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TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER 1: SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Fundamental of Electricity
1.3 Semiconductor Materials
1.4 Electron Conductivity of Metal
1.5 Directed Motion of Charge Carriers in Semiconductors
1.6 Conductivity of Intrinsic Semiconductor
1.7 Conductivity of Extrinsic Semiconductors

CHAPTER 2: THE P-N JUNCTION AND P-N JUNCTION DIODE

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Biasing a p-n Junction
2.3 Volt-Ampere Characteristics of p-n Junction
2.4 Junction Breakdown
2.5 Equivalent Circuit of p-n Junction
2.6 The Ideal Diode
2.7 The Real Diode
2.8 Diode Clipper and Clamper Circuits
2.9 Zener Diode

CHAPTER 3: STRUCTURE AND OPERATION OF BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS (BJTs)

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Testing a BJT Transistor
3.3 Basic Transistor Operation
3.4 Biasing Arrangements of BJT and Current Flow
3.5 BJT Operating Circuit Configurations
3.6 Transistor Circuit as an Amplifier
3.7 BJT Characteristics (Static Characteristics)
3.8 BJT Operation Regions
3.9 DC Load Line
3.10 Maximum Transistor Ratings
3.11 BJT Parameters

CHAPTER 4: THYRISTOR.
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Constructional Details
4.3 Working Principle of the Thyristor
4.4 Equivalent Circuit of SCR
4.5 Important Terms
4.6 V – I Characteristics of SCR
4.7 SCR Switching
4.8 Applications of the Thyristor

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 CHAPTER 1

SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

1.1 Introduction
The rapid growth of electronic technology offers a formidable challenge to the beginner, who may be almost
paralyzed by the mass of details. However, the mastery of fundamentals can simplify the learning process to a
great extent.
The branch of engineering which deals with the current conduction through vacuum or gas or semiconductor is
known as electronics. Electronics essentially deals with electronic devices and their utilization.
In electronic technology and engineering, various materials are employed in the manufacture of many electronic
devices which are used in the manufacturing of household, commercial and industrial electronic equipment and
instruments. These materials are generally classified as conductors, semiconductors and insulators. The
classification depends on the value of resistivity of the material.
Good conductors are usually metals and have resitivities in the order 10 -7 to 10-8 Ωm, semiconductors have
resitivities in the order of 10-3 to 3 x 103 Ωm and the resitivities of insulators are in the order of 104 to 1014 Ωm.
Over a limited range of temperatures, the resistance of a conductor increases with temperature increase, the
resistance of insulators remains approximately constant with variation of temperature and the resistance of
semiconductor material decreases as the temperature increases. As the temperature of semiconductor materials is
raised above room temperature, the resistivity is reduced and ultimately a point is reached where they effectively
become conductors. As the temperature of a semiconductor is reduced below normal room temperature, the
resistivity increases until, at very low temperatures the semiconductor becomes an insulator.

1.2 Fundamental of Electricity

1.2.1 Electron and Proton

All solids, liquids and gases are principally made up of two basic types of particles known as electrons and protons.
The electron is the smaller of the two; the proton is 1840 times more massive than the electron. The electron carries
a negative electrical charge. The proton carries an equal and opposite positive charge.
When a material is in an uncharged state, it contains as many protons as it does electrons. However, if one removes
some electrons from the material, the net positive charge on it exceeds the remaining negative charge so that the
material exhibits a net positive charge.

1.2.2 Basic atomic structure

An atom contains both negative charge carriers (electrons) and positive charge carriers (protons). Electrons each
carry a single unit of negative electric charge while protons each exhibit a single unit of positive charge. Hence, an
atom is electrically neutral.
Electrons are in constant motion as they orbit around the nucleus of the atom. Electron orbits are organized into
shells. In electronics, only the electron shell furthermost from the nucleus of an atom is important. Movement of
electrons between atoms only involves those present in the outer valence shell. If the valence shell contains the
maximum number of electrons possible, the electrons are rigidly bonded together and the material has the
properties of an insulator. If, however, the valence shell does not have its full complement of electrons, the
electrons can be easily detached from their orbital bonds, and the material has the properties associated with an
electrical conductor.
According to the model of atom proposed by Bohr in 1913, an atom is composed of a number of electrons moving
in circular or elliptical orbits around a relatively heavy nucleus of protons and neutrons. Although, this simple
model of an atom has been replaced by later models, yet it affords a convenient method of understanding the
working of semi-conductor devices.
Electron has a mass of nearly 9.1 × 10−31 kg and a charge of 1.6 × 10−19 C. The diameter of an atom is
approximately 10−10 m and that of the nucleus about 10−15 m. The number of protons in the atom of an element
gives its atomic number while the atomic mass number is determined by the number of protons and neutrons
present in the nucleus.
Figure 1.1 shows the structure of an atom.

Figure 1.1: Structure of an atom

Using Planck’s Quantum Theory, Bohr made the following postulates:

1. The atom has a massive positively-charged nucleus.
2. The electrons revolve round their nucleus in circular orbits, the centrifugal force being balanced by the
electrostatic pull between the nucleus and electrons.
3. An electron cannot revolve round the nucleus in any arbitrary orbit but in just certain definite discrete orbits.
Only those orbits are possible (or permitted) for which the orbital angular momentum (i.e. moment of
momentum) of the electron is equal to an integral multiple of h/2π i.e. orbital angular momentum = nh/2π
where n is an integer and h is Planck’s constant. Such orbits are also known as stationary orbits.
4. While revolving in these permitted stationary (or stable) orbits, the electron does not radiate out any
electromagnetic energy. In other words, the permissible orbits are non-radiating paths of the electron.
5. The atom radiates out energy only when an electron jumps from one orbit to another. If E2 and E1 are the
energies corresponding to two orbits before and after the jump, the frequency of the emitted photon is given by the
relation
E2 − E1 = hf or ∆ E = hf
where f is the frequency of the emitted radiations.

1.2.3 Current and Charge

Electric current is simply the movement of electrical charge carrier (such as electrons) around the circuit. When the
circuit is complete, the electrons are attracted from the negative pole of the supply and flow via the load to the
positive pole of the supply. Electrons cannot “accumulate” at any point in the circuit; they must complete the
return path inside the generator to return to the negative pole. Current (symbol I) has the unit of the ampere
(symbol A).
Certain devices such as cells and capacitors have the ability to store a quantity of electricity.
Electrical quantity or electrical charge (symbol Q) is the capacity of a piece of electrical apparatus to store (or to
discharge for that matter) a certain current for a given length of time. For example, the storage capacity of an
accumulator is stated as a certain number of ampere-hours (unit symbol Ah).
Thus, an accumulator with a storage capacity of 40 Ah can discharge electricity at the rate of 1A for 40 hours or
2A for 20 hours. However, the hour is long period of time, and we normally specify quantity or charge in ampere
second or coulombs (unit symbol C). Thus, Quantity of charge = Current x time

Or in symbols Q = I t coulombs (C) ………… (1.1)

Where the current is in amperes and time in seconds.

An electron is a charge carrier whose electrical charge is

E = 1.6 x 10-19C

That is, a current of 1 A flows in a circuit when

 1/1.6 x 10-19 = 6.25 x 1018 electrons

pass through each point in the circuit in one second. Strictly speaking we should talk of “rate of the flow of
charge” rather than current flow, but the latter is more conventional.

Example

If a current of 3 A flows in a circuit for 120 ms, calculate the quantity of electricity which is involved.

Solution.

I = 3A; t = 120ms = 120 x 10-3 s = 0.12s

From eqn. (1.1)

Q = I t = 3 x 0.12 = 0.36 C

Example

If a charge of 8C moves past a given point in a circuit in 0.2s. Calculate the current in the circuit.

Solution.

Q = 8 C: t = 0.2s.

I = Q/t = 8/0.2 = 40 A

Example

If an insulated conductor is charged to 3C, how many additional electrons has it acquired?

Solution.

Q = 3C: negative charge on an electron = 1.6 x 1019C.

Number of electrons = 3/ (1.6 x 10-19) = 1.875 x 1019 electrons.

1.3 Semiconductor Materials

A good example of a semiconductor material is Silicon, Si. But in its pure state, Si is an insulator because the
covalent bonding rigidly holds all of the electrons leaving no free (easily loosened) electrons to conduct current. If,
however, an atom of a different element (i.e. an impurity) is introduced that has five electrons in its valence shell,
a surplus electron will be present (Figure 1.2). These free electrons become available for use as charge carriers and
they can be made to move through the lattice by applying an external p.d to the material.

Figure 1.2: Pentavalent impurity atom

If the impurity element introduced into the pure silicon lattice has three electrons on its valence shell, the absence
of the fourth electron will produce a number of spaces into which electrons can fit (Figure 1.3). These spaces are
referred to as holes.
 Figure 1.3: Trivalent impurity atom

Regardless of whether the impurity element produces surplus electrons or holes, the material will no longer behave
as an insulator or a metallic conductor. Instead, we call the material a semi-conductor – the term semiconductor
serves to indicate that the material is no longer a good insulator nor is it a good conductor but is somewhere in
between. Examples of semiconductor materials include Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
and indium arsenide (InAs).
Antimony, arsenic and phosphorous are n-type impurities and form an n-type material when any of these
impurities are added to pure semiconductor material such as Ge and Si. Indium, Aluminium and Boron are all p-
type impurities and form a p-type material when any of these impurities are added to a pure semiconductor.
The process of introducing an atom of another element (impurity) into the lattice of an otherwise pure material is
called doping. When the pure material is doped with an impurity of excess electrons in its valence shell, it will
become an n-type (i.e. negative type) semiconductor material. If the pure material is doped with an impurity with
deficient electrons in its valence shell, it will become a p-type (positive type) semiconductor material.

Note: n-type ≡ excess of negative charge carriers, p-type ≡ excess of positive charge carriers.

1.3.1 Valence and conduction bands

The outermost electrons of an atom i.e. those in the shell furthermost from the nucleus are called valence electrons
and have the highest energy or least binding energy. The states of lower-energy electrons orbiting in shell nearer to
the nucleus are little affected by this atomic proximity. The band of energy occupied by the valence electrons is
called valence band and is the highest occupied band. It may be completely filled or partially filled with electrons
but never empty.
The next higher permitted energy band is called the conduction band and may either be empty or partially filled
with electrons. In conduction band, electrons can move freely. The gap between these two bands is known as
forbidden energy gap. See Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: Fermi energy level diagram

The electrical conduction properties of different elements and compounds can be explained in term of the electrons
having energies in the valence and conduction bands.
1. Insulators: In terms of energy bands, insulators
(a) have a full valence band
(b) have an empty conduction band
(c) have a large energy gap ( ) between its valence and conduction bands
(d) at ordinary temperatures, the probability of electrons from full valence band gaining sufficient energy so as to
surmount energy gap and thus become available for conduction in the conduction band, is remote. See Figure 1.5

Figure 1.5: Energy band diagram for insulators

2. Conductors: In terms of energy band, conductors

(a)have overlapping valence and conduction bands

(b)there is no physical distinction between the two bands
(c)there is absence of forbidden energy gap i.e. there is no structure to establish holes, thus conduction is only by
electrons. See Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6: Energy band diagram for conductors

3. Semiconductors: In terms of energy band, semiconductors

(a)have almost an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band
(b)have a narrow energy gap (of the order of 1eV) separating both the valence and the conduction band
(c)with increase in temperature, width of the forbidden energy gap is decreased so that some of the electrons are
librated into the conduction band.
(d)semiconductor current is the sum of electron and hole currents flowing in opposite directions. See Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7: Energy band diagram for semiconductors

1.3.2 Electrons and holes

As the temperature of a semiconductor is raised from 0K, some electrons in the valence band receives enough
thermal energy to be excited across the band gap to the conduction band. The result is a material with some
electrons in an otherwise empty conduction band and some unoccupied states in an otherwise filled valence band.
An empty state in the valence band is referred to as hole. If the conduction band electron and hole are created by
the excitation of a valence band electron to the conduction band, they are called an electron-hole pair (EHP).

1.3.3 Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors

An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor material in its extremely pure form i.e. with
no doping atoms added. Common examples of such semiconductors are: pure Ge and Si which have forbidden
energy gaps of 0.72eV and 1.1 eV respectively. The energy gap is so small that even at ordinary room temperature,
there are many electrons which possess sufficient energy to jump across the small energy gap between the valence
and conduction bands.
However, it is worth noting that for each electron liberated into the conduction band, a positively charged hole is
created in the valence band. When an electric field is applied to an intrinsic semiconductor at a temperature greater
than 0ºK, conduction electrons move to the anode and the holes in the valence band move to the cathode. Hence,
semiconductor current consists of movement of electrons and holes in opposite directions. Electron current is due
to movement of electrons in the conduction band whereas hole current is within the valence band as a result of the
holes ‘jumping’ from one atom to another.
In pure semiconductors, electric conduction is due to the thermally-generated electron-hole pairs. Hence in pure
semiconductors kept in the dark, thermally-generated charge carriers are the only means of conduction. The
number of such charge carriers per unit volume (i.e. intrinsic carrier density) is given by

where N is constant for a given semiconductor, Eg is the band gap energy in joules, k is Boltzmann’s constant and T
is the temperature in Kelvins.

Example
Find the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon at 300º K for which
N = 3 × 1025 m−3, Eg = 1.1 eV, µe = 0.14 m2/V-s and µh = 0.05 m2/V–s. Also, find the conductivity of silicon.

Solution.
The intrinsic carrier concentration in pure silicon is given by

N = 3 × 1025 m−3,
Eg = 1.1 eV = 1.1 × 1.6 × 10−19 = 1.76 × 10−19 J

∴ ni = 3 × 1025 exp((−1.76 × 10−19)/2 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300) = 2 × 1016 m−3

k = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K, T = 300ºK

σ = nie (µe + µh) = 2 × 1016 × 1.6 × 10−19 (0.14 + 0.05) = 0.61 × 10−3 S/m

The intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impurity or doping agent or dopant has been added in
extremely small amount (about 1 part in 108) are called extrinsic semiconductors. The usual agents are:

(i) Pentavalent atoms having five valence electrons (Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorus)
(ii) Trivalent atoms having three valence electrons (Gallium, Indium, Aluminium, Boron).

Pentavalent doping atom is known as donor atom because it donates or contributes one electron to the conduction
band of Ge semiconductor. The trivalent atom is called acceptor atom because it accepts one electron from the Ge
atom.

Extrinsic semiconductors are sub-divided into:

(a)n-type extrinsic semiconductor and (b) p-type extrinsic semiconductor.

1.3.4 Majority and minority carriers

In a piece of pure germanium or silicon, no free charge carriers are available at 0ºK. However, as its temperature is
raised to room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are broken by heat energy and as a result, electron-hole
pairs are
produced. These are called thermally-generated charge carriers. They are also known as intrinsically available
charge carriers. Ordinarily, their number is quite small.
An intrinsic pure germanium can be converted into a P-type semiconductor by the addition of an acceptor impurity
which adds a large number of holes to it. Hence, a P-type material contains the following charge carriers :
(a) large number of positive holes—most of them being the added impurity holes with only a very small number of
thermally generated ones;
(b) a very small number of thermally-generated electrons (the companions of the thermally generated holes
mentioned above).
Obviously, in a P-type material, the number of holes (both added and thermally-generated) is much more than that
of electrons. Hence, in such a material, holes constitute majority carriers and electrons form minority carriers as
shown in Figure 1.8 (a).
Similarly, in an N-type material, the number of electrons (both added and thermally-generated) is much larger than
the number of thermally-generated holes. Hence, in such a material, electrons are majority carriers whereas holes
are minority carriers as shown in Figure 1.8 (b).

A point worth noting is that even though N-type semiconductor has excess of electrons, still it is electrically
neutral. It is so because by the addition of donor impurity, number of electrons available for conduction purposes
becomes more than the number of holes available intrinsically. But the total charge of the semiconductor does not
change because the donor impurity brings in as much negative charge (by way of electrons) as positive charge (by
way of protons in its nucleus). Again, it may be noted that even though P-type semiconductor has excess of holes
for conduction purposes, on the whole it is electrically neutral for the same reasons as given above.

Figure 1.8: Compositions of majority and minority carriers.

Exercise
Outline the effect of temperature on the conductivity of semiconductor and conductors.

1.4. Electron Conductivity of a Metal

According to free electron model of an atom, the valence electrons are not attached to individual atoms but are free
to move about in all directions among the atoms. These electrons are called conduction electrons and are said to
form ‘free electron cloud’ or free electron ‘gas’ or the Fermi gas. For example, in copper there is one such free
electron per atom, the other 28 electrons remaining bound to the copper nuclei to form positive ion cores.
When no external field is applied to the metal, the free electrons move randomly in all directions as shown in
Figure 1.9 (a). However, when an external electric field is applied to the metal, the free electron motion becomes
directed as shown in Figure 1.9 (b). This directed flow of electrons results in a net charge displacement in a
definite direction. This type of motion is known as drift and the phenomenon is referred to as process of
conduction by drift charge.
 Figure 1.9: Electron drift in metals

The drift velocity (v) of the electrons is dependent upon the electron mobility (µe) and the applied electric field E.
The actual relation is

v = µeE
Let, e = electron charge (coulomb)
v = electron drift velocity (m/s)
A = conductor cross-section (m2)
n = number of free electrons per unit volume of the conductor i.e. electron density (per m3)
l = length of the conductor (m)
E = V/l — applied electric field (V/m)
Now, electric current flowing in any conductor is given by the amount of charge which flows in one second across
any plane of the conductor. The total number of electrons which cross the plane P of cross-section A in one second
= n × (v × A).

Charge carried by them per second is = envA. Hence, I = νenA.

Substituting the value of ν, we get
I = neAµeE = nAeµe V/l

∴ resistivity ρ = 1/neµe ohm-m and conductivity σ = neµe Siemens/m.

Example
A copper wire of 2mm diameter with conductivity of 5.8 × 107 Siemens/m and electron mobility of 0.0032 m2/V-s
is subjected to an electric field of 20 V/m. Find (a) the charge density of free electrons, (b) the current density, (c)
current flowing in the wire, (d) the electron drift velocity.

Solution

(a)

(b)

(c) Let I = current flowing through the wire. Area of cross-section of a wire,
 or

(d)

1.5. Directed Motion of Charge Carriers in Semiconductors

Directed motion of charge carriers in semiconductors occurs through two mechanisms:
(i) charge drift under the influence of applied electric field and
(ii) diffusion of charge from a region of high charge density to one of low charge density.
Considering charge drift first. When no electric field is applied to the semiconductor which is above 0º K, the
conduction electrons (as well as holes) move within the semiconductor with random motion and repeatedly collide
with each other and the fixed ions. Due to randomness of their motion, the net average velocity of these charge
carriers in any given direction is zero. Hence, no current exists in the semiconductor under this condition of no
field.
Now, considering the case when an electric field is applied to the semiconductor. Under the influence of this field,
the charge carriers attain a directed motion which is superimposed on their random thermal motion. This results in
a net average velocity called drift velocity in the direction of the applied electric field. Of course, electrons and
holes move in opposite directions but because of their opposite charges, both produce current in the same direction.
In extrinsic semiconductors, this current is essentially a majority carrier flow.
The drift velocity is proportional to electric field strength E, the constant of proportionality being called mobility µ.
The exact relation between the two is ν = µE.

Diffusion is gradual flow of charge from a region of high density to a region of low density. It is a force free
process based on non-uniform distribution of charge carriers in a semiconductor crystal. It leads to an electric
current without the benefit of an applied field. This flow or diffusion of carriers is proportional to the carrier
density gradient, the constant of proportionality being called diffusion constant or diffusion coefficient D which
has a unit of m2/s.

Apart from drift and diffusion, a third phenomenon which occurs in semiconductors is called recombination that
results from the collision of an electron with a hole. The process is essentially the return of a free conduction
electron to the valence band and is accompanied by the emission of energy. The recombination rate is directly
proportional to the carrier concentration for the simple reason that larger the number of carriers, the more likely is
the occurrence of electron-hole recombination. As is well-known, in a semiconductor, thermal generation of
electron-hole pairs also takes place continuously. Hence, there is net recombination rate given by the difference
between the recombination and generation rates.

1.6. Conductivity of Intrinsic Semiconductors

In their case, current flow is due to the movement of electrons and holes in opposite directions.
However, since their charges are of opposite sign, the current due to each is in the same direction.
Even though the number of electrons equals the number of holes, hole mobility µh is practically half of electron
mobility µe.
As shown in Figure 1.10, the total current flow which is due to the sum of electron flow and hole flow, is given by
I = Ie+ Ih
Let νe = drift velocity of electrons (m/s)
νh = drift velocity of holes (m/s)
ni = density of free electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor (per m 3)
pi = density of holes in an intrinsic semiconductor (per m3)
e = electron charge (coulomb)
A = cross-section of the semiconductor (m2)
Since in an intrinsic semiconductor ni = pi
∴ I = nie (νe + νh)A = nie (µh + µe) EA
where µe = electron mobility = νe/E
µh = hole mobility = νh/E

∴ I = nie (µe + µh) AV/l

Since E = V/l where l is the length of the intrinsic semiconductor,

where ρi is the resistivity of the semiconductor. It is given by

The electrical conductivity which is the reciprocal of resistivity is given by

Current density, J = I/A ∴ J = nie (µe + µh)E = σi E ∴ σi = J/E

σi = nie (µe + µh) S/m

Figure 1.10: Holes and electrons mobility in an intrinsic semiconductor

1.7. Conductivity of Extrinsic Semiconductors

The general expression for current density (derived earlier) in the case of an extrinsic semiconductor when an
electric field is employed is
J = e(neµe + peµh)E ……………….(i)
(a) If it is an n-type semiconductor, then the above expression becomes
Jn = e (nnµe + pnµh)E
where nn and pn represent the electron and hole densities in the n-type semiconductor after doping.
(b) If it is a p-type semiconductor, then
Jp = e (npµe + ppµh) E
where np and pp represent similar quantities in a p-type semiconductor after doping.

∴ σ = e(neµe + peµh)
The conductivity is given by σ = J/E

or σn = e (nnµe + pnµh) — for n-type

and σp= e (npµe + ppµh) — for p-type

(i) In n-type semiconductors, electrons form the majority carriers although holes are also available as minority
carriers.
The current density in such a semiconductor is given by Eq. (i) above. However, since electron density in such
extrinsic semiconductors is much more than hole density i.e. nn » pn, the above expressions are simplified to
Jn = nneµe E and σn = nn e µe …………..(ii)
(ii) In p-type semiconductors, conduction is by means of holes in the valence band which form majority carriers in
this case although electrons are available as minority carriers.
Since in such extrinsic semiconductors, np « pp, the above expressions become
Jp = ppe µh E and σp = pp e µh …………...(iii)

Example

Calculate the intrinsic conductivity of silicon at room temperature if n = 1.41 × 1016 m−3, µe = 0.145 m2/V-s, µh =
0.05 m2/V-s and e = 1.6 × 10−19 C. What are the individual contributions made by electrons and holes?

Solution
The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by
σi = nie µe + nie µh
= 1.41 × 1016 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.145 + 1.41 × 1016 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.05 = 0.325 × 10−3 + 0.112 × 10−3 S/m = 0.437 ×
10−3 S/m
Contribution by electrons = 0.325 × 10−3 S/m
Contribution by holes = 0.112 × 10−3 S/m

Example

An n-type silicon has a resistivity of 1500 Ω-m at a certain temperature. Compute the electron-hole concentration
given that ni = 1.5 × 1016 m−3, µe = 0.14 m2/V-s, µh = 0.05 m2/V-s and e = 1.6 × 10−19 C.

Solution.

∴ σ = e (nµe + pµh) = enµe

Being n-type silicon, it is assumed that n » p

∴ ρ = l/neµe or 15 = 1/n × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.14 or n = 3.1 × 1020 m−3

Now, np = ni2 or p = ni2/n = (1.5 × 1016)2/(3.1 × 1020) = 2 × 1012 m−3

Exercise

1. Find (i) conductivity and (ii) resistance of a bar of pure silicon of length 1cm and cross-sectional area 1 mm 2 at
300°K. Given: ni = 1.5 × 1016 per m3, µe = 0.13 m2/V-s, µh = 0.05 m2/V-s and e = 1.6 × 10−19 C. [(i) 4.32 × 10−4 S/m
(ii) 23.15 MΩ]

2. A specimen of silicon is doped with acceptor impurity to a density of 10 22 atoms per m3. Given that ni = 1.4 ×
1016 per m3, µe = 0.145 m2/V−s, µh = 0.05 m2/V-s, e = 1.6 × 10−19 C. All impurity atoms may be assumed to be
ionized. [nearly 80 S/m]

3. A p.d. of 10V is applied longitudinally to a rectangular specimen of intrinsic germanium of length 2.5 cm, width
0.4cm and thickness 0.15cm. Calculate at room temperature:
(i) electron and hole drift velocities;
(ii) the conductivity of intrinsic Ge if intrinsic carrier density is = 2.5 × 1019/m3; (iii) the total current. Given, µe =
0.38 m2 V−1s−1, µh = 0.18 m2V−1s−1, k = 1.38 × 10−23 J-deg−1, e = 1.6 × 10−19C [(i) 152 m/s, 72 m/s (ii) 2.24 S/m (iii)
5.38 mA]

CHAPTER 2

THE P-N JUNCTION AND P-N JUNCTION DIODE

2.1 Introduction
A p-n junction is a piece of semiconductor material in which part of the material is p-type and the other part is n-
type.
It is possible to manufacture a single piece of a semiconductor material half of which is doped by p-type impurity
and the other half by n-type impurity as shown in Figure 2.1. The plane dividing the two zones is called junction.
Theoretically, junction plane is assumed to lie where the density of donors and acceptors is equal. The p-n junction
is fundamental to the operation of diodes, transistors and other solid-state devices. Assuming that separate blocks
of p-type and n-type materials are pushed together and that a hole is a positive charge carrier and an electron is a
negative charge carrier.

Figure 2.1: p-n block formation

At the junction, it is found that the following three phenomena take place:
1. A thin depletion layer or region (also called space-charge region or transition region) is established on both sides
of the junction and is so called because it is depleted of free charge carriers. Its thickness is about 10−6 m.
2. A barrier potential or junction potential is developed across the junction.
3. The presence of depletion layer gives rise to junction and diffusion capacitances.

At the junction, the donated electrons in the n-type material, called majority carriers, diffuse into the p-type
material (diffusion is from an area of high density to an area of lower density) and the acceptor holes in the p-type
material diffuse into the n-type material as shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: A p-n junction

At the instant of p-n junction formation, the free electrons near the junction in the n-region begins to diffuse into
the p-region where they combine with holes near the junction. This creates a layer of positive charges (pentavalent
ions) near the junction. The result is that n-region loses free electrons as they diffuse into the junction. As the
electrons move across the junction, the p-region losses holes as the electrons and holes combine. The result is that
there is a layer of negative charges (trivalent ions) near the junction. These two layers of negative and positive
charges form the depletion region (or depletion layer). The term depletion is due to the fact that near the junction,
the region is depleted (i.e. emptied) of charge carriers (free electrons and holes) due to diffusion across the
junction. The depletion layer formed is formed very quickly and very thin compared to the n- and p-regions. For
sake of clarity, the depletion region is shown exaggerated in Figure 2.3.
 Figure 2.3: Depeltion layer formation

Once pn junction is formed and depletion layer created, the diffusion of free electrons stops i.e. the depletion
region acts as a barrier to the further movement of free electrons across the junction. The positive and negative
charges set up an electric field (See Figure 2.4). The electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the n-region.
There exist a potential difference across the depletion layer and is called barrier potential (Vo). The barrier
potential of a pn junction depends upon several factors including the type of semiconductor material, the amount of
doping and temperature. The typical barrier potential for Si = 0.7V and Ge = 0.3V. Figure 2.5 shows the potential
(Vo) distribution curve across the depletion region.

Figure 2.4: Electric field (potential barrier) formation

Figure 2.5: Potential barrier distribution gradient

A typical p-n junction piece of semiconductor is the p-n junction diode. It is a two-terminal device consisting of a
p-n junction formed either in Ge or Si crystal. Its circuit symbol is as shown in Figure 2.6. The p- and n-type
regions are referred to as anode and cathode respectively.

Figure 2.6: Circuit symbol of a diode

2.2 Biasing a p-n Junction
In electronics, the term bias refers to the use of dc voltage to establish certain operating conditions for an electronic
device. In relation to a pn junction, there are two bias conditions: (i) forward bias and (ii) reverse bias

2.2.1 Forward biasing

When an external dc voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that it cancels the potential barrier thus
permitting current flow, it is called forward baising. In another word, when an external voltage is applied to a p-n
junction making the p-type material positive with respect to the n-type material, as shown in Figure 2.6(a), the p-n
junction is forward biased.

The applied forward potential from the battery establishes an electric field which acts against the field due to
potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field is weakened and the barrier height is reduced at the junction. As
potential barrier voltage is very small (0.1 to 0.3V), therefore, a small forward voltage is sufficient to completely
eliminate the barrier. Once the potential barrier is eliminated by the forward voltage, junction resistance becomes
almost zero and a low resistance path is established, hence current flow in the circuit. This is called forward
current.

Figure 2.6(a): Forward-biased p-n junction

2.2.2 Reverse baising

When the external dc voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that potential barrier is increased, it is
called reverse biasing. Or when an external voltage is applied to a p-n junction making the p-type material negative
with respect to the n-type material (see Figure 2.7), the p-n junction is reverse biased. The applied voltage is now
in the same sense as the contact potential and opposes the movement of holes and electrons due to opening up of
the depletion layer. Thus, in theory, no current flows.
In conclusion, it follows that with reverse bias to the junction, a high resistance path is established, hence no
current flow occurs. On the other hand, with forward bias to the junction, a low resistance path is set up, hence
current flows in the circuit.

Figure 2.7: Reverse-biased p-n junction

2.3. Volt-Ampere Characteristics of p-n Junction.
Volt-ampere or V-I characreistics of a pn junction is the curve between voltage across the junction and the circuit
current. Figure 2.8 shows the circuit arrangement for determining the V-I characteristics of a pn junction. The
characteristics can be studied under three heads, viz: zero external bias voltage, forward bias and reverse bias.

(i) Zero external voltage: When the external voltage is zero, i.e. when K is open, the potental barrier at the junction
does not permit current flow. Therefore, the circuit current is zero as shown by point O of Figure 2.9.

(ii) Forward bias: With the forward bias to the pn junction, the potential barrier is reduced. At some forward
voltage (0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge), the potential barrier is altogether eliminated and current start flowing in the
circuit. From here onward, the current increases with the increase in forward voltage. Thus, a rising curve OB is
obtained with the forward bais as shown in Figure 2.9. At region OA, the current increases slowly and the curve is
non-linear. This is because the external applied voltage is used up in overcoming the potential barrier. Once the
external voltage exceeds the potential barrier voltage, the pn junction behaves like an ordinary conductor.
Therefore, the current rises sharply with increase in external voltage (region AB on the curve).

(iii) Reverse bias: With reverse bias at the junction, potential barrier at the junction is increased. Hence, the
junction resistance becomes very high and practically no current flows through the circuit. However, in practice, a
very small current (of the order of µA) flows in the circuit with reverse bias as shown in the reverse characteristic.
This is called reverse saturation current (IS) and is due to the minority carriers. It will be recalled that there are a
few free electrons in p-type material and a few holes in n-type material. These undesirable free electrons in p-type
and holes in n-type are called minority carriers. If reverse voltage is increased continuously, the kinetic energy of
electrons (minority carriers) may become high enough to knock out electrons from the semiconductor atoms. At
this stage, breakdown of the junction occurs, characterized by a sudden rise of reverse current and a sudden fall of
the resistance of barrier region. This may destroy the junction permanently.

Figure 2.8: Circuit for determining I-V charactristics of pn junction

 Figure 2.9: Typical I-V characteristic for a p-n junction

A typical and more detailed characteristic for a Si p-n junction diode is as shown in Figure 2.10.
 Figure 2.10: Typical I-V characteristic for a Si p-n junction diode

Figure 2.10 shows the i-v characteristics of a Si p-n junction diode. The characteristics can be described by the
analytical equation called Boltzmann diode equation given below:

where I0 = diode reverse saturation current

V = voltage across junction − positive for forward bias and negative for reverse bias.
k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J/ºK
T = crystal temperature in ºK
η = 1 – for germanium
= 2 – for silicon
Hence, the above diode equation becomes
- for germanium
- for silicon

Example
Using approximate Boltzmann’s diode equation, find the change in forward bias for doubling the forward current
of a germanium semiconductors at 290ºK.

Solution
The approximate Boltzmann’s constant is given by
I =Ioexp(eV/kT)
and
But I2 = 2I1 or I2/I1 = 2

Example
A certain p-n junction diode has a leakage current of 10−14 A at room temperature of 27ºC and 10−9 A at 125ºC. The
diode is forward-biased with a constant-current source of 1mA at room temperature. If current is assumed to
remain constant, calculate the junction barrier voltage at room temperature and at 125ºC.

Solution
or

At 27oC = 300oK,

At 125oC = 398oK,

Hence, at 27oC,

At 125oC,

2.4. Junction Breakdown

When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type material and the positive terminal to the n-type
material the diode is reverse biased. The holes in the p-type material are attracted towards the negative terminal
and the electrons in the n-type material are attracted towards positive terminal. This drift increases the magnitude
of both the contact potential and the thickness of the depletion layer, so that only very few majority carriers have
sufficient energy to surmount the junction.
The thermally excited minority carriers, however, can cross the junction since it is forward biased for these
carriers. The movement of minority carriers results in a small constant current flowing. As the magnitude of the
reverse voltage is increased a point will be reached where a large current suddenly starts to flow. The voltage at
which this occurs is called the breakdown voltage (VBR). It
is found that once breakdown has occurred, very little further increase in voltage is required to increase the current
to relatively high values. The junction itself offers almost zero resistance at this point. The breakdown voltage
depends on the width of the depletion region which, in turn, depends on the doping level.
The following two mechanism are responsible for breakdown under increasing reverse voltage:

1. Zener Breakdown
This form of breakdown occurs in junctions which, being heavily doped, have narrow depletion layers. The
breakdown voltage sets up a very strong electric field (about 108 V/m) across this narrow layer. This field is strong
enough to break or rupture the covalent bonds thereby generating electron-hole pairs. Even a small further increase
in reverse voltage is capable of producing large number of current carriers. That is why the junction has very low
resistance in the break-down region.

2. Avalanche Breakdown
This form of breakdown occurs in junctions which being lightly-doped, have wide depletion layers where the
electric field is not strong enough to produce Zener breakdown. Instead, the minority carriers (accelerated by this
field) collide with the semiconductor atoms in the depletion region. Upon collision with valence electrons, covalent
bonds are broken and electron-hole pairs are generated. These newly-generated charge carriers are also accelerated
by the electric field resulting in more collisions and hence further production of charge carriers. This leads to an
avalanche (or flood) of charge carriers and, consequently, to a very low reverse resistance.

2.5 Equivalent Circuit of a p-n Junction

A forward-biased junction offers ac resistance rac and possesses diffusion capacitance CD (which comes into the
picture only when frequency of the applied voltage is very high).
Hence, it can be represented by the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.11. An opposing battery is connected in series
with rac to account for the junction barrier potential. As seen from Figure 2.11, a reverse-biased junction can be
simply represented by a reverse resistance RR connected in parallel with a capacitance CT..

Figure 2.11: Equivalent circuit of a pn junction

2.6 The Ideal Diode

There is no such thing as an ideal diode or perfect diode. The existence of such a diode is visualized simply as an
aid in analyzing the diode circuits.
An ideal diode may be defined as a two-terminal device which
(a) conducts with zero resistance when forward-biased, and
(b) appears as an infinite resistance when reverse-biased.
In other words, such a device acts as a short-circuit in the forward direction and as an open-circuit in the reverse
direction as shown in Figure 2.12.
Also, in the forward direction, there is no voltage drop (even though current is there) since a short has zero
resistance. On the other hand, there is no reverse current because reverse resistance is infinite. It is helpful to think
of an ideal diode as a bistable switch which is closed in the forward direction and open in the reverse direction.
Hence, it has two stable states: ON or OFF.

Figure 2.12: Ideal diode

Example
Find the current, if any, flowing in the circuit of
Figure 2.13 which uses two oppositely-connected ideal diodes in parallel.
 Figure 2.13

Solution
The diode D1 is reverse-biased and acts as an open
switch as shown in Figure 2.13 (b). So, there is no current through D1 and the 8 Ω resistor.
However, D2 is forward biased and acts like a short-current or closed switch. The current drawn is I = 12/(2 + 4) =
2 A.

Example
A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 50 V is applied to a diode as shown in Figure 2.14. Sketch the waveform of
voltage VO treating the diode as an ideal one.

Figure 2.14

Solution

Example
Sketch the waveform of the output voltage VO of the circuit shown in Figure 2.15.
 Figure 2.15

Solution

2.7. The Real Diode

A real diode neither conducts in the forward direction with zero resistance nor it offers infinite resistance in the
reverse direction.

(a) Forward direction

Here, two factors are being considered. One is that forward current does not start flowing until the voltage applied
to the diode exceeds its threshold or knee voltage VK (0.3V for Ge and 0.7V for Si). Hence, a real diode is shown as
equivalent to an ideal diode in series with a small oppositely-connected battery of e.m.f. VK as shown in Figure
2.16(a).
The second factor to be considered is the forward dynamic or ac resistance (rac) offered by the circuit. This
resistance taken to be zero implying that forward characteristic is a straight vertical line [Figure 2.16(a)]. If we take
rac into account, the forward characteristic becomes as shown in Figure 2.16(b). Here, the reciprocal of the slope of
this characteristic represents rac.

Figure 2.16: The real diode

(b) Reverse direction

An actual or real diode does not have infinite resistance in the reverse direction because it will always have some
reverse saturation current prior to breakdown. Silicon diodes have reverse resistance of many thousands of
megohms. Hence, an actual diode in the reverse direction can be thought of as equivalent to a high resistor. This
would be true only in the case of signals of low frequencies.

2.8. Diode Clipper and Clamper Circuits

These are diode waveshaping circuits i.e. circuits meant to control the shape of the voltage and current waveforms
to suit various purposes. Each performs the waveshaping function indicated by its name. The output of the clipping
circuit appears as if a portion of the input signal were clipped off.
But clamper circuits simply clams (i.e. lift up or down) the input signal to a different dc level.

2.8.1. Clippers
A clipping circuit requires a minimum of two components i.e. a diode and a resistor. Often, dc battery is also used
to fix the clipping level. The input waveform can be clipped at different levels by simply changing the battery
voltage and by interchanging the position of various elements. In the understanding of the mode of operation of
clipping circuit, an ideal diode which acts like a closed switch when forward-biased and as an open switch when
reverse-biased is used.

Example
For the simple parallel clipper of Figure 2.17(a), find the shape of the output voltage VO across the diode if the
input sine wave signal is as shown in Figure 2.17(b). What will happen when diode and resistor are interchanged?

Figure 2.17

Solution

When positive half-cycle of the signal voltage is applied to the clipper i.e. when A is positive with respect to B, the
diode D is reverse-biased. Hence, it acts as an open switch. Consequently, the entire input voltage appears across it.
During the negative half-cycle of the signal voltage when circuit terminal B becomes positive with respect to A, the
diode is forward-biased. Hence, it acts like a closed switch (or short) across which no voltage is dropped. Hence,
the waveshape of V 0 is as
shown in Figure 2.17 (c). It is seen that the negative portion of the signal voltage has been removed. Hence, such a
circuit is called a negative clipper.

When the diode and resistor are interchanged, the circuit becomes as shown in Figure 2.18 (b). The output voltage
V 0 is that which is dropped across R. During the positive half-cycle of the signal voltage, D acts as an open switch.
Hence, all applied voltage drops across D and none across R. So, there is no output signal voltage.
During the negative input half-cycle, terminal B is positive and so it is forward-biases B which acts as a short.
Hence, there is no voltage drop across D. Consequently, all the applied signal voltage drops across R and none
across D. As a result, the negative half-cycle of the input signal is allowed to pass through the clipper circuit.
Obviously, now the circuit acts as a positive clipper.

Figure 2.18

Example
The triangular voltage of Figure 2.19 (a) is applied to the biased parallel clipper circuit of Figure 2.19(b). Find the
wave-shape of the output voltage.

Figure 2.19

During the positive half-cycle, D1 would conduct but D2 will act as an open circuit. However, value of V0 cannot
exceed 10V because points C and D are electrically connected across the 10 V battery since D1 is shorted. Hence,
signal voltage above 10V level would be clipped off as shown in Figure 2.19(c).
During the negative half-cycle, D1 is open but D2 conducts. Again, V 0 cannot exceed 5V since it is the voltage
across points C and D whose value is fixed by the battery connected in that branch. Hence, signal voltage beyond
5V is clipped off.
The wave-shape of V 0 is as shown in Figure 2.19(c).

2.8.2. Clampers
To put it simply, clamping is the process of introducing a dc level into an ac signal. Clampers are also sometimes
known as dc restorers.
For example, considering the signal shown in Figure 2.20 (a). It is a sine wave with equal positive and negative
swings of ± 5 V about 0V. Hence, its average value over one cycle is zero (it has no dc level). In Figure 2.20 (b),
the signal waveform has been lifted up so as to just touch the horizontal axis. It is now said to have acquired a dc
level of 5V. This output wave-form is said to be positively clamped at 0V. Figure 2.10(c) shows an output
waveform which is negatively clamped at 0V.
A circuit capable of accepting the input signal shown in Figure 2.20 (a) and delivering the output shown in Figure
2.2 (b) or (c) is called a clamper. Such a circuit has a minimum requirement of three elements. 1. a diode 2. a
capacitor and 3. a resistor.
It will generally need a dc battery also.
 Figure 2.20

Exercise

1. Find the current supplied, if any, by the battery in the circuit of Figure 2.21(a) which uses two oppositely-
connected ideal diodes in parallel. [1A]

2. Sketch the voltage across RL in the clipper circuit of Figure 2.21(b)

(a) (b)
Figure 2.21

3. What is the waveform of the voltage across RL in Figure 2.22?

Figure 2.22

2.9. Zener Diodes

Zener diodes are heavily doped silicon diodes that, unlike normal diodes, exhibit an abrupt reverse breakdown at
relatively low voltages (typically less than 6V). The symbol for a zener diode is as shown in Figure 2.23 and a
typical zener diode characteristic is as shown in Figure 2.24.

Figure 2.23: Symbol for a zener diode

Figure 2.24: i–v characteristic of a p-n junction diode showing breakdown under reverse bias.

Although reverse breakdown is a highly undesirable effect that uses conventional diodes, it can be extremely useful
in the case of zener diodes where the breakdown voltage is precisely known. When a diode is undergoing reverse
breakdown and provided its maximum ratings are not exceeded, the voltage appearing across it will remain
substantially constant (equal to the nominal zener voltage) regardless of the current flowing. In other words, Zener
diodes, when operated in the reverse –breakdown mode, the voltage across them does not alter significantly over a
fairly wide current range. This property makes the zener diode ideal for use as a voltage regulator. Other uses of
zener diode include clipping and clamping, voltage –reference sources, meter protection and bias-voltage
supplies.

2.9.1. Zener diode as a voltage regulator

It is a measure of a circuit's ability to maintain a constant output voltage even when either input voltage or load
current varies. A Zener diode, when working in the breakdown region, can serve as a voltage regulator. In Figure
2.25(i), Ei is the input dc voltage whose variations are to be regulated. The Zener diode is reverse-connected across
Ei. When p.d. across the diode is greater than Vz, it conducts and draws relatively large current through the series
resistance R.
The load resistance RL across which a constant voltage Eo is required, is connected in parallel with the diode. The
total current I passing through R equals the sum of diode current and load current i.e. I = Iz + IL.
It will be seen that under all conditions Eo = V z. Hence, Ei = IR + Eo = IR + V z.
 Figure 2.25(i): Zener for voltage regulator

When the circuit is properly designed, the voltage Eo remains essentially constant (equal to Vz) even though the
input voltage Ei and load resistance RL may vary over a wide range.

(i) Suppose the input voltage increases. Since the zener is in the breakdown region, the zener diode is equivalent to
a battery Vz as shown in Figure 2.25(ii). It is clear that output voltage remains constant at Vz (= Eo). The excess
voltage is dropped across the series resistance R. This will cause an increase in the value of the total current I. The
zener will conduct the increase of current in I while the load current remains constant. Hence, output voltage Eo
remains constat irrespective of the changes in the input voltage, Ei.

Figure 2.25(ii)

(ii) Now, suppose that input voltage is constant but the load resistance RL decreases. This will cause an increase in
load current. the extra current cannot come from the source because drop in R (and hence source current I) will not
change as the zener is within its regulating range. The additional load current will come from a decrease in zener
current Iz. Consequently, the output voltage stays t constant value.

Voltage drop across R = Ei – Eo

Current through R, I = Iz + IL

Applying Ohm’s law, we have,

2.9.2. Solving zener diode circuits

The first step is to determine the state of the zener diode i.e. whether the zener is in “on” state or “off” state. Next,
the zener is replaced by its appropriate model. Finally, the unknown quantities are determined from the resultig
circuit.

1. Ei and RL fixed. This is the simplest case and is as shown in Figure 2.25(iii). Here, the applied voltage E i as
well as load RL is fixed. The first step is to find the state of zener diode. This can be determined by removing
 the zener from the circuit and calculating the voltage V across the resulting open-circuit as shown in Figure
2.25(iv)

Figure 2.25(iii) Figure 2.25(iv)

If , the Zener diode is in “on” state and its equivalent model can be substituted as shown in Figure 2.25(a). if
V < VZ, the diode is in “off” state as shown in Figure 2.25(b).

(i) On state: Referring to Figure 2.25(a),

Eo = Vz

Figure 2.25(a) Figure 2.25(b)

where and

Power dissipated in Zener, PZ = VZIZ

(ii) Off state. Referring to Figure 2.25(b),

I = IL and IZ = 0

VR = Ei - Eo and V = Eo (V < VZ)

Pz = VIZ = V(0) = 0

2. Fixed Ei and Variable RL. This case is as shown in Figure 2.25(c) The applied voltage (Ei) is fixed while load
resistance RL (and hence the load current IL) changes. There is a definite range of RL values (and hence IL values)
that will ensure the Zener diode to be in “on” state. Calculating this range of values:
(i) RLmin and ILmax. Once the Zener is in the “on” state, load voltage Eo (= Vz) is constant. Hence, when load
resistance is minimum (i.e. RLmin), load current will be maximum (IL =Eo/RL). To find the minimum load resistance
that will turn the Zener on, one simply calculates the value of RL that will result in Eo = Vz i.e.

Figure 2.25(c)

This is the minimum value of load resistance that will ensure that Zener is in “on” state. Any value of the load
resistance less than this value will result in voltage E 0 across the load less than VZ and the Zener will be in the “off”
state.

Hence;

(ii) ILmin and RLmax. It is easy to that when load resistance is maximum, load current is minimum,

Now, Zener current, IZ = I – IL

When the Zener is in the “on” state, I remain fixed. That is, when IL is maximum, IZ will be minimum. On the other
hand, when IL is minimum, IZ is maximum. If the maximum current that a Zener can carry safely is I ZM (PZM =
VZIZM), then

and

If the load resistance exceeds this limiting value, the current through Zener will exceed I ZM and the device may
burn out.

3. Fixed RL and Variable Ei. This case is as shown in Figure 2.25(d). The load resistance RL is fixed while the
applied voltage (Ei) changes. It should be noted that there is a definite range of Ei values that will ensure that Zener
diode is in the “on” state. This range of values can be evaluated thus:
 Figure 2.25(d)

(i) Ei (min). To determine the minimum applied voltage that will turn the Zener on, one simply calculates the value of
Ei that will result in load voltage E0 = VZ i.e.

(ii) Ei (max). Current through R, I = IZ + IL

Since IL (= E0/RL = VZ/RL) is fixed, the value of I will be maximum when Zener current is maximum i.e.

Imax = IZM + IL

Now, Ei = IR + E0

Since E0 (= VZ) is constant, the input voltage will be maximum when I is maximum

2.9.2 Zener diode as waveform ‘clipper’

Clipping occurs when waveforms having rounded peaks that exceed the limit(s) imposed by such clipping circuit
appear, after clipping, to have their peaks flattened or ‘clipped’ off. Use of Zener diodes in wave-shaping circuits is
illustrated in Figure 2.26. The two similar diodes D1 and D2 have been joined back-to-back across the input sine
wave voltage of peak value ± 25 V. Both have Vz = 20 V. As seen, the output is a semi-square wave with a peak
value of ± 20 V.

Figure 2.26: Waveform clipping using zener diode

It is well-known that a Zener diode acts like a ‘short’ (or very low resistance) in the forward direction and an
‘open’ in the reverse direction till it goes into breakdown at Vz. During positive input half-cycle, D1 is shorted
(being forward-biased) but D2 acts like an open upto 20 V. Thereafter, it goes into breakdown and holds the output
voltage constant till input voltage falls below 20 V in the later part of the half-cycle. At that point, D2 comes out of
the breakdown and again acts like an open across which the entire input voltage is dropped.
During the negative input half-cycle, roles of D1 and D2 are reversed. As a result, the output wave is clipped on
both peaks as shown in Figure 2.26.

2.9.3. Zener diode as dc restorer

Clamping is the process of introducing a dc level into an ac signal. Clampers are also known as dc restorers.
Consider Figure 2.27 (a) having a sine wave with equal positive and negative swings of ±5V about 0V. In Figure
2.27(b), the signal waveform has been lifted up so as to just touch the horizontal axis. It is now said to have
acquired a dc level of 5V.
 Figure 2.27(a): Unclamped sine waveform

Figure 2.27(b): Diode clamp

Figure 2.27(c): Clamped sine waveform

Exercise
Using appropriate circuit diagram, explain the use of zener diode for meter protection.
 CHAPTER 3

STRUCTURE AND OPERATION OF BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS (BJTs)

3.1 Introduction
The transistor is a solid state semiconductor device which can be used for amplification, switching, voltage
stabilization, signal modulation and many other functions. It acts as a variable valve which, based on its input
current (BJT) or input voltage (FET), allows a precise amount of current to flow through it from the circuit's
voltage supply.
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a type of transistor, an amplifying or switching device constructed of
doped semiconductors that employs both types of charge carriers: electrons and holes. The BJT is a three-layer
sandwich of differently doped sections, either N-type|P-type|N-type (NPN transistors) or P-type|N-type|P-type
(PNP transistors). The center layer is called the base of the transistor and is made from lightly doped, high
resistivity material. By varying the current into the base terminal, the current allowed to flow between the emitter
and a third terminal known as the collector (which are both heavily doped and hence low resistivity regions) can be
varied. This effect can be used to amplify the input current. BJTs can be thought of as current-controlled current
sources and are usually characterized as current amplifiers. The places where the emitter joins the base and the
base joins the collector are called junctions. Early transistors were made from germanium but most modern BJTs
are made from silicon.

The simplified junction models and symbols for p-n-p and n-p-n transistors is as shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: PNP and NPN models and symbols.

A transistor (pnp or npn) has three sections of doped semiconductors. The section on one side is the emitter and the
section on the opposite side is the collector. The middle side is called the base and forms two junctions between
the emitter and collector.

(i) Emitter: The section on one side that supplies charge carriers (electrons or holes) is called the emitter. The
emitter is always forward biased w.r.t. base so that it can supply a large number of majority carriers. In Figure
3.2(a), the emitter (p-type) of pnp transistor is forward biased and supplies charges to its junction with the base.
Also, Figure 3.2(b), the emitter (n-type) of npn has a forward bias and supplies free electrons to its junction with
the base.
(ii) Collector: The section on the other side that collects the charges is called the collector. The collector is always
reverse biased. Its function is to remove charges from its junction with the base. In Figure 3.2(a), the collector (p-
type) of pnp transistor has a reverse bias and receives hole charges that flow in the output circuit. Similarly, in
Figure 3.2(b), the collector (n-type) of npn transistor has reverse bias and receives electrons.

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.2: BJTs terminals configurations

(iii) Base: The middle section which forms two pn-junctions between the emitter and collector is called the base.
The base-emitter junction is forward biased, allowing low resistance for the emitter circuit. The base-collector
junction is reverse biased and provides high reistance in the collector.

3.2 Testing a BJT Transistor

Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit. If you suspect that a transistor
may be damaged there are two easy ways to test it:

3.2.1 Testing with a multimeter

Use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check each pair of leads for conduction. Set
a digital multimeter to diode test and an analogue multimeter to a low resistance range.
 Figure 3.3: Testing of an NPN Transistor

Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total):

 The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only.
 The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only.

 The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.

Figure 3.3 shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are reversed in a PNP transistor but
the same test procedure can be used.

3.3 Basic Transistor Operation

In the n-p-n transistor, connected as shown in Figure 3.4(a), transistor action is accounted for as follows: (See
Figure 3.4(b)).

Figure 3.4(a): n-p-n transistor bias connection

(a) the majority carriers in the n-type emitter material are electrons
(b) the base-emitter junction is forward biased to these majority carriers and electrons cross the junction and appear
in the base region
(c) the base region is very thin and only lightly doped with holes, so some recombination with holes occurs but
many electrons are left in the base region
(d) the base-collector junction is reverse biased to holes in the base region and electrons in the collector region, but
is forward biased to electrons in the base region; these electrons are attracted by the positive potential at the
collector terminal.
(e) a large proportion of the electrons in the base region cross the base collector junction into the collector region,
creating a collector current.

The transistor action for an n-p-n device is shown diagrammatically in Figure 3.4(b). Conventional current flow
is taken to be in the direction of the motion of holes, that is, in the opposite direction to electron flow. Around
99.5% of the electrons leaving the emitter will cross the base-collector junction and only 0.5% of the electrons will
recombine with holes in the narrow base region.
 Figure 3.4(b): Transistor action for n-p-n transistor

In the p-n-p transistor, connected as shown in Figure 3.5(a), transistor action is accounted for as follows:
(a) the majority carriers in the emitter p-type material are holes
(b) the base-emitter junction is forward biased to the majority carriers and the holes cross the junction and appear
in the base region
(c) the base region is very thin and is only lightly doped with electrons so although some electron-hole pairs are
formed, many holes are left in the base region
(d) the base-collector junction is reverse biased to electrons in the base region and holes in the collector region, but
forward biased to holes in the base region; these holes are attracted by the negative potential at the collector
terminal
(e) a large proportion of the holes in the base region cross the base-collector junction into the collector region,
creating a collector current; conventional current flow is in the direction of hole movement.

Figure 3.5(a): p-n-p transistor bias connection

The transistor action for a p-n-p device is shown diagrammatically in Figure 3.5(b). Around 99.5% of the holes
leaving the emitter will cross the base-collector junction and only 0.5% of the holes will recombine with electrons
in the narrow base region.

Figure 3.5(b): Transistor action for p-n-p transistor

3.4 Biasing Arrangements of BJT and Current Flow

In normal operation (i.e. for operation as a linear amplifier) the base-emitter junction of a transistor is forward
biased and the collector base junction is reverse biased. The base region is, however, made very narrow so that
carriers are swept across it from emitter to collector so that only a relatively small current flows in the base. To put
this into context, the current flowing in the emitter circuit is typically 100 times greater than that flowing in the
base. The direction of conventional current flow is from emitter to collector in the case of a p-n-p transistor, and
collector to emitter in the case of an n-p-n transistor, as shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6: Biasing and direction of current flow in n-p-n and p-n-p transistors.

The equation that relates current flow in the collector, base, and emitter circuits is:

IE = IB + IC

where IE is the emitter current, IB is the base current, and IC is the collector current (all expressed in the same units).

Example
A transistor operates with a collector current of 100mA and an emitter current of 102 mA. Determine the value of
base current.

Solution

Emitter current, IE = IB +IC

from which, base current, IB = IE −IC
Hence, base current, IB = 102 − 100 = 2mA

3.5 BJT Operating Circuit Configurations

Three basic circuit configurations are used for transistor amplifiers. These three circuit configurations depend upon
which one of the three transistor connections is made common to both the input and the output. In the case of
bipolar junction transistors, the configurations are known as common-base, common-emitter and common-
collector (or emitter-follower), as shown in Figures 3.7 (a), (b) and (c) respectively.
 Figure 3.7: BJT operating configurations

3.6 Transistor Circuit as an Amplifier

A transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as an amplifier. A basic amplifier circuit is as shown
in Figure 3.8. The weak signal is applied between emitter-base junction and output is taken across the load R C
connected in the collector circuit. For a faithful amplification of the input signal, the circuit should always remain
forward biased i.e. a dc voltage VEE is applied in the circuit in addition to the signal as shown.

Figure 3.8: Basic transistor amplifier circuit

As the input has low resistance, a small change in signal voltage causes appreciable change in emitter current. This
causes almost the same change in collector current due to transistor action. The current flowing through a high
resistance RC produces a large voltage across it. Hence, a weak signal applied in the input appears in the amplified
form in the collector circuit. Therefore, the transistor acts like an amplifier.

3.7 BJT Characteristics (Static Characteristics)

The characteristics of a bipolar junction transistor are usually presented in the form of a set of graphs relating
voltage and current present at the transistor’s terminals. These are the curves which represent relationship between
different dc currents and voltages of a transistor. The three important characteristics of a transistor are:
(1) Input characteristic (2) Output characteristic and (3) Current transfer characteristic (or basically, transfer
characteristic).

3.7.1 Common base connection

Here, input is applied between emitter and base and output is taken from collector and base. With this connection,
the base of the transistor is common to both input and output circuit, hence the name common base. See Figure 3.9
connection circuits.

Figure 3.9: Common base connections for both npn and pnp transistors

1. Current amplification factor (α): It is the ratio of output current to input current. Under CB connection, IE is
the input current while IC is the ouput current. In other words, the ratio of change in collector current to the change

in emmiter current at constant collector-base voltage is known as current amplification factor i.e. at

constant VCB.
α is usually less than unity with practical value from 0.9 to 0.99 in commercial transistors.

2. Expression for collector current: The whole of emmiter current does not reach the collector. This is so as a
small percentage of it, as a result of electron-hole recombination occuring in the base area, gives rise to the base
current. Hence, the total collector current consists of:
(i) the part of the emitter current which reaches the collector terminal i.e. αI E
(ii) The leakage current Ileakage that is due to the movement of monority carriers across the base-collector junction.
Ileakage is usually less than αIE
This Ileakage is abbreviated as ICBO meaning collector-base curent with emitter open. See Figure 3.10.
But , hence

Figure 3.10: Illustrating ICBO

Figure 3.11 shows the concepts of ICBO. ICBO is very much temperature dependent, it increases rapidly with the
increase in temperature. Hence, at high temperatures, it plays an important role and must not be neglected in
calculations.

Figure 3.11: Concepts of ICBO

Example
In a CB connection, the emitter current is 1mA. If the emitter circuit is open, the collector current is 50µA. Find
the total collector current given that α = 0.92.
Solution
IE = 1mA, α = 0.92 and ICBO = 50µA.
Total collector current,
IC = αIE + ICBO = 0.92 x 1 x 10-3 + 50 x 10-6
= 0.97mA
Example
For the circuit shown below, α = 0.95. The voltge drop across 2kΩ resistance which is connected to the collector is
2V. Find the base current.

Solution

or

Example
For the CB circuit shown below, determine IC and VCB. Assume the transistor to be Silicon.

Solution
For Si transistor, VBE = 0.7V. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law,

or

Applying KVL to the collector-side loop,

3.7.2 Common-base static characteristic

The static characteristic of an n-p-n transistor common-base configuration can be determined by use of test circuit
shown in Figure 3.12.

1. Input characteristic: It is the curve between emitter current IE and emitter-base voltage VEB at constant
collector-base voltage VCE. The input characteristic of a common-base n-p-n BJT is as shown in Figure 3.13 for
both Si and Ge. The emitter current increases rapidly after the barrier voltage has been exceeded by the biasing
voltage. This means that the input resistance is small usually of the orders of a few ohms. The input resistance is
the ratio of change in emitter-base voltage to the resulting change in emitter current at constant
collector-base voltage i.e.

Input resistance, at constant VCB.

Another important thing is that the emitter current is almost independent of collector-base voltage, V CB. Hence, the
emitter current (and hence collector current) is almost independent of base current.

Figure 3.13: Input characteristic of an n-p-n common-base transistor configuration.

Figure 3.12: Circuit for the determination of static characteristic of common-base transistor configuration

2. Output characteristic: The output characteristic is a plot of IC versus VCB with IE held constant. This
characteristic is as shown in Figure 3.14. The following points may be noted from the characteristic curves:
(i) the collector current IC varies with VCB only at very low voltages (< 1V). The transistor is never operated in this
region.
(ii) when the value of VCB is raised above 1 – 2V, IC becomes constant i.e. IC is independent of VCB and depends
upon IE only. The transistor is always operated in this region.
(iii) A very large change in VCB produces a tiny change in IC. This means that output resistance is high: of the order
of several tens of kilo-ohms.
Hence, output resistance is the change in collector-base voltage, to the resulting change in collector current,
at constant emitter current i.e.

Output resistance, at constant IE

Figure 3.14: Output characteristic of an n-p-n common-base transistor configuration.
3. Transfer characteristic: The transfer characteristic shows how IC varies with changes in IE when VCB is held
constant. See Figure 3.15.

Figure 3.15: Transfer characteristic of an n-p-n common-base transistor configuration.

3.7.3 Common-emitter static characteristic

A circuit that can be used for obtaining the common-emitter characteristics of an n-p-n BJT is as shown in Figure
3.16. in this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and emitter and output is taken from the collector
and emitter. Here, emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits, hence the name common
emitter connection. Figure 3.17 (i) and (ii) shows CE npn and pnp transistor circuits.

1. Base current amplification factor (β): In CE connection, input current is IB and output current, is IC. The ratio
of change in collector current to the change in base current, is known as base current amplification
factor i.e.

Usually, the value of β is generally greater than 20 with its value ranging from 20 to 500. This type of connection
is frequently used as it gives appreciable current and voltage gains.

Exercise
Establish the equational relationship between β and α.

2. Expression for collector current: In CE circuit, IB is the input current and IC is the output current. We have,
……………… (i)
and ……… (ii)
hence, we have,
or

or ………. (iii)
if the base circuit is open, it is apparent that IB = 0; the collector current will be the current to the emitter. This is
abbreviated as ICEO, meaning collector-emitter current with base open.

………. (iv)
Substituting eqn (iv) into eqn (iii),

or

NOTE: It may be noted that:

where

Figure 3.16: Circuit for the determination of static characteristic of common-emitter transistor configuration
 Figure 3.17: Common Emitter (CE) npn and pnp transistor circuit connections

Example
Calculate IE in a transistor for which β = 50 and IB = 20µA.

Solution
β = 50, IB = 20µA = 0.02mA

From the relation,

Example
Find the α rating of the transistor shown below. Hence, determine the value of I C using both α and β rating of the
transistor.

Solution

Finding the values of IC using both the α and β ratings:

Also,

Example
A transistor is connected in CE configuration in which collector supply is 8V and the voltage drop across
resistance RC connected in the collector circuit is 0.5V. The value of RC = 800Ω. If α = 0.96, determine (i) VCE and
(ii) IB

Solution
The required CE connection with various values is as shown below.

(i) Collector-emitter voltage, VCE

(ii)

Example
The collector leakage current in a transistor is 300µA in CE configuration. If now the transistor is connected in CB
arrangement, what will be the leakage current? Given that β = 120.

Solution
ICEO = 300µA, β = 120

Example
For a certain transistor IB = 20µA, IC = 2mA and β = 80. Calculate ICBO.

Solution

Example
Determine VCB in the transistor circuit below. The transistir is islicon and has β = 150.
Solution
Applying KVL to base-emitter loop,

Now,

Also,

1. Input characteristic: It is the curve between base current IB and base-emitter voltage VBE at constant collector-
emitter voltage VCE. The input characteristics of a CE connection can be determined by the circuit of of Figure
3.16.
For the input characteristic, VR1 is set at a particular value and the corresponding values of VBE and IB are noted.
This is repeated for various settings of VR1 and plotting the values gives the typical input characteristic of Figure
3.18.

Figure 3.18: Input characteristic of an n-p-n common-emitter transistor configuration.

The following points may be noted from the characteristics:

(i) the characteristic resembles that of a forward biased diode curve. The emitter-base section of the transistor is a
diode and it is forward biased.
(ii) as compared to CB arrangement, IB increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore, input resistance of a CE circuit
is higher than that of CB circuit.
Hence, input resistance is the ratio of change in base-emitter voltage to the change in base current at
constant VCE i.e.

Input resistance, at constant VCE.

The value of input resistance for a CE circuit is of the order of a few hundred ohms.

2. Output characteristic: It is the curve between collector current IC and collector-emitter voltage VCE at constant
base current IB.
For the output characteristics, from circuit of Figure 3.16, VR1 is varied so that IB is, say, 20μA. Then VR2 is set at
various values and corresponding values of VCE and IC are noted. The graph of VCE/IC is then plotted for IB = 20μA.
This is repeated for, say, IB = 40μA, IB = 60μA, and so on. Plotting the values gives the typical output
characteristics of Figure 3.19.

Figure 3.19: Output characteristic of an n-p-n common-emitter transistor configuration.

The output resistance is the ratio of change in collector-emitter voltage to the change in collector current
at constant IB i.e.

Output resistance, at constant IB.

The output resistance of a CE circuit is less than that of CB circuit. Its value is of the order of 50kΩ.

3. Transfer characteristic: Figure 3.20 shows a typical transfer characteristic for an n-p-n BJT. Here, I C is plotted
against IB.

Figure 3.20: Transfer characteristic of an n-p-n common-emitter transistor configuration.

3.7.3 Common-collector static characteristic
The circuit that can be used to obtain the common-collector characteristic of an n-p-n BJT is as shown in Figure
3.21.

1. Input characteristic: The input characteristic for the common-collector configured BJT is a plot of I B against
VCB for different values of VCE. This plot is as shown in Figure 3.22.
2. Output characteristic: The output characteristic is a plot of IE versus VCE for several fixed value of IB. Since IC
≈ IE, this characteristic is identical to that of the common-emitter circuit and it is as shown in Figure 3.23. Also, its
transfer characteristic (or current gain characteristic) I C against IB for different values of VCE is similar to that of CE
circuit

Figure 3.21: Circuit for the determination of static characteristic of common-collector transistor configuration

Figure 3.22: Input characteristic of an n-p-n common-collector transistor configuration.

Figure 3.23: Output characteristic of an n-p-n common-collector transistor configuration.

(i) Current amplification, γ: In CC circuit, input current is the base current IB and output current is the emitter
current IE. Therefore, current amplification can be defined as:

The ratio of change in emitter current, to the change in base current, i.e. .

Exercise
Find the relationship between γ and β.

(ii) Expression for collector current:

We know that
and that

or

or

(iii) Application: The CC circuit has very high input resistance (about 750kΩ) and very low output resistance
(25Ω). With these, the voltage gain provided by this circuit is always less than 1. Hence, it is seldom used for
amplification. However, it is used primarily for impedance matching i.e. for driving load from a high impedance
source.

3.8 BJT Operation Regions

A BJT has two junctions i.e. base-emitter (BE) and base-collector (BC) junctions either of which could be forward-
biased or reverse-biased. With two junctions, there are four possible combinations of bias conditions:
(i)both junctions reverse-biased
(ii)both junctions forward-biased
(iii)BE junction forward-biased, BC junction reverse-biased
(iv)BE junction reverse-biased, BC junction forward-biased.
Condition (iv) is generally not used, thus we have the conditions tabulated as shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Transistor Operation Regions

BE Junction BC Junction Operation
Region
RB RB Cut-off
FB FB Saturation
 FB RB Active

RB = Reverse-biased FB = Forward-biased

3.8.1 Cut-off region

When IB = 0, the transistor is in the cut-off region of its operation. This is shown in Figure 3.24 with the base lead
open. Resulting in a base current of zero. Under this condition, there is a very small amount of collector leakage
current. ICEO due mainly to thermally produced carriers. Because ICEO is extremely small it will usually be neglected
in circuit analysis so that VCE = VCC. In cut-off, both the base-emitter and the base-collector junctions are reverse-
biased.

Figure 3.24: Transistor operating at cut-off.

3.8.2 Saturation region

When the base-emitter junction becomes forward-biased and the base current is increased, the collector current
also increases and VCE decreases as a result of more drop across the collector resistor (V CE = Vcc - IcRc). When
VCE reaches its saturation value (VCE(sat)), the base-collector junction becomes forward-biased and Ic can increase no
further even with a continued increase in IB. In this case VCE = 0.

3.8.3 Active region

This condition corresponds to forward-bias for BE junction and reverse-bias for BC junction. In this case, V CE > 0.
 Figure 3.25: Graphical summary of BJT operating regions

3.10 Maximum Transistor Ratings

A transistor, like any other electronic device, has limitations on its operation. These limitations are stated in the
form of maximum ratings and are normally specified on the manufacturer's data sheet. Typically, maximum ratings
are given for Collector-to-base voltage, Collector-to-emitter voltage, Emitter-to-base voltage, Collector current,
and power dissipation. The product of VCE and Ic must not exceed the maximum power dissipation. Both VCE and Ic
cannot be maximum at the same time. If VCE is maximum. Ic can be calculated as Ic(sat).

3.11 BJT Parameters

The three characteristic graphs for CE, CC and CB configurations can be used to determine the following
parameters:
For common-emitter configuration:

 Static (or dc) input resistance, (from corresponding point on the graph)

 Dynamic (or ac) input resistance, (from the slope of the graph)

 Static output resistance, (from corresponding point on the graph)

 Dynamic (or ac) output resistance, (from the slope of the graph)

 Current gain (from the transfer characteristic):

 Static (or dc) current gain, (from corresponding point on the graph)
  Dynamic current (or ac) gain, (from the slope of the graph)

 Static voltage gain,

 IE = IB + IC = IB + βIB = (1 + β) IB

 Relation between α and β

Now, IB = IE – IC

or

……… (a)

Cross-multiplying the above equation and simplifying it, we get

β (1 – α) = α or β = α (1 + β) or

……….. (b)

Substituting equation (a) into equation (b)

For common-collector configuration:

 Static input resistance,

 Dynamic input resistance,

 Static output resistance,

 Dynamic output resistance,

 Static current gain, or

 Dynamic current gain,

The flow paths of various currents in a CC configuration are shown in Figure 3.27. It is seen that

∴ output current = (1 + β ) × input current.

IE = IB + IC = IB + βIB = (1 + β)IB

Figure 3.27: Flow paths of various currents in a CC configuration

For common-base configuration:

Static input resistance,

 Dynamic input resistance,

 Static output resistance,

 Dynamic output resistance,

 Static current gain,

More accurately,

As seen from above and Figure 3.28.

IC = α IE.

Now, IB = IE – α IE = (1 – α) IE
 Figure 3.28: Relationship between IB, α and IE

 Dynamic current gain,

3.11.1 Relations between transistor currents

While deriving various equations, following definitions should be kept in mind.

, and

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv) The three transistor d.c. currents always bear the following ratio
IE : IB : IC : : 1 : (1 – α) : α

Example
Figure A shows the input characteristic for an n-p-n silicon transistor. When the base-emitter voltage is 0.65V,
determine (a) the value of base current, (b) the static value of input resistance, and (c) the dynamic value of input
resistance.
 Figure A.

Solution
(a) From Figure A, when VBE = 0.65V, base current, IB = 250μA (shown as (a) on the graph).
(b) When VBE = 0.65V, IB = 250μA, hence,
the static value of input resistance

(c) From Figure A, VBE changes by 0.06V when IB changes by 300μA (as shown by (b) on the graph). Hence,
dynamic value of input resistance

Example
Figure B shows the output characteristic for an n-p-n silicon transistor. When the collector-emitter voltage is 10V
and the base current is 80 μA, determine (a) the value of collector current, (b) the static value of output resistance,
and (c) the dynamic value of output resistance.

Figure B.
Solution

(a) From Figure B, when VCE = 10V and IB = 80μA, (i.e. point (a, b) on the graph), the collector current, IC = 10mA
(b)When VCE = 10V and IB = 80μA then IC = 10mA from part (a). Hence, the static value of output resistance

(c) When the change in VCE is 12V, the change in IC is 1.8mA (shown as point (c) on the graph)

Hence, the dynamic value of output resistance

Example
Figure C shows the transfer characteristic for an n-p-n silicon transistor. When the base current is 2.5mA,
determine (a) the value of collector current, (b) the static value of current gain, and (c) the dynamic value of
current gain.

Figure C

Solution
(a) From Figure C, when IB = 2.5mA, collector
current, IC = 280mA (see point (a, b) on the graph).

(b) From part (a), when IB = 2.5mA, IC = 280mA

hence, the static value of current gain

(c) In Figure C, the tangent through the point (a, b) is shown by the broken straight line (c). Hence, the dynamic

value of current gain

Exercise
1. In a transistor, IB = 68µA, IE = 30mA and β = 440. Find the value of α. Hence, determine the value of IC.
[0.99; 29.92mA]
2. A base current of 50µA is applied to the transistor circuit below and a voltage of 5V is dropped across R C.
Calculate α for the transistor . [0.99]
 CHAPTER 4

THYRISTOR

4.1 Introduction
Thyristor (also known as Silicon Controlled Rectifier, SCR) is a three-terminal semiconductor switching device
which can be used for switching and ac power control. It can be produced in versions to handle up to several
thousand amperes and voltages more than 1kV. The SCR combines both the features of a rectifier and a transistor.
The constructional feature and schematic representation of the thyristor is as shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Circuit symbol and semiconductor arrangement of thyristor.

4.2 Constructional Details

When a pn junction is added to a junction transistor, the resulting three pn junction device is called a SCR. Three
terminals are taken, one from the outer p-type material called anode, A second from the outer n-type material
called cathode, K and the third from the base of transistor section is called gate, G. In the normal operating
conditions of SCR, anode is held at high voltage potential w.r.t. cathode and gate at small positive potential w.r.t
cathode.

4.3 Working Principle of the Thyristor

In a SCR, load is connected in series with anode. The anode is always kept at positive potential w.r.t. cathode. The
working of SCR can be studied under the following two headings:
(i) When gate is open: With no voltage supplied to the gate (see Figure 4.2), junction J2 is reverse biased while
junction J1 and J3 are forward biased. Hence, the situation in the junction J1 and J3 is just as in npn transistor with
base open. Consequently, no current flows through the load RL and the SCR is cut off. Meanwhile, if the applied
voltage is gradually increased, a stage is reached when reverse junction J 2 breaks down. The SCR now conducts
heavily and is said to be in the ON state. The applied voltage at which SCR conducts heavily without gate voltage
is called Breakdown voltage.

Figure 4.2: SCR with no gate voltage supply

(ii) When gate is positive w.r.t. cathode: By applying a small positive voltage to the gate, then SCR can be made
to conduct as shown in Figure 4.3. Now, junction J3 is forward biased and junction J2 reverse biased. The electrons
from n-type material start moving across junction J3 towards left whereas holes from p-type towards the right.
Consequently, the electrons from junction J3 are attracted across junction J2 and gate currents starts flowing
subsequently inceasing anode current. This anode current in turns makes more electrons available at junction J 2.
This process continues and in a very small time, junction J2 breaks down and the SCR starts conducting heavily.
Once the SCR starts conducting, the gate loses control. Even if the gate voltage is removed, the anode current does
not decrease at all. The only way to put the SCR in the off condition is to reduce the applied voltage to zero.
 Figure 4.3: SCR with gate voltage supply

In conclusion,
(i) An SCR has two states i.e. either it does not conduct or conducts heavily. There is no inbetween. Therefore,
SCR behaves like a switch.
(ii) There are two ways to turn on the SCR. The 1st is to keep the gate open and make the supply voltage equal ro
the breakover voltage. The 2nd is to operate the SCR with supply voltage less than breakover voltage and then turn
it on by means of a small voltage (typically 2.5V, 30mA) applied to the gate.
(iii) Applying small positive voltage to the gate is the normal way to close an SCR because the breakover voltage
is usually much greater than supply voltage.
(iv) To make the SCR non-conducting, reduce the supply voltage to zero.

4.4 Equivalent Circuit of SCR

The SCR shown in Figure 4.1 can be visualized as separated into two transistors as shown in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4: Equivalent circuit of SCR

4.5 Important Terms

The following terms are much used in the study of SCR:
(i) Breakover voltage: It is the minimum forward voltage, gate being open, at which SCR starts conducting
heavily i.e. turned on.
(ii) Peak reverse voltage (PRV): It is the minimum reverse voltage (cathode positive w.r.t. anode) that can be
applied to an SCR without conducting in the reverse direction.
(iii) Holding current: It is the maximum anode current, gate being open, at which SCR is turned off from ON
condition.
(iv) Forward current rating: It is the maximum anode current that an SCR is capable of passing without
destruction.
(v)Circuit fusing current: It is the product of square of forward surge current and the time of duration of the surge
i.e.
Circuit fusing rating =

4.6 V – I Characteristic of SCR

This is the curve between anode-cathode voltage (V) and anode current (I) of an SCR at constant gate current.
Figure 4.5 shows the v – i characteristics of a typical SCR.

Figure 4.5: v – i characteristics of a typical SCR.

(i) Forward characteristics: When anode is positive w.r.t. cathode, the curve between V and I is called the
forward characteristic. In Figure 4.5. OABC is the forward characteristic of SCR at I G = 0. If the supply voltage is
increased from zero, a point is reached (point A) when SCR starts conducting. Under this condition, the voltage
across SCR suddenly drops as shown by dotted curve AB and most of supply voltage appears across the load
resistance RL

(ii) Reverse characteristics: When anode is negative w.r.t. cathode, the curve between V and I is known as
reverse characteristics. The reverse voltage does come across SCR when it is operated with a.c. supply. If the
reverse voltage is generally increased, at first the anode current remains small (i.e. leakage current) and at some
reverse voltage, avalanche breakdown occurs and the SCR starts conducting heavily in the reverse direction as
shown by the curve DE. This maximum reverse voltage at which SCR starts conducting heavily is known as
reverse breakdown voltage.

4.7 SCR Switching

A SCR behaves as a switch i.e. it has only two states viz. ON state and OFF state. The methods employed to turn-
on and turn-off an SCR are:

1. SCR turn-on methods: In order to turn on the SCR, the voltage VG is increased up to a minimum value to
initiate triggering. The minimum value of gate voltage at which SCR is turned ON is called gate triggering
voltage, VGT. The resulting gate current is called triggering current IGT. Thus to turn on an SCR all that is required
to do is apply positive gate voltage equal to VGT or pass a gate current equal to IGT. For most SCR, VGT = 2 to 10V
and IGT = 100µA to 1500mA. The two methods used in the turning on an SCR are d.c. gate triggering circuit and
a.c. triggering circuit.

2. SCR turn-off methods: The SCR turn-off poses more problems than SCR turn-on. It is because once the device
is ON, the gate loses all control. There are many methods of SCR turn-off but the two major ones are: anode
current interruption and forced commutation

4.8 Applications of the Thyristor

Its areas of application include:
(i)Switching of high current and remote switching
(ii)Motor speed controller
(iii)In inverters
(iv)Controlled rectifiers
(v)Circuit overload protections
(vi)In latching relays and
(vii)Computer logic circuits

The thyristor is an extremely fast switch. It is difficult to cycle a mechanical switch (e.g. a relay) several hundred
times a minute; some thyristors can be switched 25,000 times a second. Hence, it has the advantage of fast
switching over any mechanical switch that ever exist.

Exercise
1. The thyristor is primarily used for what function?

2. When a thyristor is forward biased, what is needed to cause it to conduct?

3. What is the only way to cause a thyristor to stop conducting?