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Database Management System

Course code: 21BCA3C7L

Database Architecture: Introduction to Database system applications.
Characteristics and Purpose of database approach. People associated with Database
system. Data models. Database schema. Database architecture. Data independence.
Database languages, interfaces, and classification of DBMS.

1. Introduction to Database system :

 Data is statically raw and unprocessed information. For example – name, class, marks,
etc.
 Components of DBMS:
 Database: A structured collection of data.
 DBMS Software: Manages the database (e.g., MySQL, Oracle, SQL Server).
 Users: The people who interact with the system.
 Applications: Programs that use the DBMS to fetch or store data.
 DBMS A Database Management System (DBMS) is software that enables users to create,
manage, and manipulate databases. It provides an interface for users to interact with the
data, allowing them to perform tasks such as querying, updating, and organizing data
efficiently.

1.1 Advantages/Propose of Database Management System:

1. Better use of data or information - We can easily and efficiently access well-managed and
synchronized forms of data with the help of DBMS. It makes data handling simple,
provides an integrated perspective of how a certain business is operating and also aids in
keeping track of how one element of the business affects another portion.

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2. Secured Data - The likelihood of security problems increases as a database becomes

more functional and accessible. The danger to data security rises as a result of the rate at
which data is shared or transferred growing along with the user base.
3. Reduces Data Inconsistency and Redundancy - The major issues faced during the
process of storing data are inconsistency and redundancy. Inconsistent data may lead to a
big loss to an individual or a business model and the storage capacity is not utilized
properly because of the data redundancy. When multiple copies with different versions or
values of the same data exist in various locations, then it causes inconsistency.
4. Better Recovery and Backups - Backup and recovery are handled automatically by the
DBMS. Users don't need to regularly back up their data because the DBMS handles this for
them. Additionally, it returns the database to its prior state following a crash or system
failure.
5. Fast Data Sharing - Database administration makes it possible for consumers to access
more and better-managed data. DBMS enables end users to quickly scan their
environment and react to any alterations made there.
6. Helps in decision-making - Because of the well-managed data and improved data access
provided by DBMS, we are able to produce better-quality information and, as a result,
make better judgments. Accuracy, validity, and the time it takes to read data are all
improved by better data quality. Although DBMS does not ensure data quality, it does
offer a framework that makes it simple to enhance data quality.
7. Increases Privacy - The privacy rule in a database specifies the privacy restrictions that
can only be accessed by authorized users. A user can only view the data he is permitted to
view since there are different degrees of database access. For instance, on social
networking sites, different accounts that a user wishes to access have varying access
restrictions and a user can only see his/her account details, not others.
8. User Friendly - Data are presented in a straightforward and logical manner by database
management systems (DBMS). It is simple to carry out many activities, such as the
addition, deletion, or creation of files or data.
9. Data Abstraction - In order to give users an abstract overview of the data, database
systems are primarily used. Since numerous intricate algorithms are employed by
developers to boost the effectiveness of databases that are concealed from users by several
degrees of data abstraction, consumers can easily engage with the system.

10. Better Recovery and Backups - Backup and recovery are handled automatically by the
DBMS. Users don't need to regularly back up their data because the DBMS handles this for
them. Additionally, it returns the database to its prior state following a crash or system
failure.

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1.2 Database system applications:

1. Railway Reservation System

In the rail route reservation framework, the information base is needed to store the record or
information of ticket appointments, status of train’s appearance, and flight. Additionally, if trains
get late, individuals become acquainted with it through the information base update.

2. Library Management System

There are many books in the library so; it is difficult to store the record of the relative multitude
of books in a register or duplicate. Along these lines, the data set administration framework
(DBMS) is utilized to keep up all the data identified with the name of the book, issue date,
accessibility of the book, and its writer.

3. Banking
Database the executive’s framework is utilized to store the exchange data of the client in the
information base.

4. Education Sector
Presently, assessments are led online by numerous schools and colleges. They deal with all
assessment information through the data set administration framework (DBMS). In spite of that
understudy’s enlistments subtleties, grades, courses, expense, participation, results, and so forth
all the data is put away in the information base.

5. Credit card exchanges

The database Management framework is utilized for buying on charge cards and age of month to
month proclamations.
6. Social Media Sites
We all utilization of online media sites to associate with companions and to impart our
perspectives to the world. Every day, many people group pursue these online media accounts like
Pinterest, Facebook, Twitter, and Google in addition to. By the utilization of the data set
administration framework, all the data of clients are put away in the information base and, we
become ready to interface with others.

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7. Broadcast communications
Without DBMS any media transmission organization can’t think. The Database the executive’s
framework is fundamental for these organizations to store the call subtleties and month to month
postpaid bills in the information base.

8. Accounting and Finance

The information base administration framework is utilized for putting away data about deals,
holding and acquisition of monetary instruments, for example, stocks and bonds in a data set.

9. E-Commerce Websites
These days, web-based shopping has become a major pattern. Nobody needs to visit the shop and
burn through their time. Everybody needs to shop through web based shopping sites, (for
example, Amazon, Flipkart, Snapdeal) from home. So all the items are sold and added uniquely
with the assistance of the information base administration framework (DBMS). Receipt charges,
installments, buy data these are finished with the assistance of DBMS.

10. Human Resource Management

Big firms or organizations have numerous specialists or representatives working under them.
They store data about worker’s compensation, assessment, and work with the assistance of an
information base administration framework (DBMS).

11. Manufacturing
Manufacturing organizations make various kinds of items and deal them consistently. To keep
the data about their items like bills, acquisition of the item, amount, inventory network the
executives, information base administration framework (DBMS) is utilized.

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1.3 Characteristics and Purpose of database approach:

1. The self-describing nature of a database system:

 means it stores both data and metadata, which defines the database's structure and
constraints. This metadata is kept in the DBMS catalog, detailing file structures, data
formats, and rules.

 The catalog is used by both the DBMS software and administrators to understand the
database layout.

 Unlike traditional file systems where data definitions are embedded in files, a general-
purpose DBMS relies on the catalog to access different databases, such as university or
banking systems.

 This allows the DBMS to handle various applications by extracting the required definitions
from the catalog.

2. Insulation between Programs and Data, and Data Abstraction:

 In traditional file systems, changes to file structures require modifying all related
programs.

 However, in a DBMS, this is avoided through program-data independence, where the data
structure is stored separately in the DBMS catalog.

 This allows programs to access data without needing structural changes. The concept of
data abstraction supports this, providing a conceptual view of the data without exposing
storage details.

 A data model represents this abstraction using logical concepts like objects, properties, and
relationships, making it easier for users to understand while hiding unnecessary
implementation complexities from them.

3.Support for Multiple Views of the Data:

 A DBMS supports multiple views, allowing different users to have tailored perspectives of
the database.

 A view can be a subset of the database or virtual data derived from it but not stored
explicitly. Users don’t need to know if the data they access is stored or derived.

 In multi-user systems with diverse applications, the DBMS defines and manages multiple
views, enhancing flexibility and usability.

 This capability is particularly beneficial in large databases, like the Aadhaar database,
where different users or applications require specific data views while maintaining security
and efficiency.

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4.Sharing of knowledge and Multi-user Transaction Processing

 A multi-user DBMS allows multiple users to access and update the database
simultaneously, ensuring data consistency through concurrency control.

 This is crucial for applications like WhatsApp's integration with Facebook, where shared
data is maintained.

 The DBMS ensures that updates, such as assigning a seat in airline reservations, are
handled correctly so that no two users can access the same data simultaneously.

 These applications are called online transaction processing (OLTP)systems. The DBMS
enforces ACID properties—ensuring transactions are isolated (independent of each other)
and atomic (all operations are completed or none), maintaining database integrity.

2.1 People associated with Database system:

Database users are categorized based up on their interaction with the data base
There are two categories of people behind DBMS

a) Those who actually use and control the database content, and those who design, develop
and maintain database applications (called-Actors on the Scene)
b) Those who design and develop the DBMS softwarê and related tools, and the computer
systems operators (called -Workers Behind the Scene).

a) Actors on the Scene

1. Database Administrator (DBA): DBA is a person who is responsible for authorizing access
to the database, coordinating and monitoring its use, and acquiring software and hardware
resources as needed.

2. Database Designers: They are responsible for identifying the data to be stored in the database
and for choosing an appropriate structures to represent and store this data. They also define
views for different categories of users. The final design must be able to support the
requirements of all the user sub-groups.

3. End Users: End users are the people who access the database for querying, updating and
report generation. They are main reason for database's existence!

 Casual end users use database occasionally, needing different information each time use
query language to specify their requests, are typically middle- or high-level managers.

 Naive or Parametric end users typically the biggest group of users. Constantly querying
and updating the database, using standard types of queries and updates called canned
transactions that have been carefully programmed and tested in advance.

 Stand-alone users maintain personal databases using ready-to-use packaged applications.

An example is a tax program user that creates its own internal database. o Another
example is maintaining an address book.
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4. System Analysts, Application Programmers, Software Engineer : System Analysts:

determine needs of end users, especially naive and parametric users, and develop
specifications for canned transactions that meet these needs.

5. Application Programmers: Implement, test, document, and maintain programs that satisfy the
specifications mentioned above.

b) Workers Behind the Scene

1) DBMS system designers and implementers are persons who design and implement the
DBMS modules and interfaces as a software package.

2) Tool developers include persons who design and implement software tools facilitating database
system design, performance monitoring, creation of graphical user interfaces, prototyping, etc.

3) Operators and maintenance personnel are the system administration personnel who are
responsible for the actual running and maintenance of the hardware and software environment for
the database system.

2.2 Data Models:

1. Conceptual Data Model:

The conceptual data model describes the database at a very high level and is useful to
understand the needs or requirements of the database. It is this model, that is used in the
requirement-gathering process i.e. before the Database Designers start making a particular
database. One such popular model is the entity/relationship model (ER model). The E/R model
specializes in entities, relationships, and even attributes that are used by database designers.

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3. Relational Data Model:

This type of model designs the data in the form of rows and columns within a table. Thus, a
relational model uses tables for representing data and in-between relationships. Tables are also
called relations. This model was initially described by Edgar F. Codd, in 1969. The relational
data model is the widely used model which is primarily used by commercial data processing
applications.

3. Entity-Relationship Model (ER Model): It is a high-level data model which is used to

define the data and the relationships between them. It is basically a conceptual design of any
database which is easy to design the view of data.

Components of ER Model:

1. Entity: An entity is referred to as a real-world object. It can be a name, place, object, class,
etc. These are represented by a rectangle in an ER Diagram.

2. Attributes: An attribute can be defined as the description of the entity. These are represented
by Ellipse in an ER Diagram. It can be Age, Roll Number, or Marks for a Student.

3. Relationship: Relationships are used to define relations among different entities. Diamonds
and Rhombus are used to show Relationships.

3.Semistructured Data Model: This type of data model is different from the other three data
models (explained above). The semi-structured data model allows the data specifications at places
where the individual data items of the same type may have different attributes sets. The Extensible
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Markup Language, also known as XML, is widely used for representing the semi-structured data.
Although XML was initially designed for including the markup information to the text document,
it gains importance because of its application in the exchange of data.

1.6 Instances and Schemas:

 The collection of information stored in the database at a particular moment is called an

instance of the database.

 The overall design of the database is called the database schema. The basic structure of
how the data will be stored in the database is called schema.

Differences between Schema and Instance:

 A schema is the design representation of a database whereas instance is the snapshot of a
database at a particular moment.

 Instance changes very frequently whenever data is removed or added in the database. As
against, the changes in schema occurs rarely.

Database schema:
 A database schema is a logical representation of data that shows how the data in a
database should be stored logically. It shows how the data is organized and the
relationship between the tables.
 Database schema contains table, field, views and relation between different keys
like primary key, foreign key.
 Data are stored in the form of files which is unstructured in nature which makes accessing
the data difficult. Thus to resolve the issue the data are organized in structured way with
the help of database schema.
 Database schema provides the organization of data and the relationship between the stored
data.
 Database schema defines a set of guidelines that control the database along with that it
provides information about the way of accessing and modifying the data.

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Three-Schema Architecture (ANSI/SPARC Architecture):

 The three schema architecture is used to describe the structure of a specific database
system. The goal of the three-schema architecture is to separate the user applications
and the physical database.

In this architecture, schemas can be defined at the following three levels:

1. The internal level (physical schema) has an internal schema, which describes the physical
storage structure of the database

 The physical level is used to describe complex low level data structures in detail.

 The internal schema uses a physical data model an d describes the complete details of
data storage and access paths for the database.

2. The Conceptual level (conceptual schema) has a conceptual schema, which describes the
structure of the whole database for a community of users.

 The conceptual schema hides the details of physical storage structures and concentrates
on describing entities, data types relationships, user operation and constraints.

 In the conceptual level, internal details such as an implementation of the data structure
are hidden.

 Programmers and database administrators wor k at this level.

3. The External Level or view level includes a number of external schemas or user views.

 Each external schema describes the part of the database that a particular user group is
interested in and hides the rest of the database from that user group.

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 The view schem a describes the end user interaction with database systems.
Mapping :

 It shows the DBMS architecture.

 Mapping is used to transform the request and response between various database levels
of architecture.

 Mapping is not good for small DBMS because it takes more time.

 In External / Conceptual mapping, it is necessary to transform the request from external

level to conceptual schema.

 In Conceptual / Internal mapping, DBMS transform the request from the conceptual to
internal level.

Data Independence:

Data independence can be defined as the capacity to change the schema at one level of a
database without having to change the schema at the next higher level.

Two types of data independence:

1. Physical Data Independence:

 Physical Data Independence is defined as the ability to m a k e changes in the structure of

the lowest level of the Database Management System (DBMS) without affecting the higher
level schemas.
 The schema in the database are logical, but the actual data isstored is in bit format on the
disk. Physical data independence allows to change the physical data without disturbing the
schema or logical data.
 e.g. if user want to upgrade the storage system it means he/she wants to replace hard-disks
with SSD; then this change should not disturb or change the logical data or schemas.

2. Logical Data independence:

 It is the capacity to change the conceptual s c h e m a without having to change external

schemas or application programs.
 Due to logical independence, any of the below change will not affect the external layer:

i. Add/Modify/Delete a new attribute, entity or relationship is possible without a

rewrite of existing application programs.
ii. Merging two records into one.
iii. Breaking an existing record into two or more records.
 Comparatively it is difficult to achieve logical data independence.

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Database Languages:

 A database system provides a data-definition language to specify the database schema

and a data- manipulation language to express database queries and updates.

 In practice, the data definition and data- manipulation languages are not two separate
languages; instead they simply form parts of a single database language, such as the
widely used SQL language.

(1) Data-Manipulation Language :

 A data-manipulation language (DML) is a language that enables users to access or

manipulate data organized by the appropriate data model. The types of access are:

 Retrieval of information stored in the database.

 Insertion of new information into the database.
 Deletion of information from the database.
 Modification of information stored in the database.

There are basically two types of DML:

(a)Procedural DMLs require a user to specify what data are needed and how to get those data.

(b)Declarative DMLs (also referred to as nonprocedural DMLs) require a user to specify what
data are needed without specifying how to get those data.

Declarative DMLs are usually easier to learn and use than are procedural DMLs. However,
since a user does not have to specify how to get the data, the database system has to figure out
an efficient means of accessing data. A query is a statement requesting the retrieval of
information. The portion of a DML that involves information retrieval is called a query
language. Although technically incorrect, it is common practice to use the terms query language
and data-manipulation language synonymously.

 SELECT: It is used to retrieve data from a database.

 The Select command is used for select required data based on conditions from a
existing Table. Here I select all data from the Class Members Table.

 Syntax:
SELECT * FROM Table_Name;

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 EXAMPLE:

 INSERT: It is sued for Inserting data into existing table.

The Insert command is used for inserting new data into Table. Now I insert a new
data into ClassMembers Table. Below I provide the example.

Syntax:
INSERT INTO Table_Name (Column 1, Column 2, Column 3, Column 4) VALUES (Value
1, Value 2,Value 3, Value 4);

EXAMPLE:

 UPDATE: It is used for update data in the Table based on the requirement.
The Update command is used for update information In the Table. Now I will update name
John Doe to Roman in the ClassMemebers Table. Below I provide that Example you can
update any row or columns data.

Syntax:
UPDATE Table_Name SET Name = 'New_Value' WHERE Name = 'Ola_Value';

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 EXAMPLE:

 DELETE: It is used for delete data from the Table.

 The Delete command is used for delete data from the Table. Here I delete Student Id
with 2 from the ClassMembers. Below I provide the Example for your reference.

 Syntax:
 DELETE FROM Table_Name WHERE Column = Value;

EXAMPLE:

(2) Data-Definition Language (DDL)

 We specify a database schema by a set of definitions expressed by a special

language called a Data- Definition Language (DDL).

 The DDL is also used to specify additional properties of the data.

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 We specify the storage structure and access methods used by the database system by
a set of statementsin a special type of DDL called a data storage and definition
language.

 These statements define the implementation details of the database schemas, which
are usually hidden from the users.

 The data valuesstored in the database must satisfy certain consistency constraints.

Below I list out types of database commands that are used in DDL. By using those queries we
can able to perform the DDL on the Database.

 Create It is used to create objects in the database.

 Alter It is used for change or alter the structure of the database objects.

 Drop It is used for delete objects from the database.

 Truncate It is used for remove all records from a table.

 Rename It is used to rename the object in database.

 Comment It is used for comment on the data dictionary.

CREATE:(Syntax):

CREATE TABLE Students (

column1 INT,
column2 VARCHAR(50),
column3 INT
);

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ALTER:(Syntax):

ALTER TABLE Students ADD column_name;

DROP:(Syantax):

DROP Table Table_name;

TRUNCATE : (SYNTAX)

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

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TCL ( Transaction Control Language ):

The TCL full form is Transaction Control Language commands are used to run the changes
made by the DML commands And one more thing is TCL can be grouped into a logical
transaction. And We have two different commands in this category below I listed them for
reference.

 Commit It is used for save the transaction on the Database. And these very useful in
banking sectors.
 Rollback It is used for restore the database to original state from last commit. This
command also plays an important role in Banking Sectors.

COMMIT:

ROLLBACK:

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Database Architecture:

 The architecture of a database system is greatly influenced by the underlying computer

system on which the database system runs.

 Database systems can be centralized, or client- server,where one server machine

executes work on behalf of multiple client machines.

 Database systems can also be designed to exploit parallel computer architectures.

Distributed databases span multiple geographically separated machines.

 A database system is partitioned into modules that deal with each of the responsibilities
of the overall system.

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 The functional components of a database system can be broadly divided into the storage
manager and the query processor components.

 The storage manager is important because databases typically require a large amount of
storage space. The query processor is important because it helps the database system
simplify and facilitate access to data.

Query Processor:

The query processor components include

 DDL interpreter, which interprets DDL statements and records the definitions in the data
dictionary.

 DML compiler, which translates DML statements in a query language into an evaluation
plan consisting of low-level instructions that the query evaluation engine understands.

 A query can usually be translated into any of a number of alternative evaluation plans
that all give the same result. The DML compiler also performs query optimization, that
is, it picks the lowest cost evaluation plan from among the alternatives.

 Query evaluation engine, which executes low-level instructions generated by the DML
compiler.

Storage Manager:

A storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the lowlevel data
stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to the system. The
storage manager is responsible for the interaction with the file manager. The raw data are stored
on the disk using the file system, which is usually provided by a conventional operating system.
The storage manager translates the various DML statements into low-level file-system
commands. Thus, the storage manager is responsible for storing, retrieving, and updating data
in the database.

The storage manager components include:

 Authorization and integrity manager, which tests for the satisfaction of integrity
constraints and checks the authority of users to access data.

 Transaction manager, which ensures that the database remains in a consistent (correct)
state despite system failures, and that concurrent transaction executions proceed without
conflicting.

 File manager, which manages the allocation of space on disk storage and the data
structures used to represent information stored on disk.

 Buffer manager, which is responsible for fetching data from disk storage into main
memory, and deciding what data to cache in main memory. The buffer manager is a
critical part of the database system, since it enables the database to handle data sizes that
are much larger than the size of main memory.

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Transaction Manager:

 A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single logical function in a

database application. Each transaction is a unit of both atomicity and consistency. Thus,
we require that transactions do not violate any database-consistency constraints.

 That is, if the database was consistent when a transaction started, the database must be
consistent when the transaction successfully terminates.

 Transaction - manager ensures that the database remains in a consistent (correct) state
despite system failures (e.g., power failures and operating system crashes) and
transaction failures.

Database interfaces:
A database management system (DBMS) interface is a user interface that allows for the
ability to input queries to a database without using the query language itself. User-friendly
interfaces provided by DBMS may include the following:
 Menu-Based Interfaces
 Forms-Based Interfaces
 Graphical User Interfaces
 Natural Language Interfaces
 Speech Input and Output Interfaces
 Interfaces for Parametric Users
 Interfaces for the Database Administrator (DBA)

I. Menu-Based Interfaces
These interfaces present the user with lists of options (called menus) that lead the user
through the formation of a request. The basic advantage of using menus is that they remove
the tension of remembering specific commands and syntax of any query language. The query
is basically composed step by step by collecting or picking options from a menu that is shown
by the system. Pull-down menus are a very popular technique in Web-based interfaces.

II. Forms-Based Interfaces

A forms-based interface displays a form to each user. Users can fill out all of the form entries
to insert new data, or they can fill out only certain entries, in which case the DBMS will
redeem the same type of data for other remaining entries. These types of forms are usually
designed or created and programmed for users that have no expertise in operating systems.
Many DBMS’s have form specification languages which are special languages that help
specify such forms.
III. Graphical User Interface
A GUI typically displays a schema to the user in diagrammatic form. The user then can
specify a query by manipulating the diagram. In many cases, GUI utilise both menus and
forms. Most GUI use a pointing device such as a mouse, to pick a certain part of the displayed
schema diagram.

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IV. Natural Language Interfaces

These interfaces accept requests written in English or some other language and attempt to
understand them. A Natural language interface has its own schema, which is similar to the
database conceptual schema as well as a dictionary of important words.

Classification of Database Management Systems

Several criteria are normally used to classify DBMSs.

1. Based on data model.

2. Based on users.
3. Based on site.
4. Based on purpose.
5. cost of DBMS.

 Based on data-model

 Based on data model they uses, the DBMS can be classified as

o Hierarchical DBMS organizes the data records in a tree structure.

o Network DBMS organizes the data records linked to one another through
pointers, which is an association between records.

 Based on number of users

 Depending on the number of users the DBMS support, it is divided into two categories.

o In single user system, the data resides on one computer and is only accessed by
one user at a time.

o In multi user system, multiple users can access the database at the same time.

 Based on number of sites

 Depending on the number of sites over which the database is distributed, it is classified
into two types

 centralized database systems run on a single computer system. Both the database and
DBMS software resides at a single computer site.

 In distributed databases management system, the database and DBMS software are
distributed over several computers at different sites.

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 Based on the purpose

 Depending on the purpose the DBMS it can be classified as DBMS is a general purpose
software system.

 It DBMS designed for specific purposes such as airline or railway reservations, such
systems cannot be used for other applications.

 Classification of DBMS based on costs of DBMS are:

 Low cost: cost of these system between $100 to $3000.

 Medium cost: cost of these system between $10,000 to $100,000.

 High cost: cost of these system more than $100,000.

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