Waves and Interference

Dr. Subhasis Samanta

1 / 79
Q: What is the progressive wave

� Progressive waves are also called travelling waves.

They are called travelling waves because they
continuously move in the direction of motion.
� In progressive waves, each particle present in the
medium will execute the simple harmonic motion
at its mean position. However, other particles in
the surrounding area are also affected by this
simple harmonic motion.

2 / 79
Q: What are the two types of progressive
waves?
1. Longitudinal
2. Transverse

3 / 79
Q: Write the differential wave equation in
one space dimension

Suppose, the wave u(x, t) is function of one space

dimension x and time t.
The differential wave equation can be written as

∂ 2u 2 ∂ 2
u
2
=v
∂t ∂x2
where v is the velocity of the wave.

4 / 79
Q: Write an equation for a progressive
wave.
Mathematical form of the wave propagating along
x-axis:
h(x, t) = h0 sin(ωt − kx)

� h is the displacement (which can be either

longitudinal or transverse).
� h0 is the maximum displacement, also called the
amplitude of the wave.
� k (= 2π
λ
) is the wave vector with the wave length λ.

5 / 79
Q: Define the velocity of the wave
h(x, t) = h0 sin(ωt − kx).
� The phase velocity of the wave is defined as
ω
v= .
k

� Note: (ωt − kx) is dimensionless.

[k][x] = [ω][t]
⇒ [v] = [x]
[t] =
[ω]
[k]
[x] [X]
[t] =
[T]
� 2π � 1
[ω] = T = [T]
� 2π � 1
[k] = λ = [X]

6 / 79
Q: Write a similar equation of a wave
propagating along negative x-axis.

Ans:

h(x, t) = h0 sin(ωt + kx)

7 / 79
Q: Deduce the differential equation of a
wave motion for a progressive wave
travelling in positive x-direction.
Mathematical form of the wave propagating along
positive x-axis:
u(x, t) = a sin(ωt − kx + φ) (1)
where a, ω, k, φ....
Differentiate w.r.t. t
∂u ∂(ωt)
= a cos(ωt − kx + φ) = ωa cos(ωt − kx + φ)
∂t ∂t
Differentiate again w.r.t. t
∂ 2u ∂(ωt) 2
2
= ωa(−1) sin(ωt − kx + φ) = −ω(ωu) = −ω u
∂t ∂t
(using Eq. (1))
1 ∂ 2u
or, 2 2
= −u (2) 8 / 79
ω ∂t
Similarly, differentiate w.r.t. x
∂u ∂(−kx)
= a cos(ωt − kx + φ) = −ka cos(ωt − kx + φ)
∂x ∂x
Differentiate again w.r.t. x
∂ 2u ∂(−kx) 2
2
= −ka(−1) sin(ωt − kx + φ) = k(−ku) = −k u
∂x ∂x
1 ∂ 2u
or, 2 2 = −u (3)
k ∂x
From Eqs. (2) and (3) we get
1 ∂ 2u 1 ∂ 2u
= 2 2
2
ω ∂t 2 k ∂x
∂ 2u ω2 ∂ 2u 2 ∂ 2
u
or, = 2 2 =v
∂t 2 k ∂x ∂x2
∂ 2u 2 ∂ 2
u
2
=v
∂t ∂x2
where v = ω
is the phase velocity of the wave. 9 / 79
k
Q: What is interference of light

When two light waves from different coherent sources

meet, the distribution of energy due to one wave is
disturbed by the other. This modification in the
distribution of light energy due to the superposition of
two light waves is called interference of light.

Note: light added to light can produce darkness due to

the interference.

10 / 79
Q: What are different conditions for
interference?
Conditions for interference:
� The sources of the waves must be coherent, which
means they emit identical waves with a constant
phase difference.
� The source of light should be monochromatic.
� The waves of light should have the same frequency.
� The light should be propagated in the same
direction.
� The amplitudes of two waves should be equal or
nearly equal.

11 / 79
Q: What is coherence time?

� For the interference we assumed that the

displacement associated with a wave remained
sinusoidal for all values of time.
� displacement can be written as:

E = A cos(kx − ωt + φ), −∞<t<∞

� This is true at any position (so we can take x = 0):

E = A cos(ωt − φ), −∞<t<∞

→ idealized situation

12 / 79
 � Radiation from an ordinary light source consists of
finite size wave trains.
� τc represents the average duration of the wave
trains; i.e., the electric field remains sinusoidal for
times of the order of τc .
� τc is known as the coherence time of the source.

Note: L = τc c is known as the coherence length.

13 / 79
� For the neon line (λ = 6328Å), τc ∼ 10−10 s and L ∼
few centimeters.
� For cadmium line (λ = 6438Å), τc ∼ 10−9 s and L ∼
30 centimeters.
� Commercially available helium-neon lasers have
τc ∼ 50 ns and L ∼ 15 m.

14 / 79
Q: What is spatial coherence?

� This is related to the finite dimension of the source.

� If we have an extended source, the minima of the
interference pattern produced by one point may
fall on the maxima of the interference pattern
produced by other points of the source then no
fringe pattern will be observed.

15 / 79
If S� S2 − S� S1 = λ/2 then no fringe pattern will be
observed. 16 / 79
Superposition of two sinusoidal waves
Consider two sinusoidal waves (having same
frequency):

x1 (t) = a1 cos(ωt + θ1 )
x2 (t) = a2 cos(ωt + θ2 )

Now, according to the superposition principle, the

resultant displacement x(t) is given by

x(t) =x1 (t) + x2 (t)

=a1 cos(ωt + θ1 ) + a2 cos(ωt + θ2 )

cos(a + b) = cos a cos b − sin a sin b

17 / 79
 x(t) =x1 (t) + x2 (t)
=a1 cos(ωt + θ1 ) + a2 cos(ωt + θ2 )
=a1 [cos ωt cos θ1 − sin ωt sin θ1 ]
+ a2 [cos ωt cos θ2 − sin ωt sin θ2 ]
= cos ωt[a1 cos θ1 + a2 cos θ2 ]
− sin ωt[a1 sin θ1 + a2 sin θ2 ]
= cos ωt[a cos θ] − sin ωt[a sin θ]
=a cos(ωt + θ)
where
a cos θ = a1 cos θ1 + a2 cos θ2 (1)
and
a sin θ = a1 sin θ1 + a2 sin θ2 (2)
18 / 79
Square last two equations and then add:
a2 cos2 θ + a2 sin2 θ =a21 cos2 θ1 + 2a1 a2 cos θ1 cos θ2 + a22 cos2 θ2
+ a21 sin2 θ1 + 2a1 a2 sin θ1 sin θ2 + a22 sin2 θ2
or, a2 =a21 + 2a1 a2 cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + a22
�
a = a21 + a22 + 2a1 a2 cos(θ1 − θ2 )

Eq.2/ Eq.1
a1 sin θ1 + a2 sin θ2
tan θ =
a1 cos θ1 + a2 cos θ2
In terms of intensity:
I ∝ a2
�
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos(φ)
where φ = θ1 − θ2
19 / 79
Superposition: summary
x1 (t) = a1 cos(ωt + θ1 )
x2 (t) = a2 cos(ωt + θ2 )
Now, according to the superposition principle
x(t) =a1 cos(ωt + θ1 ) + a2 cos(ωt + θ2 )
=a cos(ωt + θ),
where �
a= a21 + a22 + 2a1 a2 cos(θ1 − θ2 )
In terms of intensity:
�
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos(θ1 − θ2 )

a1 sin θ1 + a2 sin θ2
tan θ =
a1 cos θ1 + a2 cos θ2
20 / 79
Q: Write down conditions of constructive
interference
�
a= a21 + a22 + 2a1 a2 cos(θ1 − θ2 )
� a becomes maximum when cos(θ1 − θ2 ) = 1.
� �
a = a21 + a22 + 2a1 a2 = (a1 + a2 )2 = a1 + a2
� the resultant amplitude is the sum of the two
amplitudes; this is known as constructive
interference.
This happens when:
cos(θ1 − θ2 ) = 1 ⇒ θ1 − θ2 = 0, ±2π, ±4π, ...
(or the difference between phases θ1 and θ2 is even
multiple of π)
21 / 79
Path difference = λ
2π
× phase difference

(i.e., even ×λ/2)

0, λ, 2λ, 3λ, 4λ etc.

22 / 79
Q: Calculate the resultant intensity for
constructive interference when a1 = a2 = a0

If a1 = a2 = a0 then I1 = I2 = I0

� �� � �2 � � �2
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 = I1 + I2 = 2 I0 = 4I0

23 / 79
Q: Write down conditions of destructive
interference
cos(θ1 − θ2 ) = −1
θ1 ∼ θ2 = π, 3π, 5π, ...
(phase difference is odd multiple of π)

Path difference = Odd × λ2

( λ2 , 3λ
2
, 5λ
2
, ... )

In this case
a = a 1 − a2 , or, a = a2 − a1
The resultant amplitude is the difference of two
amplitudes. This is known as destructive interference.
24 / 79
Q: Show that the resultant intensity is
I = 4I0 cos2(φ/2) when intensities of two
sources are same (I0).

If a1 = a2 = a0 then I1 = I2 = I0
�
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos φ = I0 + I0 + 2I0 cos φ
....

Q: Plot I as a function of φ.

25 / 79
Q: What happens to the resultant intensity
for two incoherent sources?
I = I0 + I0 + 2I0 cos φ = 2I0 (1 + cos φ)
In case of incoherent sources, φ is a function of time. So
we have to take time average to get the total intensity.
Therefore,
I = �2I0 (1 + cos φ)�
Time average of cos φ is zero:
�cos φ� = 0
Hence,
I = 2I0 .
This implies that if the sources are incoherent, then
the resultant intensity is the sum of two intensities
and there is no intensity variation!
26 / 79
Different types of interference
There are two types of interference:
1. Division of wave front
Examples:
Young’s double-hole experiment
Fresnel mirrors
Fresnel biprism
Lloyd’s mirror,
2. Division of amplitude
Examples:
Beautiful colors produced by a soap film
illuminated by white light.
Newton’s rings
Michelson interferometer

27 / 79
The wavefront of a time-varying wave field is the set
(locus) of all points having the same phase.

� Waves emanating from two point sources S1 and S2

vibrating in phase. The solid and the dashed
curves represent the positions of the crests and
troughs, respectively.

28 / 79
INTERFERENCE PATTERN PRODUCED
ON THE SURFACE OF WATER

Interference pattern produced from two point sources

vibrating in phase in a ripple tank.
29 / 79
Fresnel mirrors, Fresnel biprism,

Lloyd’s mirror
30 / 79
Q: Derive the conditions for constructive
and destructive interference in thin films.

Path difference due to reflection from two surfaces:

Δ = µ(AB+BA� ) − AL = 2µAB − AL
∵ AB = AB�
31 / 79
 t t
cos r = , → AB =
AB cos r

From � AA� L:

AL AL
sin i = � = , → AL = 2AM sin i
AA 2AM

Again, from � ABM:

AM
tan r = , → AM = t tan r
t
Hence,
AL = 2t tan r sin i
Therefore,
t
Δ = 2µ − 2t tan r sin i
cos r
32 / 79
 t
Δ =2µ − 2t tan r sin i
cos r
t sin r µ
=2µ − 2t sin i
cos r cos r µ
� �
2µt sin r sin i
= 1−
cos r µ
2µt � 2
� sin i
= 1 − sin r , (∵ µ = )
cos r sin r
2µt � 2 �
= cos r
cos r
=2µt cos r

33 / 79
Q: Discuss Stokes relation.

When a light wave is reflected from the surface of an

optically denser medium, it suffers additional phase
change of π which is equivalent to path difference of
λ/2.

Hence, AL should be replaced by (AL+ λ2 ).

Therefore, the actual path difference becomes:
λ
Δ = 2µt cos r −
2

34 / 79
Bright fringes:
λ
Δ = even ×
2
λ λ
or, 2µt cos r − = 2p , p = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..
2 2
λ
or, 2µt cos r = (2p + 1)
2

Dark fringes:
λ
Δ = odd ×
2
λ λ
or, 2µt cos r − = (2p − 1) , p = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..
2 2
or, 2µt cos r = pλ

2π
Note: Phase difference = Path difference
λ 35 / 79
Q: Calculate effective path difference
between the reflected rays in a thin
wedge-shaped film

Optical path difference between reflected rays:

Δ = µ(PR +RT) − PK
= µ(PN + NR + RT) − PK
(PN =?, PK =?) 36 / 79
From the � PNT:

PN
= sin r, → PN = PT sin r
PT
From the � PTK:

PK
= sin i, → PK = PT sin i
PT

∴ Δ = µ(PN + NR + RT) − PK
= µ(PT sin r + NR + RT) − PT sin i
= PT(µ sin r − sin i) + µ(NR + RT)
= PT(µ sin r − µ sin r) + µ(NR + RT) (∵ µ = sin i/ sin r)
= µ(NR + RT)
= µ(NR + RL) (∵ RT = RL)
= µNL

37 / 79
From the � NLT:

NL
= cos(r + θ)
TL
or, NL = TL cos(r + θ)
or, NL = 2TH cos(r + θ) (∵ TH = HL)
= 2t cos(r + θ)

Δ = µNL
= 2µt cos(r + θ)

38 / 79
Stokes relation.

When a light wave is reflected from the surface of an

optically denser medium, it suffers additional phase
change of π which is equivalent to path difference of
λ/2.

Hence, PK should be replaced by (PK+ λ2 ).

Therefore, the actual path difference as per Stokes
treatment:

λ λ
Δ = Δ − = 2µt cos(r + θ) −
�
2 2

39 / 79
Q: Write conditions for bright and dark
fringes.
For maxima (bright fringe):

λ
Δ = even ×
�
2
λ λ
or, 2µt cos(r + θ) − = 2p , p = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..
2 2
λ
or, 2µt cos(r + θ) = (2p + 1)
2

2µt cos(r + θ) = odd × λ2

i.e., λ2 , 3λ
2
, 5λ
2
,...

40 / 79
For minima (dark fringe):

λ
Δ = odd ×
�
2
λ λ
or, 2µt cos(r + θ) − = (2p − 1) , p = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..
2 2
or, 2µt cos(r + θ) = pλ

⇒ 2µt cos(r + θ) = even × λ2

i.e., 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ, ...

41 / 79
Q: Derive the expression of fringe width of
a wedge-shaped film.
For p-th dark fringe:
2µt cos(r + θ) = pλ
Assumption, θ is small.
t
= tan θ � θ, (if θ is small)
x
t = xθ
i.e., the thickness increases with x.

Further, assume normal incidence (i.e., i = r = 0)

Therefore,
2µ xθ cos(θ) = 2µ xθ = pλ, (∵ cos θ = 1, for small θ)

42 / 79
Suppose (p + 1)-th dark fringe situated at x1 :
2µx1 θ = (p + 1)λ
Subtract two equations:
2µ(x1 − x)θ = (p + 1 − p)λ = λ
Distance between two consecutive dark (or bright)
fringes is called the fringe width.

So, (x1 − x) = β is the fringe width :

2µβθ = λ
λ
or, β = x1 − x =
2µθ
� For fixed λ, µ, and θ, fringe width is constant.
� Fringes of equal thickness.
43 / 79
44 / 79
Q: How interference fringes are formed in a thin
wedge-shaped film. Calculate the effective path
difference between the reflected rays if the film is
illuminated by a monochromatic light of wavelength λ
and find the condition of bright fringes.

45 / 79