set of attributes that uniquely identify tuples in a table.
Candidate Key is a super key with no repeated attributes.
• Alternate Key - is a column or group of columns in a table that uniquely identify
every row in that table.
• Foreign Key - is a column that creates a relationship between two tables. The
purpose of Foreign keys is to maintain data integrity and allow navigation between
two different instances of an entity.
• Compound Key - has two or more attributes that allow you to uniquely recognize a
specific record. It is possible that each column may not be unique by itself within the
database.
• Composite Key - An artificial key which aims to uniquely identify each record is
called a surrogate key. These kind of key are unique because they are created when
you don't have any natural primary key.
• Surrogate Key - An artificial key which aims to uniquely identify each record is
called a surrogate key. These kind of key are unique because they are created when
you don't have any natural primary key.
Primary key example:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

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Create Primary Key (ALTER TABLE statement)

Syntax
The syntax to create a primary key using the ALTER TABLE statement in SQL is:

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD CONSTRAINT
FOREIGN KEY on CREATE TABLE
constraint_name
PRIMARY KEY (column1,
The following
column2, SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the "PersonID" column when the "Orders"
... column_n);
table is created:
CREATE TABLE Orders (
OrderID int NOT NULL,
OrderNumber int NOT NULL,
PersonID int,
PRIMARY KEY (OrderID),
FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(PersonID)
);

ER model
o ER model stands for an Entity-Relationship model. It is a high-level data model. This
model is used to define the data elements and relationship for a specified system.

o It develops a conceptual design for the database. It also develops a very simple and
easy to design view of data.

o In ER modeling, the database structure is portrayed as a diagram called an entity-

relationship diagram.

For example, Suppose we design a school database. In this database, the student will be an
entity with attributes like address, name, id, age, etc. The address can be another entity with
attributes like city, street name, pin code, etc and there will be a relationship between them.

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Component of ER Diagram

1. Entity:

An entity may be any object, class, person or place. In the ER diagram, an entity can be
represented as rectangles.

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Consider an organization as an example- manager, product, employee, department etc. can be
taken as an entity.

a. Weak Entity

An entity that depends on another entity called a weak entity. The weak entity doesn't contain
any key attribute of its own. The weak entity is represented by a double rectangle.

2. Attribute

The attribute is used to describe the property of an entity. Eclipse is used to represent an
attribute.

For example, id, age, contact number, name, etc. can be attributes of a student.

a. Key Attribute

The key attribute is used to represent the main characteristics of an entity. It represents a
primary key. The key attribute is represented by an ellipse with the text underlined.

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b. Composite Attribute

An attribute that composed of many other attributes is known as a composite attribute. The
composite attribute is represented by an ellipse, and those ellipses are connected with an
ellipse.

c. Multivalued Attribute

An attribute can have more than one value. These attributes are known as a multivalued
attribute. The double oval is used to represent multivalued attribute.

For example, a student can have more than one phone number.

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d. Derived Attribute

An attribute that can be derived from other attribute is known as a derived attribute. It can be
represented by a dashed ellipse.

For example, A person's age changes over time and can be derived from another attribute
like Date of birth.

3. Relationship

A relationship is used to describe the relation between entities. Diamond or rhombus is used
to represent the relationship

Types of relationship are as follows:

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a. One-to-One Relationship

When only one instance of an entity is associated with the relationship, then it is known as
one to one relationship.

For example, A female can marry to one male, and a male can marry to one female.

b. One-to-many relationship

When only one instance of the entity on the left, and more than one instance of an entity on
the right associates with the relationship then this is known as a one-to-many relationship.

For example, Scientist can invent many inventions, but the invention is done by the only
specific scientist.

c. Many-to-one relationship

When more than one instance of the entity on the left, and only one instance of an entity on
the right associates with the relationship then it is known as a many-to-one relationship.

For example, Student enrolls for only one course, but a course can have many students.

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d. Many-to-many relationship

When more than one instance of the entity on the left, and more than one instance of an entity
on the right associates with the relationship then it is known as a many-to-many relationship.

For example, Employee can assign by many projects and project can have many employees.

Notation of ER diagram

Database can be represented using the notations. In ER diagram, many notations are used to
express the cardinality. These notations are as follows:

Integrity Constraints
o Integrity constraints are a set of rules. It is used to maintain the quality of information.
o Integrity constraints ensure that the data insertion, updating, and other processes have
to be performed in such a way that data integrity is not affected.

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 o Thus, integrity constraint is used to guard against accidental damage to the database.

Types of Integrity Constraint

1. Domain constraints
o Domain constraints can be defined as the definition of a valid set of values for an
attribute.

o The data type of domain includes string, character, integer, time, date, currency, etc.
The value of the attribute must be available in the corresponding domain.

Example:

2. Entity integrity constraints

o The entity integrity constraint states that primary key value can't be null.
o This is because the primary key value is used to identify individual rows in relation
and if the primary key has a null value, then we can't identify those rows.
o A table can contain a null value other than the primary key field.

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 3. Referential

Integrity Constraints
o A referential integrity constraint is specified between two tables.
o In the Referential integrity constraints, if a foreign key in Table 1 refers to the
Primary Key of Table 2, then every value of the Foreign Key in Table 1 must be null
or be available in Table 2.

4. Key constraints
o Keys are the entity set that is used to identify an entity within its entity set uniquely.
o An entity set can have multiple keys, but out of which one key will be the primary
key. A primary key can contain a unique and null value in the relational table.

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ER Design Issues
• ER design issues need to be discussed for better ER- design
• users often mislead the concept of the elements and the design process of the ER
diagram. Thus, it leads to a complex structure of the ER diagram and certain issues
that does not meet the characteristics of the real-world enterprise model.
• Here, we will discuss the basic design issues of an ER database schema in the
following points:

1) Use of Entity Set vs Attributes

The use of an entity set or attribute depends on the structure of the real-world enterprise that
is being modelled and the semantics associated with its attributes. It leads to a mistake when
the user use the primary key of an entity set as an attribute of another entity set. Instead, he
should use the relationship to do so. Also, the primary key attributes are implicit in the
relationship set, but we designate it in the relationship sets.

2) Use of Entity Set vs. Relationship Sets

It is difficult to examine if an object can be best expressed by an entity set or relationship set.

3) Use of Binary vs n-ary Relationship Sets

Generally, the relationships described in the databases are binary relationships. However,
non-binary relationships can be represented by several binary relationships.

4) Placing Relationship Attributes

The cardinality ratios can become an affective measure in the placement of the relationship
attributes. So, it is better to associate the attributes of one-to-one or one-to-many relationship
sets with any participating entity sets, instead of any relationship set.

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Conceptual design
Conceptual design is the first stage in the database design process. The goal at this stage is to
design a database that is independent of database software and physical details. The output of
this process is a conceptual data model that describes the main data entities, attributes,
relationships, and constraints of a given problem domain.
Keep in mind the following minimal data rule:

"All that is needed is there, and all that is there is needed".

1. Data analysis and requirements

2. Entity relationship modeling and normalization

3. Data model verification

4. Distributed database design

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 UNIT-2

Relational Algebra
• Relational Algebra is procedural query language, which takes Relation as input and
generates relation as output. Relational algebra mainly provides theoretical
foundation for relational databases and SQL.
• Relational algebra is a procedural query language, it means that it tells what data to be
retrieved and how to be retrieved.
• Relational Algebra works on the whole table at once, so we do not have to use loops
etc to iterate over all the rows (tuples) of data one by one.
• All we have to do is specify the table name from which we need the data, and in a
single line of command, relational algebra will traverse the entire given table to fetch
data for you.

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Basic/Fundamental Operations:

1. Select (σ)
2. Project (∏)
3. Union (𝖴)
4. Set Difference (-)
5. Cartesian product (X)
6. Rename (ρ)

1. Select Operation (σ) :This is used to fetch rows (tuples) from table(relation) which
satisfies a given condition.
Syntax: σp(r)

➢ σ is the predicate
➢ r stands for relation which is the name of the table
➢ p is prepositional logic
ex: σage > 17 (Student)
This will fetch the tuples(rows) from table Student, for which age will be greater than 17.
σage > 17 and gender = 'Male' (Student)
This will return tuples(rows) from table Student with information of male students, of age
more than 17.

BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT

Downtown L-17 1000

Redwood L-23 2000

Perryride L-15 1500

Downtown L-14 1500

Mianus L-13 500

Roundhill L-11 900

Perryride L-16 1300

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Input:
σ BRANCH_NAME="perryride" (LOAN)

Output:

BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT

Perryride L-15 1500

Perryride L-16 1300

Project Operation (∏):

• Project operation is used to project only a certain set of attributes of a relation. In
simple words, If you want to see only the names all of the students in
the Student table, then you can use Project Operation.
• It will only project or show the columns or attributes asked for, and will also remove
duplicate data from the columns.
Syntax of Project Operator (∏)
∏ column_name1, column_name2, .... , column_nameN(table_name)

Example:
∏Name, Age(Student)
Above statement will show us only the Name and Age columns for all the rows of data
in Student table.

Example: CUSTOMER RELATION

NAME STREET CITY

Jones Main Harrison

Smith North Rye

Hays Main Harrison

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 Curry North Rye

Johnson Alma Brooklyn

Brooks Senator Brooklyn

Input:
∏ NAME, CITY (CUSTOMER)

Output:

NAME CITY

Jones Harrison

Smith Rye

Hays Harrison

Curry Rye

Johnson Brooklyn

Brooks Brooklyn

Union Operation (𝖴):

• This operation is used to fetch data from two relations(tables) or temporary

relation(result of another operation).
• For this operation to work, the relations(tables) specified should have same number of
attributes(columns) and same attribute domain. Also the duplicate tuples are
autamatically eliminated from the result.
Syntax: A 𝖴 B
∏Student(RegularClass) 𝖴 ∏Student(ExtraClass)

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Example:

DEPOSITOR RELATION

CUSTOMER_NAME ACCOUNT_NO

Johnson A-101

Smith A-121

Mayes A-321

Turner A-176

Johnson A-273

Jones A-472

Lindsay A-284

BORROW RELATION

CUSTOMER_NAME LOAN_NO

Jones L-17

Smith L-23

Hayes L-15

Jackson L-14

Curry L-93

Smith L-11

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 Williams L-17

Input:
∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) 𝖴 ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME

Johnson

Smith

Hayes

Turner

Jones

Lindsay

Jackson

Curry

Williams

Mayes

Set Difference (-):

This operation is used to find data present in one relation and not present in the second
relation. This operation is also applicable on two relations, just like Union operation.
Syntax: A - B
where A and B are relations.
For example, if we want to find name of students who attend the regular class but not the
extra class, then, we can use the below operation:
∏Student(RegularClass) - ∏Student(ExtraClass)

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Input: ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∩ ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)

CUSTOMER_NAME

Smith

Jones

Cartesian Product (X):

This is used to combine data from two different relations(tables) into one and fetch data from
the combined relation.
Syntax: A X B
For example, if we want to find the information for Regular Class and Extra Class which are
conducted during morning, then, we can use the following operation:
σtime = 'morning' (RegularClass X ExtraClass)
For the above query to work, both RegularClass and ExtraClass should have the
attribute time.
Notation: E X D

EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT

1 Smith A

2 Harry C

3 John B

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DEPARTMENT

DEPT_NO DEPT_NAME

A Marketing

B Sales

C Legal

Input:
EMPLOYEE X DEPARTMENT

Output:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT DEPT_NO DEPT_NAME

1 Smith A A Marketing

1 Smith A B Sales

1 Smith A C Legal

2 Harry C A Marketing

2 Harry C B Sales

2 Harry C C Legal

3 John B A Marketing

3 John B B Sales

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 3 John B C Legal

Rename Operation (ρ):

This operation is used to rename the output relation for any query operation which returns
result like Select, Project etc. Or to simply rename a relation(table)
Syntax: ρ(RelationNew, RelationOld)

The rename operation is used to rename the output relation. It is denoted by rho (ρ).

Example: We can use the rename operator to rename STUDENT relation to STUDENT1.
ρ(STUDENT1, STUDENT)

Join in DBMS:

• A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related
column between them.
• Join in DBMS is a binary operation which allows you to combine join product and
selection in one single statement.
• The goal of creating a join condition is that it helps you to combine the data from two
or more DBMS tables.
• The tables in DBMS are associated using the primary key and foreign keys.

Types of SQL JOIN

1. INNER JOIN
2. LEFT JOIN

3. RIGHT JOIN
4. FULL JOIN

Table name: EMPLOYEE

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EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

PROJECT

PROJECT_NO EMP_ID DEPARTMENT

101 1 Testing

102 2 Development

103 3 Designing

104 4 Development

1. INNER JOIN

In SQL, INNER JOIN selects records that have matching values in both tables as long as the
condition is satisfied.

It returns the combination of all rows from both the tables where the condition satisfies.

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Syntax
SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2
FROM table1 INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Query
SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT
FROM EMPLOYEE INNER JOIN PROJECT
ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;

Output

EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT

Angelina Testing

Robert Development

Christian Designing

Kristen Development

2. LEFT JOIN

The SQL left join returns all the values from left table and the matching values from the right
table. If there is no matching join value, it will return NULL.

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Syntax
SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2 FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Query
SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT
FROM EMPLOYEE LEFT JOIN PROJECT
ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;

Output

EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT

Angelina Testing

Robert Development

Christian Designing

Kristen Development

Russell NULL

Marry NULL

3. RIGHT JOIN

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In SQL, RIGHT JOIN returns all the values from the values from the rows of right table and
the matched values from the left table. If there is no matching in both tables, it will return
NULL.

Syntax
SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2
FROM table1 RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Query
SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT
FROM EMPLOYEE RIGHT JOIN PROJECT
ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;

Output

EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT

Angelina Testing

Robert Development

Christian Designing

Kristen Development

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4. FULL JOIN

In SQL, FULL JOIN is the result of a combination of both left and right outer join. Join
tables have all the records from both tables. It puts NULL on the place of matches not found.

Syntax
SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2
FROM table1 FULL JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Query
SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT
FROM EMPLOYEE
FULL JOIN PROJECT
ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;

Output

EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT

Angelina Testing

Robert Development

Christian Designing

Kristen Development

Russell NULL

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 Marry NULL

Division Operator in SQL

Division Operator (÷): Division operator A÷B can be applied if and only if:
• Attributes of B is proper subset of Attributes of A.
• The relation returned by division operator will have attributes = (All attributes of A –
All Attributes of B)
• The relation returned by division operator will return those tuples from relation A
which are associated to every B’s tuple.

The division operator is used when we have to evaluate queries which contain the
keyword ALL.

Table 1: Course_Taken → It consists of the names of Students against the courses that they
have taken.

Student_Name Course

Robert Databases

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Robert Programming Languages

David Databases

David Operating Systems

Hannah Programming Languages

Hannah Machine Learning

Tom Operating Systems

Table 2: Course_Required → It consists of the courses that one is required to take in order
to graduate.

Course

Databases

Programming Languages

1. Find all the students

Create a set of all students that have taken courses. This can be done easily using the
following command.

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CREATE TABLE AllStudents AS SELECT DISTINCT Student_Name FROM
Course_Taken
This command will return the table AllStudents, as the resultset:

Student_name

Robert

David

Hannah

Tom

2. Find all the students and the courses required to graduate

Next, we will create a set of students and the courses they need to graduate. We can express
this in the form of Cartesian Product of AllStudents and Course_Required using the
following command.
CREATE table StudentsAndRequired AS
SELECT AllStudents.Student_Name, Course_Required.Course
FROM AllStudents, Course_Required
Now the new resultset - table StudentsAndRequired will be:

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 52

Student_Name Course

Robert Databases

Robert Programming Languages

David Databases

David Programming Languages

Hannah Databases

Hannah Programming Languages

Tom Databases

Tom Programming Languages

Relational Calculus:

Relational calculus is a non-procedural query language that tells the system what data to be
retrieved but doesn’t tell how to retrieve it. Relational Calculus exists in two forms:

1. Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC)

2. Domain Relational Calculus (DRC)
Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC)

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Tuple relational calculus is used for selecting those tuples that satisfy the given condition.
Table: Student

First_Name Last_Name Age

Ajeet Singh 30
Chaitanya Singh 31
Rajeev Bhatia 27
Carl Pratap 28
Lets write relational calculus queries.
Query to display the last name of those students where age is greater than 30
{ t.Last_Name | Student(t) AND t.age >
30 }
In the above query you can see two parts separated by | symbol. The second part is where we
define the condition and in the first part we specify the fields which we want to display for
the selected tuples.
The result of the above query would be:
Last
_Na
Si
Query to display all the details of students where Last name is ‘Singh’
me
ng
h{ t | Student(t) AND t.Last_Name =
'Singh' }
Output:
First_Name
Ajeet
Last_Name
Singh
Age
30
Chaitanya
Ex: Singh 31

Table-1: Customer

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 54

 Customer name Street City

Saurabh A7 Patiala

Mehak B6 Jalandhar

Sumiti D9 Ludhiana

Ria A5 Patiala

Table-2: Branch

Branch name Branch city

ABC Patiala

DEF Ludhiana

GHI Jalandhar

Table-3: Account

Account number Branch name Balance

1111 ABC 50000

1112 DEF 10000

1113 GHI 9000

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 Account number Branch name Balance

1114 ABC 7000

Table-4: Loan

Loan number Branch name Amount

L33 ABC 10000

L35 DEF 15000

L49 GHI 9000

L98 DEF 65000

Table-5: Borrower

Customer name Loan number

Saurabh L33

Mehak L49

Ria L98

Table-6: Depositor

Customer name Account number

Saurabh 1111

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 Customer name Account number

Mehak 1113

Sumiti 1114

Queries-1: Find the loan number, branch, amount of loans of greater than or equal to
10000 amount.

{t| t ∈ loan 𝖠 t[amount]>=10000}

Resulting relation:

Loan number Branch name Amount

L33 ABC 10000

L35 DEF 15000

L98 DEF 65000

Domain Relational Calculus (DRC)

In domain relational calculus the records are filtered based on the domains.
Again we take the same table to understand how DRC works.
Table: Student
First_Name Last_Name Age

Ajeet Singh 30
Chaitanya Singh 31
Rajeev Bhatia 27
Carl Pratap 28
Query to find the first name and age of students where student age is greater than 27
{< First_Name, Age > | ∈ Student 𝖠 Age
> 27}

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Note:
The symbols used for logical operators are: 𝖠 for AND, ∨ for OR and ┓ for NOT.
Output:
First_N
ame
Ajeet 30 Age
Chaita
nya 31
Carl 28

SQL Basic Structure

1. Basic structure of an SQL expression consists of select, from and where clauses.
o select clause lists attributes to be copied - corresponds to relational
algebra project.
o from clause corresponds to Cartesian product - lists relations to be used.
o where clause corresponds to selection predicate in relational algebra.

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.

The data returned is stored in a result table, called the result-set.

To fetch the entire table or all the fields in the table:
SELECT * FROM table_name;
To fetch individual column data
SELECT column1,column2 FROM table_name

WHERE SQL clause

WHERE clause is used to specify/apply any condition while retrieving, updating or deleting
data from a table. This clause is used mostly with SELECT, UPDATE and DELETEquery.

The basic syntax of the SELECT statement with the WHERE clause is as shown below.
SELECT column1, column2, columnN
FROM table_name

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WHERE [condition]

Example

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

+ + + + +
+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS |
SALARY |
+ + + + +
+
|The
1 | Ramesh
following| code
32 | Ahmedabad
is an example| which would fetch the ID, Name and Salary fields from
2000.00 |
the CUSTOMERS table, where the salary is greater than 2000 −
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
S
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
Q
|This
4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai
would produce result| −
| 6500.00
the following
L
|+ 5 | Hardik
+ | +27 | Bhopal+ | 8500.00 |
>
| ID
6 | |Komal
NAME | 22 | MP
| SALARY || 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy
+ + | +24 | Indore
+ | 10000.00 |
S
|+ 4 | Chaitali
+ | +6500.00+ | +
E +
| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
L
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
E
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
C
+ + + +
T

I
D
,

N
A
M
E
,

S
A
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 59
L
A
From clause:

From clause can be used to specify a sub-query expression in SQL. The relation produced
by the sub-query is then used as a new relation on which the outer query is applied.
• Sub queries in the from clause are supported by most of the SQL implementations.
• The correlation variables from the relations in from clause cannot be used in the sub-
queries in the from clause.

Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2 FROM
(SELECT column_x as C1, column_y FROM table WHERE PREDICATE_X)
as table2
WHERE PREDICATE;

SET Operations
SQL supports few Set operations which can be performed on the table data. These are used to
get meaningful results from data stored in the table, under different special conditions.
In this tutorial, we will cover 4 different types of SET operations, along with example:

1. UNION
2. UNION ALL
3. INTERSECT
4. MINUS

1. Union

o The SQL Union operation is used to combine the result of two or more SQL SELECT
queries.

o In the union operation, all the number of datatype and columns must be same in both
the tables on which UNION operation is being applied.

o The union operation eliminates the duplicate rows from its resultset.

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Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM table1
UNION
SELECT column_name FROM table2;

The First table

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

The Second table

ID NAME

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

Union SQL query will be:

SELECT * FROM First
UNION
SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

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ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

2. Union All

Union All operation is equal to the Union operation. It returns the set without removing
duplication and sorting the data.

Syntax:
SELECT column_name FROM table1
UNION ALL
SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example: Using the above First and Second table.

Union All query will be like:

SELECT * FROM First
UNION ALL
SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

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-ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

3. Intersect

o It is used to combine two SELECT statements. The Intersect operation returns the
common rows from both the SELECT statements.
o In the Intersect operation, the number of datatype and columns must be the same.
o It has no duplicates and it arranges the data in ascending order by default.

Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM table1
INTERSECT
SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example:

Using the above First and Second table.

Intersect query will be:

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SELECT * FROM First
INTERSECT
SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME

3 Jackson

4. Minus

o It combines the result of two SELECT statements. Minus operator is used to display
the rows which are present in the first query but absent in the second query.

o It has no duplicates and data arranged in ascending order by default.

Syntax:
SELECT column_name FROM table1
MINUS
SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example

Using the above First and Second table.

Minus query will be:

SELECT * FROM First
MINUS
SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 64

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

Aggregate functions in SQL

o SQL aggregation function is used to perform the calculations on multiple rows of a
single column of a table. It returns a single value.

o It is also used to summarize the data.

Aggregate Functions
1) Count()
2) Sum()
3) Avg()
4) Min()
5) Max()

1. COUNT FUNCTION

o COUNT function is used to Count the number of rows in a database table. It can work
on both numeric and non-numeric data types.

o COUNT function uses the COUNT(*) that returns the count of all the rows in a
specified table. COUNT(*) considers duplicate and Null.
Count(*): Returns total number of records

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 65

PRODUCT_MAST

PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST

Item1 Com1 2 10 20

Item2 Com2 3 25 75

Item3 Com1 2 30 60

Item4 Com3 5 10 50

Item5 Com2 2 20 40

Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75

Item7 Com1 5 30 150

Item8 Com1 3 10 30

Item9 Com2 2 25 50

Item10 Com3 4 30 120

Example: COUNT()
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:
10

Example: COUNT with WHERE

SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
WHERE RATE>=20;

Output:7

Example: COUNT() with DISTINCT

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 66

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT COMPANY)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:
3
2. SUM Function

Sum function is used to calculate the sum of all selected columns. It works on numeric fields
only.

Syntax
SUM()
or
SUM( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example: SUM()
SELECT SUM(COST)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:
670

Example: SUM() with WHERE

SELECT SUM(COST)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST
WHERE QTY>3;

Output:
320
3. AVG function

The AVG function is used to calculate the average value of the numeric type. AVG function
returns the average of all non-Null values.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 67

Syntax
AVG()

Example:
SELECT AVG(COST)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:
67.00
4. MAX Function

MAX function is used to find the maximum value of a certain column. This function
determines the largest value of all selected values of a column.

Syntax: MAX()

Example:
SELECT MAX(RATE)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
30
5. MIN Function

MIN function is used to find the minimum value of a certain column. This function
determines the smallest value of all selected values of a column.

Syntax:MIN() )

Example: SELECT MIN(RATE)

FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:10

GROUP BY Statement

The GROUP BY statement groups rows that have the same values into summary rows, like
"find the number of customers in each country".

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 68

The GROUP BY statement is often used with aggregate functions (COUNT, MAX, MIN,
SUM, AVG) to group the result-set by one or more columns.

GROUP BY Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
ORDER BY column_name(s);

Example:
• Group By single column: Group By single column means, to place all the rows with
same value of only that particular column in one group. Consider the query as shown
below:
• SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM Employee
• GROUP BY NAME;
The above query will produce the below output:

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 69

Group By multiple columns: Group by multiple column is say for example, GROUP BY
column1, column2. This means to place all the rows with same values of both the
columns column1 and column2 in one group. Consider the below query:
SELECT SUBJECT, YEAR, Count(*)
FROM Student
GROUP BY SUBJECT, YEAR;

HAVING Clause:

We know that WHERE clause is used to place conditions on columns but what if we want
to place conditions on groups?
This is where HAVING clause comes into use. We can use HAVING clause to place
conditions to decide which group will be the part of final result-set. Also we can not use
the aggregate functions like SUM(), COUNT() etc. with WHERE clause. So we have to
use HAVING clause if we want to use any of these functions in the conditions.
Syntax:
SELECT column1, function_name(column2)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column1, column2
HAVING condition
ORDER BY column1, column2;
function_name: Name of the function used for example, SUM() , AVG().

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 70

table_name: Name of the table.
condition: Condition used.
Example:
SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM Employee
GROUP BY NAME
HAVING SUM(SALARY)>3000;

Example

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records.

+ + + + +
+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS |
SALARY |
+ + + + +
+
|Following
1 | Rameshis an
| 32 | Ahmedabad
example, which |would display a record for a similar age count that would be
2000.00 |
more than or equal to 2.
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
SQL
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
>
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00
This would produce the following result −
|SEL
|ECT
+ +
5 | Hardik +| 27 +| Bhopal + | 8500.00
+ |
||ID,
ID
6 | |Komal
NAME || AGE | ADDRESS
22 | MP | SALARY
| 4500.00 | |
|NA
+ +
7 | Muffy +| 24 +
| Indore +| 10000.00
+ |
|ME,
+ 2 | Khilan
+ | 25
+ | Delhi
+ | 1500.00
+ |
AGE+
,
AD
DRE
SS,
SAL
AR
Y
FRO
M
CUS
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 71
TO
ME
+ + + + + +
Nested Queries

In nested queries, a query is written inside a query. The result of inner query is used in
execution of outer query. We will use STUDENT, COURSE,
STUDENT_COURSE tables for understanding nested queries.
STUDENT

S_ID S_NAME S_ADDRESS S_PHONE S_AGE

S1 RAM DELHI 9455123451 18

S2 RAMESH GURGAON 9652431543 18

S3 SUJIT ROHTAK 9156253131 20

S4 SURESH DELHI 9156768971 18

COURSE

C_ID C_NAME

C1 DSA

C2 Programming

C3 DBMS

STUDENT_COURSE

S_ID C_ID

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 72

S1 C1

S1 C3

S2 C1

S3 C2

S4 C2

S4 C3

Example

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

+ + + + +
+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS |
SALARY |
+ + + + +
+
|Now,
1 | Ramesh | 35 |the
let us check Ahmedabad
following |subquery with a SELECT statement.
2000.00 |
S
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3Q| kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4L | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5> | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7S | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+E + + + +
L +

E
C
T
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 73

*
 F
R
O
M
This would produce the following result.

+ +C + + + +
U
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ +S + + + +
T
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
O
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
M
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ +E + + + +
R
Students
S

id W name class_id GPA

H
E
1 Jack Black 3 3.45
R
E
2 Daniel White 1 3.15
S
A
3 Kathrine Star 1 3.85
L
A
4 R Helen Bright 2 3.10
Y

5 Steve May 2 2.40

>

4
5
0
0
DATABASE
) MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 74

;
Teachers

id name subject class_id monthly_salary

1 Elisabeth Grey History 3 2,500

2 Robert Sun Literature [NULL] 2,000

3 John Churchill English 1 2,350

4 Sara Parker Math 2 3,000

Classes

id grade teacher_id number_of_students

1 10 3 21

2 11 4 25

3 12 1 28

SELECT *
FROM students
WHERE GPA > (
SELECT AVG(GPA)
FROM students);

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 75

result:

id name class_id GPA

1 Jack Black 3 3.45

3 Kathrine Star 1 3.85

SELECT AVG(number_of_students)
FROM classes
WHERE teacher_id IN (
SELECT id
FROM teachers
WHERE subject = 'English' OR subject = 'History');

Views in SQL
o Views in SQL are considered as a virtual table. A view also contains rows and
columns.
o To create the view, we can select the fields from one or more tables present in the
database.
o A view can either have specific rows based on certain condition or all the rows of a
table.

Sample table:

Student_Detail

STU_ID NAME ADDRESS

1 Stephan Delhi

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 76

 2 Kathrin Noida

3 David Ghaziabad

4 Alina Gurugram

Student_Marks

STU_ID NAME MARKS AGE

1 Stephan 97 19

2 Kathrin 86 21

3 David 74 18

4 Alina 90 20

5 John 96 18

1. Creating view

A view can be created using the CREATE VIEW statement. We can create a view from a
single table or multiple tables.

Syntax:
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2.....
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 77

2. Creating View from a single table

Query:
CREATE VIEW DetailsView AS
SELECT NAME, ADDRESS
FROM Student_Details
WHERE STU_ID < 4;

Just like table query, we can query the view to view the data.
SELECT * FROM DetailsView;

Output:

NAME ADDRESS

Stephan Delhi

Kathrin Noida

David Ghaziabad

3. Creating View from multiple tables

View from multiple tables can be created by simply include multiple tables in the SELECT
statement.

In the given example, a view is created named MarksView from two tables Student_Detail
and Student_Marks.

Query:
CREATE VIEW MarksView AS
SELECT Student_Detail.NAME, Student_Detail.ADDRESS, Student_Marks.MARKS
FROM Student_Detail, Student_Mark
WHERE Student_Detail.NAME = Student_Marks.NAME;

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 78

 To display data of View MarksView:
SELECT * FROM MarksView;

NAME ADDRESS MARKS

Stephan Delhi 97

Kathrin Noida 86

David Ghaziabad 74

Alina Gurugram 90

4. Deleting View

A view can be deleted using the Drop View statement.

Syntax
1. DROP VIEW view_name;

Example:

If we want to delete the View MarksView, we can do this as:

1. DROP VIEW MarksView;

Uses of a View :
A good database should contain views due to the given reasons:
1. Restricting data access –
Views provide an additional level of table security by restricting access to a
predetermined set of rows and columns of a table.
2. Hiding data complexity –
A view can hide the complexity that exists in a multiple table join.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 79

3. Simplify commands for the user –
Views allows the user to select information from multiple tables without requiring the
users to actually know how to perform a join.
4. Store complex queries –
Views can be used to store complex queries.
5. Rename Columns –
Views can also be used to rename the columns without affecting the base tables
provided the number of columns in view must match the number of columns specified
in select statement. Thus, renaming helps to to hide the names of the columns of the
base tables.
6. Multiple view facility –
Different views can be created on the same table for different users.

Trigger: A trigger is a stored procedure in database which automatically invokes

whenever a special event in the database occurs. For example, a trigger can be invoked
when a row is inserted into a specified table or when certain table columns are being
updated.
Syntax:
create trigger [trigger_name]
[before | after]
{insert | update | delete}
on [table_name]
[for each row]
[trigger_body]
Explanation of syntax:

1. create trigger [trigger_name]: Creates or replaces an existing trigger with the

trigger_name.
2. [before | after]: This specifies when the trigger will be executed.
3. {insert | update | delete}: This specifies the DML operation.
4. on [table_name]: This specifies the name of the table associated with the trigger.
5. [for each row]: This specifies a row-level trigger, i.e., the trigger will be executed for
each row being affected.
6. [trigger_body]: This provides the operation to be performed as trigger is fired

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 80

BEFORE and AFTER of Trigger:
BEFORE triggers run the trigger action before the triggering statement is run.
AFTER triggers run the trigger action after the triggering statement is run.
Example:
Given Student Report Database, in which student marks assessment is recorded. In such
schema, create a trigger so that the total and average of specified marks is automatically
inserted whenever a record is insert.
Here, as trigger will invoke before record is inserted so, BEFORE Tag can be used.
Suppose the database Schema –
mysql> desc Student;
+ -+ + -+ -+ + +
| Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra |
+ -+ + -+ -+ + +
| tid | int(4) | NO | PRI | NULL | auto_increment |
| name | varchar(30) | YES | | NULL | |
| subj1 | int(2) | YES | | NULL | |
| subj2 | int(2) | YES | | NULL | |
| subj3 | int(2) | YES | | NULL | |
| total | int(3) | YES | | NULL | |
| per | int(3) | YES | | NULL | |
+ -+ + -+ -+ + +
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)
SQL Trigger to problem statement.
create trigger stud_marks
before INSERT
on
Student
for each row
set Student.total = Student.subj1 + Student.subj2 + Student.subj3, Student.per =
Student.total * 60 / 100;
Above SQL statement will create a trigger in the student database in which whenever
subjects marks are entered, before inserting this data into the database, trigger will
compute those two values and insert with the entered values. i.e.,
mysql> insert into Student values(0, "ABCDE", 20, 20, 20, 0, 0);

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 81

Query OK, 1 row affected (0.09 sec)

mysql> select * from Student;

+ +- + -+ +- + + +
| tid | name | subj1 | subj2 | subj3 | total | per |
+ +- + -+ +- + + +
| 100 | ABCDE | 20 | 20 | 20 | 60 | 36 |
+ +- + -+ +- + + +
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
In this way trigger can be creates and executed in the databases.
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concepts for SDE interviews with the CS Theory Course at a student-friendly price and
become industry ready.

Advantages of Triggers

These are the following advantages of Triggers:

o Trigger generates some derived column values automatically
o Enforces referential integrity
o Event logging and storing information on table access
o Auditing
o Synchronous replication of tables
o Imposing security authorizations
o Preventing invalid transactions

Creating a trigger:

Syntax for creating trigger:

CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name
{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}
[OF col_name]
ON table_name
[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]

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[FOR EACH ROW]
WHEN (condition)
DECLARE
Declaration-statements
BEGIN
Executable-statements
EXCEPTION
Exception-handling-statements
END;

Here,
o CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name: It creates or replaces an existing
trigger with the trigger_name.
o {BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF} : This specifies when the trigger would be
executed. The INSTEAD OF clause is used for creating trigger on a view.
o {INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}: This specifies the DML operation.
o [OF col_name]: This specifies the column name that would be updated.
o [ON table_name]: This specifies the name of the table associated with the trigger.
o [REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]: This allows you to refer new and old
values for various DML statements, like INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.

o [FOR EACH ROW]: This specifies a row level trigger, i.e., the trigger would be
executed for each row being affected. Otherwise the trigger will execute just once
when the SQL statement is executed, which is called a table level trigger.

o WHEN (condition): This provides a condition for rows for which the trigger would
fire. This clause is valid only for row level triggers.

PL/SQL Trigger Example

Let's take a simple example to demonstrate the trigger. In this example, we are using the
following CUSTOMERS table:

Create table and have records:

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 83

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 Ramesh 23 Allahabad 20000

2 Suresh 22 Kanpur 22000

3 Mahesh 24 Ghaziabad 24000

4 Chandan 25 Noida 26000

5 Alex 21 Paris 28000

6 Sunita 20 Delhi 30000

Create trigger:

Let's take a program to create a row level trigger for the CUSTOMERS table that would fire
for INSERT or UPDATE or DELETE operations performed on the CUSTOMERS table. This
trigger will display the salary difference between the old values and new values:
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER display_salary_changes
BEFORE DELETE OR INSERT OR UPDATE ON customers
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN (NEW.ID > 0)
DECLARE
sal_diff number;
BEGIN
sal_diff := :NEW.salary - :OLD.salary;
dbms_output.put_line('Old salary: ' || :OLD.salary);
dbms_output.put_line('New salary: ' || :NEW.salary);
dbms_output.put_line('Salary difference: ' || sal_diff);
END;

After the execution of the above code at SQL Prompt, it produces the following result.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 84

Trigger created.
Check the salary difference by procedure:

Use the following code to get the old salary, new salary and salary difference after the trigger
created.
DECLARE
total_rows number(2);
BEGIN
UPDATE customers
SET salary = salary + 5000;
IF sql%notfound THEN
dbms_output.put_line('no customers updated');
ELSIF sql%found THEN
total_rows := sql%rowcount;
dbms_output.put_line( total_rows || ' customers updated ');
END IF;
END;
/ Output:
Old salary: 20000
New salary: 25000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 22000
New salary: 27000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 24000
New salary: 29000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 26000
New salary: 31000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 28000
New salary: 33000
Salary difference: 5000

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 85

Old salary: 30000
New salary: 35000
Salary difference: 5000
Note: As many times you executed this code, the old and new both salary is incremented by
6 customers updated
5000 and hence the salary difference is always 5000.

After the execution of above code again, you will get the following result.
Old salary: 25000
New salary: 30000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 27000
New salary: 32000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 29000
New salary: 34000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary:Points
Important 31000
New salary: 36000
Following are the two
Salary difference: 5000very important point and should be noted carefully.
Oldosalary:
OLD33000
and NEW references are used for record level triggers these are not avialable for
table 38000
New salary: level triggers.
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 35000
New salary: 40000
Salary difference: 5000
6 customers updated

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 86

 o If you want to query the table in the same trigger, then you should use the AFTER
keyword, because triggers can query the table or change it again only after the initial
changes are applied and the table is back in a consistent state.

Procedure

The PL/SQL stored procedure or simply a procedure is a PL/SQL block which performs one
or more specific tasks. It is just like procedures in other programming languages.

The procedure contains a header and a body.

o Header: The header contains the name of the procedure and the parameters or
variables passed to the procedure.
o Body: The body contains a declaration section, execution section and exception
section similar to a general PL/SQL block.

How to pass parameters in procedure:

When you want to create a procedure or function, you have to define parameters .There is
three ways to pass parameters in procedure:
1. IN parameters: The IN parameter can be referenced by the procedure or function.
The value of the parameter cannot be overwritten by the procedure or the function.
2. OUT parameters: The OUT parameter cannot be referenced by the procedure or
function, but the value of the parameter can be overwritten by the procedure or
function.

3. INOUT parameters: The INOUT parameter can be referenced by the procedure or

function and the value of the parameter can be overwritten by the procedure or
function.

A procedure may or may not return any value.

PL/SQL Create Procedure

Syntax for creating procedure:

CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name
[ (parameter [,parameter]) ]
IS

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 87

 [declaration_section]
BEGIN
executable_section
[EXCEPTION
exception_section]
END [procedure_name];
Create procedure example

In this example, we are going to insert record in user table. So you need to create user table
first.

Table creation:
create table user(id number(10) primary key,name varchar2(100)); Now write the
procedure code to insert record in user table.

Procedure Code:
create or replace procedure "INSERTUSER"
(id IN NUMBER,
name IN VARCHAR2)
is
begin
insert into user values(id,name);
end;
/

Output:
Procedure created.

PL/SQL program to call procedure

Let's see the code to call above created procedure.

BEGIN
insertuser(101,'Rahul');
dbms_output.put_line('record inserted successfully');
END;
/

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 88

Now, see the "USER" table, you will see one record is inserted.

ID Name

101 Rahul

PL/SQL Drop Procedure

Syntax for drop procedure

DROP PROCEDURE procedure name;

Example of drop procedure

DROP PROCEDURE pro1;

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 89

 UNIT- III

Normalization – Introduction, Non loss decomposition and functional dependencies,

First, Second, and third normal forms – dependency preservation, Boyce/Codd normal
form. Higher Normal Forms - Introduction, Multi-valued dependencies and Fourth
normal form, Join dependencies and Fifth normal form

Decomposition: the process of breaking up or dividing a single relation into two or more sub
relations is called as decomposition of a relation.

Decomposition in DBMS removes redundancy, anomalies and inconsistencies from a

database by dividing the table into multiple tables.

Lossless Decomposition

o If the information is not lost from the relation that is decomposed, then the
decomposition will be lossless.

o The lossless decomposition guarantees that the join of relations will result in the same
relation as it was decomposed.
o The relation is said to be lossless decomposition if natural joins of all the
decomposition give the original relation.

Example:

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 90

 o EMPLOYEE_DEPARTMENT table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_AGE EMP_CITY DEPT_ID DEPT_N

AME

22 Denim 28 Mumbai 827 Sales

33 Alina 25 Delhi 438 Market

ing

46 Stephan 30 Bangalore 869 Financ

e

52 Katherine 36 Mumbai 575 Product

ion

60 Jack 40 Noida 678 Testing

o The above relation is decomposed into two relations EMPLOYEE and

DEPARTMENT
o EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_AGE EMP_CITY

22 Denim 28 Mumbai

33 Alina 25 Delhi

46 Stephan 30 Bangalore

52 Katherine 36 Mumbai

60 Jack 40 Noida

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 91

 o DEPARTMENT table
o Now, when these two relations are joined on the common column "EMP_ID", then
the resultant relation will look like:
Employee ⋈ Department

EMP_I EMP_NAM EMP_AG EMP_CIT DEPT_I DEPT_NAM

D E E Y D E

22 Denim 28 Mumbai 827 Sales

33 Alina 25 Delhi 438 Marketing

46 Stephan 30 Bangalore 869 Finance

52 Katherine 36 Mumbai 575 Production

60 Jack 40 Noida 678 Testing

o Hence, the decomposition is Lossless join decomposition.

Lossy Decomposition

As the name suggests, when a relation is decomposed into two or more relational schemas,
the loss of information is unavoidable when the original relation is retrieved.

Let us see an example −

<EmpInfo>

Emp_ID Emp_Name Emp_Age Emp_Location Dept_ID Dept_Name

E001 Jacob 29 Alabama Dpt1 Operations

E002 Henry 32 Alabama Dpt2 HR

E003 Tom 22 Texas Dpt3 Finance

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 92

Decompose the above table into two tables −

<EmpDetails>

Emp_ID Emp_Name Emp_Age Emp_Location

E001 Jacob 29 Alabama

E002 Henry 32 Alabama

E003 Tom 22 Texas

<DeptDetails>

Dept_ID Dept_Name

Dpt1 Operations

Dpt2 HR

Dpt3 Finance

Now, you won’t be able to join the above tables, since Emp_ID isn’t part of
the DeptDetails relation.

Therefore, the above relation has lossy decomposition.

Dependency Preserving

o It is an important constraint of the database.

o In the dependency preservation, at least one decomposed table must satisfy every
dependency.

o If a relation R is decomposed into relation R1 and R2, then the dependencies of R

either must be a part of R1 or R2 or must be derivable from the combination of
functional dependencies of R1 and R2.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 93

 o For example, suppose there is a relation R (A, B, C, D) with functional dependency
set (A->BC). The relational R is decomposed into R1(ABC) and R2(AD) which is
dependency preserving because FD A->BC is a part of relation R1(ABC).

Multivalued Dependency

o Multivalued dependency occurs when two attributes in a table are independent of each
other but, both depend on a third attribute.

o A multivalued dependency consists of at least two attributes that are dependent on a

third attribute that's why it always requires at least three attributes.

Example: Suppose there is a bike manufacturer company which produces two colors(white
and black) of each model every year.

BIKE_MODEL MANUF_YEAR COLOR

M2011 2008 White

M2001 2008 Black

M3001 2013 White

M3001 2013 Black

M4006 2017 White

M4006 2017 Black

Here columns COLOR and MANUF_YEAR are dependent on BIKE_MODEL and

independent of each other.

In this case, these two columns can be called as multivalued dependent on BIKE_MODEL.
The representation of these dependencies is shown below:

BIKE_MODEL → → MANUF_YEAR
BIKE_MODEL → → COLOR

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 94

This can be read as "BIKE_MODEL multidetermined MANUF_YEAR" and
"BIKE_MODEL multidetermined COLOR".

Normalization: Normalization is a process of organizing the data in database to avoid data

redundancy, insertion anomaly, update anomaly & deletion anomaly.

o Normalization is the process of organizing the data in the database.

o Normalization is used to minimize the redundancy from a relation or set of relations.
It is also used to eliminate the undesirable characteristics like Insertion, Update and
Deletion Anomalies.

o Normalization divides the larger table into the smaller table and links them using
relationship.
o The normal form is used to reduce redundancy from the database table.

Anomalies in DBMS

There are three types of anomalies that occur when the database is not normalized. These are
– Insertion, update and deletion anomaly.

Example: Suppose a manufacturing company stores the employee details in a table named
employee that has four attributes: emp_id for storing employee’s id, emp_name for storing
employee’s name, emp_address for storing employee’s address and emp_dept for storing the
department details in which the employee works. At some point of time the table looks like
this:

Update anomaly: we have two rows for employee Rick as he belongs to two departments of
the company. If we want to update the address of Rick then we have to update the same in
two rows or the data will become inconsistent. If somehow, the correct address gets updated
in one department but not in other then as per the database, Rick would be having two
different addresses, which is not correct and would lead to inconsistent data.

Insert anomaly: Suppose a new employee joins the company, who is under training and
currently not assigned to any department then we would not be able to insert the data into the
table if emp_dept field doesn’t allow nulls.

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Delete anomaly: Suppose, if at a point of time the company closes the department D890 then
deleting the rows that are having emp_dept as D890 would also delete the information of
employee Maggie since she is assigned only to this department.

To overcome these anomalies we need to normalize the data. In the next section we will
discuss about normalization.

First Normal Form (1NF)

o A relation will be 1NF if it contains an atomic value.

o It states that an attribute of a table cannot hold multiple values. It must hold only
single-valued attribute.

o First normal form disallows the multi-valued attribute, composite attribute, and their
combinations.

Example: Relation EMPLOYEE is not in 1NF because of multi-valued attribute

EMP_PHONE.

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_PHONE EMP_STATE

14 John 7272826385, UP
9064738238

20 Harry 8574783832 Bihar

12 Sam 7390372389, Punjab

8589830302

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EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_PHONE EMP_STATE

14 John 7272826385 UP

14 John 9064738238 UP

20 Harry 8574783832 Bihar

12 Sam 7390372389 Punjab

12 Sam 8589830302 Punjab

Ex2:First normal form (1NF)

As per the rule of first normal form, an attribute (column) of a table cannot hold multiple
values. It should hold only atomic values.

Example: Suppose a company wants to store the names and contact details of its employees.
It creates a table that looks like this:

emp_id emp_name emp_address emp_mobile

101 Herschel New Delhi 8912312390

8812121212
102 Jon Kanpur

9900012222

103 Ron Chennai 7778881212

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 9990000123
104 Lester Bangalore
8123450987

Two employees (Jon & Lester) are having two mobile numbers so the company stored them
in the same field as you can see in the table above.

This table is not in 1NF as the rule says “each attribute of a table must have atomic (single)
values”, the emp_mobile values for employees Jon & Lester violates that rule.

To make the table complies with 1NF we should have the data like this:

emp_id emp_name emp_address emp_mobile

101 Herschel New Delhi 8912312390

102 Jon Kanpur 8812121212

102 Jon Kanpur 9900012222

103 Ron Chennai 7778881212

104 Lester Bangalore 9990000123

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104 Lester Bangalore 8123450987

Example 3 –

ID Name Courses

1 A c1, c2

2 E c3

3 M C2, c3

In the above table Course is a multi valued attribute so it is not in 1NF.

Below Table is in 1NF as there is no multi valued attribute

ID Name Course

1 A c1

1 A c2

2 E c3

3 M c2

3 M c3

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Second Normal Form (2NF)

o In the 2NF, relational must be in 1NF.

o In the second normal form, all non-key attributes are fully functional dependent on the
primary key

Second normal form (2NF)

A table is said to be in 2NF if both the following conditions hold:

• Table is in 1NF (First normal form)

• No non-prime attribute is dependent on the proper subset of any candidate key of table.

An attribute that is not part of any candidate key is known as non-prime attribute.

Example: Let's assume, a school can store the data of teachers and the subjects they teach. In
a school, a teacher can teach more than one subject.

TEACHER table

TEACHER_ID SUBJECT TEACHER_AGE

25 Chemistry 30

25 Biology 30

47 English 35

83 Math 38

83 Computer 38

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In the given table, non-prime attribute TEACHER_AGE is dependent on TEACHER_ID
which is a proper subset of a candidate key. That's why it violates the rule for 2NF.

To convert the given table into 2NF, we decompose it into two tables:

TEACHER_DETAIL table:

TEACHER_ID TEACHER_AGE

25 30

47 35

83 38

TEACHER_SUBJECT table:

TEACHER_ID SUBJECT

25 Chemistry

25 Biology

47 English

83 Math

83 Computer

Example: Suppose a school wants to store the data of teachers and the subjects they teach.
They create a table that looks like this: Since a teacher can teach more than one subjects, the
table can have multiple rows for a same teacher.

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teacher_id subject teacher_age

111 Maths 38

111 Physics 38

222 Biology 38

333 Physics 40

333 Chemistry 40

Candidate Keys: {teacher_id, subject}

Non prime attribute: teacher_age

The table is in 1 NF because each attribute has atomic values. However, it is not in 2NF
because non prime attribute teacher_age is dependent on teacher_id alone which is a proper
subset of candidate key. This violates the rule for 2NF as the rule says “no non-prime
attribute is dependent on the proper subset of any candidate key of the table”.

To make the table complies with 2NF we can break it in two tables like this:
teacher_details table:

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teacher_id teacher_age

111 38

222 38

333 40

teacher_subject table:

teacher_id subject

111 Maths

111 Physics

222 Biology

333 Physics

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333 Chemistry

Now the tables comply with Second normal form (2NF).

Second Normal Form –

• a relation must be in first normal form and relation must not contain any partial
dependency.
• A relation is in 2NF if it has No Partial Dependency, i.e., no non-prime attribute
(attributes which are not part of any candidate key) is dependent on any proper
subset of any candidate key of the table.

• Partial Dependency – If the proper subset of candidate key determines non-prime

attribute, it is called partial dependency.

Example 1 – Consider table-3 as following below.

STUD_NO COURSE_NO COURSE_FEE

1 C1 1000

2 C2 1500

1 C4 2000

4 C3 1000

4 C1 1000

2 C5 2000

Note that, there are many courses having the same course fee. }

Here,
COURSE_FEE cannot alone decide the value of COURSE_NO or STUD_NO;

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COURSE_FEE together with STUD_NO cannot decide the value of COURSE_NO;

COURSE_FEE together with COURSE_NO cannot decide the value of STUD_NO;

Hence,
COURSE_FEE would be a non-prime attribute, as it does not belong to the one only
candidate key {STUD_NO, COURSE_NO} ;

But, COURSE_NO -> COURSE_FEE , i.e., COURSE_FEE is dependent on

COURSE_NO, which is a proper subset of the candidate key. Non-prime attribute
COURSE_FEE is dependent on a proper subset of the candidate key, which is a partial
dependency and so this relation is not in 2NF.

To convert the above relation to 2NF,

we need to split the table into two tables such as :

Table 1: STUD_NO, COURSE_NO

Table 2: COURSE_NO, COURSE_FEE

Table 1 Table 2
STUD_NO COURSE_NO COURSE_NO COURSE_FEE
1 C1 C1 1000
2 C2 C2 1500
1 C4 C3 1000
4 C3 C4 2000
4 C1 C5 2000

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Example 2 – Consider following functional dependencies in relation R (A, B , C, D )

AB -> C [A and B together determine C]

BC -> D [B and C together determine D]

In the above relation, AB is the only candidate key and there is no partial dependency,
i.e., any proper subset of AB doesn’t determine any non-prime attribute.

Third Normal Form (3NF)

o A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and not contain any transitive partial
dependency.
o 3NF is used to reduce the data duplication. It is also used to achieve the data integrity.
o If there is no transitive dependency for non-prime attributes, then the relation must be
in third normal form.

A relation is in third normal form if it holds atleast one of the following conditions for every
non-trivial function dependency X → Y.

1. X is a super key.
2. Y is a prime attribute, i.e., each element of Y is part of some candidate key.

Example:

EMPLOYEE_DETAIL table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_ZIP EMP_STATE EMP_CITY

222 Harry 201010 UP Noida

333 Stephan 02228 US Boston

444 Lan 60007 US Chicago

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 555 Katharine 06389 UK Norwich

666 John 462007 MP Bhopal

Super key in the table above:

1. {EMP_ID}, {EMP_ID, EMP_NAME}, {EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, EMP_ZIP}.... so on

Candidate key: {EMP_ID}

Non-prime attributes: In the given table, all attributes except EMP_ID are non-
prime.

Here, EMP_STATE & EMP_CITY dependent on EMP_ZIP and EMP_ZIP dependent

on EMP_ID. The non-prime attributes (EMP_STATE, EMP_CITY) transitively
dependent on super key(EMP_ID). It violates the rule of third normal form.

That's why we need to move the EMP_CITY and EMP_STATE to the new
<EMPLOYEE_ZIP> table, with EMP_ZIP as a Primary key.

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_ZIP

222 Harry 201010

333 Stephan 02228

444 Lan 60007

555 Katharine 06389

666 John 462007

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 EMPLOYEE_ZIP table:

EMP_ZIP EMP_STATE EMP_CITY

201010 UP Noida

02228 US Boston

60007 US Chicago

06389 UK Norwich

462007 MP Bhopal

Third Normal form (3NF)

A table design is said to be in 3NF if both the following conditions hold:

• Table must be in 2NF

• Transitive functional dependency of non-prime attribute on any super key should be
removed.

An attribute that is not part of any candidate key is known as non-prime attribute.

In other words 3NF can be explained like this: A table is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and for each
functional dependency X-> Y at least one of the following conditions hold:

• X is a super key of table

• Y is a prime attribute of table

An attribute that is a part of one of the candidate keys is known as prime attribute.

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Example: Suppose a company wants to store the complete address of each employee, they
create a table named employee_details that looks like this:

emp_id emp_name emp_zip emp_state emp_city emp_district

1001 John 282005 UP Agra Dayal Bagh

1002 Ajeet 222008 TN Chennai M-City

1006 Lora 282007 TN Chennai Urrapakkam

1101 Lilly 292008 UK Pauri Bhagwan

1201 Steve 222999 MP Gwalior Ratan

Super keys: {emp_id}, {emp_id, emp_name}, {emp_id, emp_name, emp_zip}…so on

Candidate Keys: {emp_id}

Non-prime attributes: all attributes except emp_id are non-prime as they are not part of any
candidate keys.

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Here, emp_state, emp_city & emp_district dependent on emp_zip. And, emp_zip is
dependent on emp_id that makes non-prime attributes (emp_state, emp_city & emp_district)
transitively dependent on super key (emp_id). This violates the rule of 3NF.

To make this table complies with 3NF we have to break the table into two tables to remove
the transitive dependency:

employee table:

emp_id emp_name emp_zip

1001 John 282005

1002 Ajeet 222008

1006 Lora 282007

1101 Lilly 292008

1201 Steve 222999

employee_zip table:

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emp_zip emp_state emp_city emp_district

282005 UP Agra Dayal Bagh

222008 TN Chennai M-City

282007 TN Chennai Urrapakkam

292008 UK Pauri Bhagwan

222999 MP Gwalior Ratan

Third Normal Form –

A relation is in third normal form, if there is no transitive dependency for non-prime

attributes as well as it is in second normal form.
A relation is in 3NF if at least one of the following condition holds in every non-trivial
function dependency X –> Y
1. X is a super key.
2. Y is a prime attribute (each element of Y is part of some candidate key).

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Transitive dependency – If A->B and B->C are two FDs then A->C is called transitive
dependency.
• Example 1 – In relation STUDENT given in Table 4,
FD set: {STUD_NO -> STUD_NAME, STUD_NO -> STUD_STATE,
STUD_STATE -> STUD_COUNTRY, STUD_NO -> STUD_AGE}
Candidate Key: {STUD_NO}

For this relation in table 4, STUD_NO -> STUD_STATE and STUD_STATE ->
STUD_COUNTRY are true. So STUD_COUNTRY is transitively dependent on
STUD_NO. It violates the third normal form. To convert it in third normal form,
we will decompose the relation STUDENT (STUD_NO, STUD_NAME,
STUD_PHONE, STUD_STATE, STUD_COUNTRY_STUD_AGE) as:
STUDENT (STUD_NO, STUD_NAME, STUD_PHONE, STUD_STATE,
STUD_AGE)
STATE_COUNTRY (STATE, COUNTRY)

• Example 2 – Consider relation R(A, B, C, D, E)

A -> BC,
CD -> E,
B -> D,
E -> A
All possible candidate keys in above relation are {A, E, CD, BC} All attribute
are on right sides of all functional dependencies are prime.

Fourth normal form (4NF)

o A relation will be in 4NF if it is in Boyce Codd normal form and has no multi-valued
dependency.

o For a dependency A → B, if for a single value of A, multiple values of B exists, then

the relation will be a multi-valued dependency.

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Example

STUDENT

STU_ID COURSE HOBBY

21 Computer Dancing

21 Math Singing

34 Chemistry Dancing

74 Biology Cricket

59 Physics Hockey

The given STUDENT table is in 3NF, but the COURSE and HOBBY are two independent
entity. Hence, there is no relationship between COURSE and HOBBY.

In the STUDENT relation, a student with STU_ID, 21 contains two

courses, Computer and Math and two hobbies, Dancing and Singing. So there is a Multi-
valued dependency on STU_ID, which leads to unnecessary repetition of data.

So to make the above table into 4NF, we can decompose it into two tables:

STUDENT_COURSE

STU_ID COURSE

21 Computer

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 21 Math

34 Chemistry

74 Biology

59 Physics

STUDENT_HOBBY

STU_ID HOBBY

21 Dancing

21 Singing

34 Dancing

74 Cricket

59 Hockey

Fourth normal form (4NF)

o A relation will be in 4NF if it is in Boyce Codd normal form and has no multi-valued
dependency.

o For a dependency A → B, if for a single value of A, multiple values of B exists, then

the relation will be a multi-valued dependency.

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Example

STUDENT

STU_ID COURSE HOBBY

21 Computer Dancing

21 Math Singing

34 Chemistry Dancing

74 Biology Cricket

59 Physics Hockey

The given STUDENT table is in 3NF, but the COURSE and HOBBY are two independent
entity. Hence, there is no relationship between COURSE and HOBBY.

In the STUDENT relation, a student with STU_ID, 21 contains two

courses, Computer and Math and two hobbies, Dancing and Singing. So there is a Multi-
valued dependency on STU_ID, which leads to unnecessary repetition of data.

So to make the above table into 4NF, we can decompose it into two tables:

STUDENT_COURSE

STU_ID COURSE

21 Computer

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 21 Math

34 Chemistry

74 Biology

59 Physics

STUDENT_HOBBY

STU_ID HOBBY

21 Dancing

21 Singing

34 Dancing

74 Cricket

59 Hockey

Example – Consider the database table of a class whaich has two relations R1 contains
student ID(SID) and student name (SNAME) and R2 contains course id(CID) and course
name (CNAME).

Table – R1(SID, SNAME)

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 SID SNAME

S1 A

S2 B

CID CNAME

C1 C

C2 D

When there cross product is done it resulted in multivalued dependencies:

Table – R1 X R2

SID SNAME CID CNAME

S1 A C1 C

S1 A C2 D

S2 B C1 C

S2 B C2 D

Multivalued dependencies (MVD) are:

SID->->CID; SID->->CNAME; SNAME->->CNAME

Multivalued Dependency

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 o Multivalued dependency occurs when two attributes in a table are independent of each
other but, both depend on a third attribute.

o A multivalued dependency consists of at least two attributes that are dependent on a

third attribute that's why it always requires at least three attributes.

Example: Suppose there is a bike manufacturer company which produces two colors(white
and black) of each model every year.

BIKE_MODEL MANUF_YEAR COLOR

M2011 2008 White

M2001 2008 Black

M3001 2013 White

M3001 2013 Black

M4006 2017 White

M4006 2017 Black

Here columns COLOR and MANUF_YEAR are dependent on BIKE_MODEL and

independent of each other.

In this case, these two columns can be called as multivalued dependent on BIKE_MODEL.
The representation of these dependencies is shown below:

1. BIKE_MODEL → → MANUF_YEAR
2. BIKE_MODEL → → COLOR

This can be read as "BIKE_MODEL multidetermined MANUF_YEAR" and

"BIKE_MODEL multidetermined COLOR".

Join Dependency

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 o Join decomposition is a further generalization of Multivalued dependencies.
o If the join of R1 and R2 over C is equal to relation R, then we can say that a join
dependency (JD) exists.
o Where R1 and R2 are the decompositions R1(A, B, C) and R2(C, D) of a given
relations R (A, B, C, D).
o Alternatively, R1 and R2 are a lossless decomposition of R.
o A JD ⋈ {R1, R2,..., Rn} is said to hold over a relation R if R1, R2, .... , Rn is a
lossless-join decomposition.

o The *(A, B, C, D), (C, D) will be a JD of R if the join of join's attribute is equal to the
relation R.

o Here, *(R1, R2, R3) is used to indicate that relation R1, R2, R3 and so on are a JD of
R.

Fifth normal form (5NF)

o A relation is in 5NF if it is in 4NF and not contains any join dependency and joining
should be lossless.

o 5NF is satisfied when all the tables are broken into as many tables as possible in order
to avoid redundancy.

o 5NF is also known as Project-join normal form (PJ/NF).

Example

SUBJECT LECTURER SEMESTER

Computer Anshika Semester 1

Computer John Semester 1

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 Math John Semester 1

Math Akash Semester 2

Chemistry Praveen Semester 1

In the above table, John takes both Computer and Math class for Semester 1 but he doesn't
take Math class for Semester 2. In this case, combination of all these fields required to
identify a valid data.

Suppose we add a new Semester as Semester 3 but do not know about the subject and who
will be taking that subject so we leave Lecturer and Subject as NULL. But all three columns
together acts as a primary key, so we can't leave other two columns blank.

So to make the above table into 5NF, we can decompose it into three relations P1, P2 & P3:

P1

SEMESTER SUBJECT

Semester 1 Computer

Semester 1 Math

Semester 1 Chemistry

Semester 2 Math

P2

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SUBJECT LECTURER

Computer Anshika

Computer John

Math John

Math Akash

Chemistry Praveen

P3

SEMSTER LECTURER

Semester 1 Anshika

Semester 1 John

Semester 1 John

Semester 2 Akash

Semester 1 Praveen

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 UNIT-4

TRANSACTION MANAGEMENT IN DBMS:

• A transaction is a set of logically related operations.

• Now that we understand what is transaction, we should understand what are the
problems associated with it.

• The main problem that can happen during a transaction is that the transaction can fail
before finishing the all the operations in the set. This can happen due to power failure,
system crash etc.

• This is a serious problem that can leave database in an inconsistent state. Assume that
transaction fail after third operation (see the example above) then the amount would
be deducted from your account but your friend will not receive it.

To solve this problem, we have the following two operations

Commit: If all the operations in a transaction are completed successfully then commit those
changes to the database permanently.

Rollback: If any of the operation fails then rollback all the changes done by previous
operations.

STATES OF TRANSACTION
Transactions can be implemented using SQL queries and Server. In the below-given
diagram, you can see how transaction states works.

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Active state

o The active state is the first state of every transaction. In this state, the transaction is
being executed.

o For example: Insertion or deletion or updating a record is done here. But all the
records are still not saved to the database.

Partially committed

o In the partially committed state, a transaction executes its final operation, but the data
is still not saved to the database.

o In the total mark calculation example, a final display of the total marks step is
executed in this state.

Committed

A transaction is said to be in a committed state if it executes all its operations successfully. In

this state, all the effects are now permanently saved on the database system.

Failed state

o If any of the checks made by the database recovery system fails, then the transaction
is said to be in the failed state.

o In the example of total mark calculation, if the database is not able to fire a query to
fetch the marks, then the transaction will fail to execute.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Page 123

Aborted

o If any of the checks fail and the transaction has reached a failed state then the
database recovery system will make sure that the database is in its previous consistent
state. If not then it will abort or roll back the transaction to bring the database into a
consistent state.

o If the transaction fails in the middle of the transaction then before executing the
transaction, all the executed transactions are rolled back to its consistent state.

o After aborting the transaction, the database recovery module will select one of the two
operations:
1. Re-start the transaction
2. Kill the transaction

TRANSACTION PROPERTY

The transaction has the four properties. These are used to maintain consistency in a database,
before and after the transaction.

Property of Transaction
1. Atomicity
2. Consistency
3. Isolation
4. Durability

Atomicity
o It states that all operations of the transaction take place at once if not, the transaction
is aborted.

o There is no midway, i.e., the transaction cannot occur partially. Each transaction is
treated as one unit and either run to completion or is not executed at all.

Atomicity involves the following two operations:

Abort: If a transaction aborts then all the changes made are not visible.

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Commit: If a transaction commits then all the changes made are visible.

Consistency
o The integrity constraints are maintained so that the database is consistent before and
after the transaction.

o The execution of a transaction will leave a database in either its prior stable state or a
new stable state.
o The consistent property of database states that every transaction sees a consistent
database instance.

o The transaction is used to transform the database from one consistent state to another
consistent state.

Isolation
o It shows that the data which is used at the time of execution of a transaction cannot be
used by the second transaction until the first one is completed.

o In isolation, if the transaction T1 is being executed and using the data item X, then
that data item can't be accessed by any other transaction T2 until the transaction T1
ends.

o The concurrency control subsystem of the DBMS enforced the isolation property.

Durability
o The durability property is used to indicate the performance of the database's
consistent state. It states that the transaction made the permanent changes.

o They cannot be lost by the erroneous operation of a faulty transaction or by the

system failure. When a transaction is completed, then the database reaches a state
known as the consistent state. That consistent state cannot be lost, even in the event of
a system's failure.

o The recovery subsystem of the DBMS has the responsibility of Durability property.

IMPLEMENTATION OF ATOMICITY AND DURABILITY

The recovery-management component of a database system can support atomicity

and durability by a variety of schemes.

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 E.g. the shadow-database scheme:

Shadow copy:

• In the shadow-copy scheme, a transaction that wants to update the database first creates a
complete copy of the database.
• All updates are done on the new database copy, leaving the original copy, the shadow copy,
untouched. If at any point the transaction has to be aborted, the system merely deletes the
new copy. The old copy of the database has not been affected.
• This scheme is based on making copies of the database, called shadow copies, assumes that
only one transaction is active at a time.
• The scheme also assumes that the database is simply a file on disk. A pointer called db-
pointer is maintained on disk; it points to the current copy of the database.

If the transaction completes, it is committed as follows:

• First, the operating system is asked to make sure that all pages of the new copy of the
database have been written out to disk. (Unix systems use the flush command for this
purpose.)
• After the operating system has written all the pages to disk, the database system updates the
pointer db-pointer to point to the new copy of the database;
• the new copy then becomes the current copy of the database. The old copy of the database is
then deleted.

Figure below depicts the scheme, showing the database state before and after the update.

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SCHEDULE

A series of operation from one transaction to another transaction is known as schedule. It is

used to preserve the order of the operation in each of the individual transaction.

1. SERIAL SCHEDULE

The serial schedule is a type of schedule where one transaction is executed completely before
starting another transaction. In the serial schedule, when the first transaction completes its
cycle, then the next transaction is executed.

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 For example: Suppose there are two transactions T1 and T2 which have some operations. If
it has no interleaving of operations, then there are the following two possible outcomes:

1. Execute all the operations of T1 which was followed by all the operations of T2.
2. Execute all the operations of T1 which was followed by all the operations of T2.

o In the given (a) figure, Schedule A shows the serial schedule where T1 followed by
T2.
o In the given (b) figure, Schedule B shows the serial schedule where T2 followed by
T1.

2. NON-SERIAL SCHEDULE
o If interleaving of operations is allowed, then there will be non-serial schedule.
o It contains many possible orders in which the system can execute the individual
operations of the transactions.

o In the given figure (c) and (d), Schedule C and Schedule D are the non-serial
schedules. It has interleaving of operations.

3. SERIALIZABLE SCHEDULE
o The serializability of schedules is used to find non-serial schedules that allow the
transaction to execute concurrently without interfering with one another.

o It identifies which schedules are correct when executions of the transaction have
interleaving of their operations.

o A non-serial schedule will be serializable if its result is equal to the result of its
transactions executed serially.

SERIALIZABILITY IN DBMS

• Some non-serial schedules may lead to inconsistency of the database.

• Serializability is a concept that helps to identify which non-serial schedules are correct and
will maintain the consistency of the database.

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 Types of Serializability

Serializability is mainly of two types-

1. Conflict Serializability
2. View Serializability

Conflict Serializability

If a given non-serial schedule can be converted into a serial schedule by swapping its non-
conflicting operations, then it is called as a conflict serializable schedule.

Conflicting Operations

Two operations are called as conflicting operations if all the following conditions hold true
for them-

• Both the operations belong to different transactions

• Both the operations are on the same data item
• At least one of the two operations is a write operation

Example-

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 Consider the following schedule-

In this schedule,

• W1 (A) and R2 (A) are called as conflicting operations.

• This is because all the above conditions hold true for them.
Checking Whether a Schedule is Conflict Serializable Or Not-

Follow the following steps to check whether a given non-serial schedule is conflict
serializable or not-

Follow the following steps to check whether a given non-serial schedule is conflict
serializable or not-

Step-01:

Find and list all the conflicting operations.

Step-02:

Start creating a precedence graph by drawing one node for each transaction.

Step-03:

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 Draw an edge for each conflict pair such that if Xi (V) and Yj (V) forms a conflict pair then
draw an edge from Ti to Tj.

• This ensures that Ti gets executed before Tj.

Step-04:

Check if there is any cycle formed in the graph.

• If there is no cycle found, then the schedule is conflict serializable otherwise not.

VIEW SERIALIZABILITY?

View Serializability is a process to find out that a given schedule is view serializable or not.

To check whether a given schedule is view serializable, we need to check whether the given
schedule is View Equivalent to its serial schedule. Lets take an example to understand what I
mean by that.

View Serializability
o A schedule will view serializable if it is view equivalent to a serial schedule.
o If a schedule is conflict serializable, then it will be view serializable.
o The view serializable which does not conflict serializable contains blind writes.

View Equivalent

Two schedules S1 and S2 are said to be view equivalent if they satisfy the following
conditions:

1. Initial Read:

An initial read of both schedules must be the same. Suppose two schedule S1 and S2. In
schedule S1, if a transaction T1 is reading the data item A, then in S2, transaction T1 should
also read A.

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Above two schedules are view equivalent because Initial read operation in S1 is done by T1
and in S2 it is also done by T1.

2. Updated Read

In schedule S1, if Ti is reading A which is updated by Tj then in S2 also, Ti should read A

which is updated by Tj.

3. Final Write

A final write must be the same between both the schedules. In schedule S1, if a transaction
T1 updates A at last then in S2, final writes operations should also be done by T1.

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Above two schedules is view equal because Final write operation in S1 is done by T3
and in S2, the final write operation is also done by T3.

Recoverability of Schedule

Sometimes a transaction may not execute completely due to a software issue, system crash or
hardware failure. In that case, the failed transaction has to be rollback. But

TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVELS IN DBMS

some other transaction may also have used value produced by the failed transaction. So we
also have to rollback those transactions.

The SQL standard defines four isolation levels :

1. Read Uncommitted – Read Uncommitted is the lowest isolation level. In this level,
one transaction may read not yet committed changes made by other transaction, thereby
allowing dirty reads. In this level, transactions are not isolated from each other.
2. Read Committed – This isolation level guarantees that any data read is committed at
the moment it is read. Thus it does not allows dirty read. The transaction holds a read or
write lock on the current row, and thus prevent other transactions from reading,
updating or deleting it.
3. Repeatable Read – This is the most restrictive isolation level. The transaction holds
read locks on all rows it references and writes locks on all rows it inserts, updates, or

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 deletes. Since other transaction cannot read, update or delete these rows, consequently it
avoids non-repeatable read.
4. Serializable – This is the Highest isolation level. A serializable execution is guaranteed
to be serializable. Serializable execution is defined to be an execution of operations in
which concurrently executing transactions appears to be serially executing.

FAILURE CLASSIFICATION

To find that where the problem has occurred, we generalize a failure into the following
categories:

1. Transaction failure
2. System crash
3. Disk failure

1. Transaction failure

The transaction failure occurs when it fails to execute or when it reaches a point from
where it can't go any further. If a few transaction or process is hurt, then this is called
as transaction failure.

Reasons for a transaction failure could be -

1. Logical errors: If a transaction cannot complete due to some code error or an

internal error condition, then the logical error occurs.
2. Syntax error: It occurs where the DBMS itself terminates an active
transaction because the database system is not able to execute it. For
example, The system aborts an active transaction, in case of deadlock or
resource unavailability.

2. System Crash

o System failure can occur due to power failure or other hardware or software
failure. Example: Operating system error.

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 Fail-stop assumption: In the system crash, non-volatile storage is assumed
not to be corrupted.

3. Disk Failure

o It occurs where hard-disk drives or storage drives used to fail frequently. It

was a common problem in the early days of technology evolution.

o Disk failure occurs due to the formation of bad sectors, disk head crash, and
unreachability to the disk or any other failure, which destroy all or part of disk
storage.

CONCURRENT EXECUTION OF TRANSACTION

In the transaction process, a system usually allows executing more than one transaction
simultaneously. This process is called a concurrent execution.

Advantages of concurrent execution of a transaction

1. Decrease waiting time or turnaround time.

2. Improve response time
3. Increased throughput or resource utilization.

Problems with Concurrent Execution

In a database transaction, the two main operations are READ and WRITE operations. So,
there is a need to manage these two operations in the concurrent execution of the transactions
as if these operations are not performed in an interleaved manner, and the data may become
inconsistent. So, the following problems occur with the Concurrent Execution of the
operations:

1: Lost Update Problems (W - W Conflict)

2. Dirty Read Problems (W-R Conflict)

3. Unrepeatable Read Problem (W-R Conflict)

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 1. Lost update problem (Write – Write conflict)
This type of problem occurs when two transactions in database access the same data item and
have their operations in an interleaved manner that makes the value of some database item
incorrect.
If there are two transactions T1 and T2 accessing the same data item value and then update it,
then the second record overwrites the first record.
Example: Let’s take the value of A is 100

Time Transaction T1 Transaction T2

t1 Read(A)

t2 A=A-50

t3 Read(A)

t4 A=A+50

t5 Write(A)

t6 Write(A)

Here,
• At t1 time, T1 transaction reads the value of A i.e., 100.
• At t2 time, T1 transaction deducts the value of A by 50.
• At t3 time, T2 transactions read the value of A i.e., 100.
• At t4 time, T2 transaction adds the value of A by 150.
• At t5 time, T1 transaction writes the value of A data item on the basis of value seen at time t2
i.e., 50.

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• At t6 time, T2 transaction writes the value of A based on value seen at time t4 i.e., 150.
• So at time T6, the update of Transaction T1 is lost because Transaction T2 overwrites the
value of A without looking at its current value.
• Such type of problem is known as the Lost Update Problem.

Dirty read problem (W-R conflict)

This type of problem occurs when one transaction T1 updates a data item of the database, and
then that transaction fails due to some reason, but its updates are accessed by some other
transaction.
Example: Let’s take the value of A is 100

Time Transaction T1 Transaction T2

t1 Read(A)

t2 A=A+20

t3 Write(A)

t4 Read(A)

t5 A=A+30

t6 Write(A)

t7 Write(B)

Here,
• At t1 time, T1 transaction reads the value of A i.e., 100.

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• At t2 time, T1 transaction adds the value of A by 20.
• At t3 time, T1transaction writes the value of A (120) in the database.
• At t4 time, T2 transactions read the value of A data item i.e., 120.
• At t5 time, T2 transaction adds the value of A data item by 30.
• At t6 time, T2transaction writes the value of A (150) in the database.
• At t7 time, a T1 transaction fails due to power failure then it is rollback according to
atomicity property of transaction (either all or none).
• So, transaction T2 at t4 time contains a value which has not been committed in the database.
The value read by the transaction T2 is known as a dirty read.

Unrepeatable read (R-W Conflict)

It is also known as an inconsistent retrieval problem. If a transaction T1 reads a value of data

item twice and the data item is changed by another transaction T2 in between the two read
operation. Hence T1 access two different values for its two read operation of the same data
item.
Example: Let’s take the value of A is 100

Time Transaction T1 Transaction T2

t1 Read(A)

t2 Read(A)

t3 A=A+30

t4 Write(A)

t5 Read(A)

Here,
• At t1 time, T1 transaction reads the value of A i.e., 100.

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• At t2 time, T2transaction reads the value of A i.e., 100.
• At t3 time, T2 transaction adds the value of A data item by 30.
• At t4 time, T2 transaction writes the value of A (130) in the database.
• Transaction T2 updates the value of A. Thus, when another read statement is performed by
transaction T1, it accesses the new value of A, which was updated by T2. Such type of
conflict is known as R-W conflict.

CONCURRENCY CONTROL

Concurrency Control is the working concept that is required for controlling and managing the
concurrent execution of database operations and thus avoiding the inconsistencies in the
database. Thus, for maintaining the concurrency of the database, we have the concurrency
control protocols.

Concurrency Control Protocols

The concurrency control protocols ensure the atomicity, consistency, isolation,

durability and serializability of the concurrent execution of the database transactions.
Therefore, these protocols are categorized as:

o Lock Based Concurrency Control Protocol

o Time Stamp Concurrency Control Protocol
o Validation Based Concurrency Control Protocol

Lock-Based Protocol

In this type of protocol, any transaction cannot read or write data until it acquires an
appropriate lock on it. There are two types of lock:

1. Shared lock:

o It is also known as a Read-only lock. In a shared lock, the data item can only read by
the transaction.
o It can be shared between the transactions because when the transaction holds a lock,
then it can't update the data on the data item.

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2. Exclusive lock:

o In the exclusive lock, the data item can be both reads as well as written by the
transaction.
o This lock is exclusive, and in this lock, multiple transactions do not modify the same
data simultaneously.

TWO-PHASE LOCKING (2PL)

o The two-phase locking protocol divides the execution phase of the transaction into
three parts.

o In the first part, when the execution of the transaction starts, it seeks permission for
the lock it requires.

o In the second part, the transaction acquires all the locks. The third phase is started as
soon as the transaction releases its first lock.

o In the third phase, the transaction cannot demand any new locks. It only releases the
acquired locks.

There are two phases of 2PL:

Growing phase: In the growing phase, a new lock on the data item may be acquired by the
transaction, but none can be released.

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Shrinking phase: In the shrinking phase, existing lock held by the transaction may be
released, but no new locks can be acquired.

In the below example, if lock conversion is allowed then the following phase can happen:

1. Upgrading of lock (from S(a) to X (a)) is allowed in growing phase.

2. Downgrading of lock (from X(a) to S(a)) must be done in shrinking phase.

Example:

The following way shows how unlocking and locking work with 2-PL.

Transaction T1:

o Growing phase: from step 1-3

o Shrinking phase: from step 5-7

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 o Lock point: at 3

Transaction T2:

o Growing phase: from step 2-6

o Shrinking phase: from step 8-9
o Lock point: at 6

4. Strict Two-phase locking (Strict-2PL)

o The first phase of Strict-2PL is similar to 2PL. In the first phase, after acquiring all the
locks, the transaction continues to execute normally.

o The only difference between 2PL and strict 2PL is that Strict-2PL does not release a
lock after using it.

o Strict-2PL waits until the whole transaction to commit, and then it releases all the
locks at a time.

o Strict-2PL protocol does not have shrinking phase of lock release.

TIMESTAMP ORDERING PROTOCOL

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 o The Timestamp Ordering Protocol is used to order the transactions based on their
Timestamps. The order of transaction is nothing but the ascending order of the
transaction creation.

o The priority of the older transaction is higher that's why it executes first. To determine
the timestamp of the transaction, this protocol uses system time or logical counter.

o The lock-based protocol is used to manage the order between conflicting pairs among
transactions at the execution time. But Timestamp based protocols start working as
soon as a transaction is created.

Basic Timestamp ordering protocol works as follows:

1. Check the following condition whenever a transaction Ti issues a Read (X) operation:

o If W_TS(X) >TS(Ti) then the operation is rejected.

o If W_TS(X) <= TS(Ti) then the operation is executed.
o Timestamps of all the data items are updated.

2. Check the following condition whenever a transaction Ti issues a Write(X) operation:

o If TS(Ti) < R_TS(X) then the operation is rejected.

o If TS(Ti) < W_TS(X) then the operation is rejected and Ti is rolled back otherwise the
operation is executed.

Where,

TS(TI) denotes the timestamp of the transaction Ti.

R_TS(X) denotes the Read time-stamp of data-item X.

W_TS(X) denotes the Write time-stamp of data-item X.

Validation Based Protocol

Validation phase is also known as optimistic concurrency control technique. In the validation
based protocol, the transaction is executed in the following three phases:

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 1. Read phase: In this phase, the transaction T is read and executed. It is used to read
the value of various data items and stores them in temporary local variables. It can
perform all the write operations on temporary variables without an update to the
actual database.
2. Validation phase: In this phase, the temporary variable value will be validated
against the actual data to see if it violates the serializability.
3. Write phase: If the validation of the transaction is validated, then the temporary
results are written to the database or system otherwise the transaction is rolled back.

Here each phase has the following different timestamps:

Start(Ti): It contains the time when Ti started its execution.

Validation (Ti): It contains the time when Ti finishes its read phase and starts its validation
phase.

Finish(Ti): It contains the time when Ti finishes its write phase.

o This protocol is used to determine the time stamp for the transaction for serialization
using the time stamp of the validation phase, as it is the actual phase which
determines if the transaction will commit or rollback.

o Hence TS(T) = validation(T).

o The serializability is determined during the validation process. It can't be decided in
advance.

o While executing the transaction, it ensures a greater degree of concurrency and also
less number of conflicts.
o Thus it contains transactions which have less number of rollbacks.

THOMAS WRITE RULE

Thomas Write Rule provides the guarantee of serializability order for the protocol. It
improves the Basic Timestamp Ordering Algorithm.

The basic Thomas write rules are as follows:

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 o If TS(T) < R_TS(X) then transaction T is aborted and rolled back, and operation is
rejected.

o If TS(T) < W_TS(X) then don't execute the W_item(X) operation of the transaction
and continue processing.

o If neither condition 1 nor condition 2 occurs, then allowed to execute the WRITE
operation by transaction Ti and set W_TS(X) to TS(T).

MULTIPLE GRANULARITY

Let's start by understanding the meaning of granularity.

Granularity: It is the size of data item allowed to lock.

Multiple Granularity:

o It can be defined as hierarchically breaking up the database into blocks which can be
locked.
o The Multiple Granularity protocol enhances concurrency and reduces lock overhead.
o It maintains the track of what to lock and how to lock.
o It makes easy to decide either to lock a data item or to unlock a data item. This type of
hierarchy can be graphically represented as a tree.

o The first level or higher level shows the entire database.

o The second level represents a node of type area. The higher level database consists of
exactly these areas.

o The area consists of children nodes which are known as files. No file can be present in
more than one area.

o Finally, each file contains child nodes known as records. The file has exactly those
records that are its child nodes. No records represent in more than one file.
o Hence, the levels of the tree starting from the top level are as follows:
o Database

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 o Area
o File
o Record

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 UNIT-5

Recovery and Atomicity – Log – Based Recovery – Recovery with Concurrent Transactions
– Check Points - Buffer Management – Failure with loss of nonvolatile storage-Advance
Recovery systems- ARIES Algorithm, Remote Backup systems. File organization – various
kinds of indexes - B+ Trees- Query Processing – Relational Query Optimization.

Recovery and Atomicity:

• When a system crashes, it may have several transactions being executed and various
files opened for them to modify the data items.
• But according to ACID properties of DBMS, atomicity of transactions as a whole
must be maintained, that is, either all the operations are executed or none.
• Database recovery means recovering the data when it get deleted, hacked or
damaged accidentally.
• Atomicity is must whether is transaction is over or not it should reflect in the database
permanently or it should not effect the database at all.

When a DBMS recovers from a crash, it should maintain the following −

• It should check the states of all the transactions, which were being executed.

• A transaction may be in the middle of some operation; the DBMS must ensure
the atomicity of the transaction in this case.

• It should check whether the transaction can be completed now or it needs to be

rolled back.

• No transactions would be allowed to leave the DBMS in an inconsistent state.

There are two types of techniques, which can help a DBMS in recovering as well as
maintaining the atomicity of a transaction −

• Maintaining the logs of each transaction, and writing them onto some stable storage
before actually modifying the database.

• Maintaining shadow paging, where the changes are done on a volatile memory, and
later, the actual database is updated.

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Log-Based Recovery

o The log is a sequence of records. Log of each transaction is maintained in some stable
storage so that if any failure occurs, then it can be recovered from there.
o If any operation is performed on the database, then it will be recorded in the log.
o But the process of storing the logs should be done before the actual transaction is
applied in the database.

There are two approaches to modify the database:

1. Deferred database modification:

o The deferred modification technique occurs if the transaction does not modify the
database until it has committed.

o In this method, all the logs are created and stored in the stable storage, and the
database is updated when a transaction commits.

2. Immediate database modification:

o The Immediate modification technique occurs if database modification occurs while

the transaction is still active.

o In this technique, the database is modified immediately after every operation. It

follows an actual database modification.

Recovery with Concurrent Transactions

Concurrency control means that multiple transactions can be executed at the same time and
then the interleaved logs occur. But there may be changes in transaction results so maintain
the order of execution of those transactions.
During recovery, it would be very difficult for the recovery system to backtrack all the logs
and then start recovering.

Recovery with concurrent transactions can be done in the following four ways.

1. Interaction with concurrency control

2. Transaction rollback
3. Checkpoints

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4. Restart recovery
Interaction with concurrency control:

In this scheme, the recovery scheme depends greatly on the concurrency control scheme
that is used. So, to rollback a failed transaction, we must undo the updates performed by the
transaction.

Transaction rollback :
• In this scheme, we rollback a failed transaction by using the log.
• The system scans the log backward a failed transaction, for every log record found in
the log the system restores the data item.
Checkpoints :
• Checkpoints is a process of saving a snapshot of the applications state so that it can
restart from that point in case of failure.
• Checkpoint is a point of time at which a record is written onto the database form the
buffers.
• Checkpoint shortens the recovery process.
• When it reaches the checkpoint, then the transaction will be updated into the database,
and till that point, the entire log file will be removed from the file. Then the log file is
updated with the new step of transaction till the next checkpoint and so on.
• The checkpoint is used to declare the point before which the DBMS was in the
consistent state, and all the transactions were committed.

Restart recovery:

• When the system recovers from a crash, it constructs two lists.

• The undo-list consists of transactions to be undone, and the redo-list consists of
transaction to be redone.
• The system constructs the two lists as follows: Initially, they are both empty. The
system scans the log backward, examining each record, until it finds the first
<checkpoint> record.

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Check Points:

• Checkpoints are a process of saving a snapshot of the applications state so that it can
restart from that point in case of failure.
• Checkpoint is a point of time at which a record is written onto the database form the
buffers.
• Checkpoint shortens the recovery process.
• When it reaches the checkpoint, then the transaction will be updated into the database,
and till that point, the entire log file will be removed from the file. Then the log file is
updated with the new step of transaction till the next checkpoint and so on.

The checkpoint is used to declare the point before which the DBMS was in the consistent
state, and all the transactions were committed.

BUFFER MANAGEMENT
The buffer manager is the software layer that is responsible for bringing pages from
physical disk to main memory as needed. The buffer manages the available main memory by
dividing the main memory into a collection of pages, which we called as buffer pool. The
main memory pages in the buffer pool are called frames.

• Data must be in RAM for DBMS to operate on it!

• Buffer manager hides the fact that not all data is in RAM.

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Buffer Manager

o A Buffer Manager is responsible for allocating space to the buffer in order to store
data into the buffer.
o If a user request a particular block and the block is available in the buffer, the buffer
manager provides the block address in the main memory.
o If the block is not available in the buffer, the buffer manager allocates the block in the
buffer.

o If free space is not available, it throws out some existing blocks from the buffer to
allocate the required space for the new block.

o The blocks which are thrown are written back to the disk only if they are recently
modified when writing on the disk.

o If the user requests such thrown-out blocks, the buffer manager reads the requested
block from the disk to the buffer and then passes the address of the requested block to
the user in the main memory.

o However, the internal actions of the buffer manager are not visible to the programs
that may create any problem in disk-block requests. The buffer manager is just like a
virtual machine

Failure with Loss of Nonvolatile Storage

Loss of Volatile Storage

A volatile storage like RAM stores all the active logs, disk buffers, and related data. In
addition, it stores all the transactions that are being currently executed. What happens if such
a volatile storage crashes abruptly? It would obviously take away all the logs and active

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copies of the database. It makes recovery almost impossible, as everything that is required to
recover the data is lost.

Following techniques may be adopted in case of loss of volatile storage −

• We can have checkpoints at multiple stages so as to save the contents of the database
periodically.

• A state of active database in the volatile memory can be periodically dumped onto a
stable storage, which may also contain logs and active transactions and buffer
blocks.

• <dump> can be marked on a log file, whenever the database contents are dumped
from a non-volatile memory to a stable one.

Recovery

• When the system recovers from a failure, it can restore the latest dump.

• It can maintain a redo-list and an undo-list as checkpoints.

• It can recover the system by consulting undo-redo lists to restore the state of all
transactions up to the last checkpoint.

ARIES Algorithm:

Algorithm for Recovery and Isolation Exploiting Semantics (ARIES) is based on the Write
Ahead Log (WAL) protocol. Every update operation writes a log record which is one of the
following :

1. Undo-only log record:

Only the before image is logged. Thus, an undo operation can be done to retrieve the
old data.
2. Redo-only log record:
Only the after image is logged. Thus, a redo operation can be attempted.
3. Undo-redo log record:
Both before images and after images are logged.

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 • In it, every log record is assigned a unique and monotonically increasing log
sequence number (LSN).

• Every data page has a page LSN field that is set to the LSN of the log record
corresponding to the last update on the page.

• WAL requires that the log record corresponding to an update make it to stable
storage before the data page corresponding to that update is written to disk.

• For performance reasons, each log write is not immediately forced to disk. A log tail
is maintained in main memory to buffer log writes.

• The log tail is flushed to disk when it gets full. A transaction cannot be declared
committed until the commit log record makes it to disk.

• Once in a while the recovery subsystem writes a checkpoint record to the log. The
checkpoint record contains the transaction table and the dirty page table.

• A master log record is maintained separately, in stable storage, to store the LSN of
the latest checkpoint record that made it to disk.

• On restart, the recovery subsystem reads the master log record to find the
checkpoint’s LSN, reads the checkpoint record, and starts recovery from there on.

The recovery process actually consists of 3 phases:

1. Analysis:
The recovery subsystem determines the earliest log record from which the next pass
must start. It also scans the log forward from the checkpoint record to construct a
snapshot of what the system looked like at the instant of the crash.
2. Redo:
Starting at the earliest LSN, the log is read forward and each update redone.
3. Undo:
The log is scanned backward and updates corresponding to loser transactions are
undone.

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Remote Backup

Remote backup provides a sense of security in case the primary location where the database
is located gets destroyed. Remote backup can be offline or real-time or online. In case it is
offline, it is maintained manually.

Online backup systems are more real-time and lifesavers for database administrators and
investors. An online backup system is a mechanism where every bit of the real-time data is
backed up simultaneously at two distant places. One of them is directly connected to the
system and the other one is kept at a remote place as backup.

As soon as the primary database storage fails, the backup system senses the failure and
switches the user system to the remote storage. Sometimes this is so instant that the users
can’t even realize a failure.

File – A file is named collection of related information that is recorded on secondary

storage such as magnetic disks, magnetic tables and optical disks.

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