Equivalence Relations

Let X be a set, a partition of X is a collection S of non-empty subsets of X such that

every element in X belong exactly to one member of S.
Examples:
1. Suppose we have a set X of 6 balls, each of which is red, blue or yellow. If we divide
the balls into sets R, B, Y, according to their colors, then the family {R, B, Y} is called a
partition on X.
2. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Then, the sets A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4, 5} and C = {6, 7, 8}
form a partition of X.
A partition can be used to define a relation. If S is a partition of X, we may define xR y to
mean that for some set SS both x and y belong to S.
Theorem 3
Let S be a partition of a set X. Define xR y to mean that for some set S in S, both x and
y belong to S. Then R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Proof: Let xX. By definition of partition, x belongs to some member S of S. Thus, xR x
and R is reflexive.
Suppose that xR y. Then both x and y belong to some set SS. Since both x and y
belong to S, then we can have yR x and thus,R is symmetric.
Finally, suppose that xR y and yR z. Then both x and y belong to some set S S and
similarly, both y and z to some set TS. Since y belongs to exactly one member of S,
then S = T. Therefore, both x and z belong to S and xR z. Thus, R istransitive.
Example:
Consider the partition S = {{1, 3, 5}, {2, 6}, {4}} of X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. The relation R on
X given by the previous theorem must contain the ordered pairs (1, 1), (1, 3) and (1, 5)
since {1, 3, 5} is in S. The complete relation is
R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 5), (3, 1), (3, 3), (3, 5), (5, 1), (5, 3), (5, 5), (2, 2), (2, 6), (6, 2), (6,
6), (4, 4)}.
If SS, we can regard the members of S as equivalent in the sense of relation R. For
this reason we have the following definition.
A relation that is reflexive, symmetric and transitive on a set X is called an equivalence
relation.
More Examples:
Consider the relation: R = { (1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 3),(3, 5), (4, 2),
(4, 4), (5, 1), (5, 3), (5, 5)} on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
R is reflexive since (1, 1), (2, 2), (3,3), (4, 4), (5, 5) R. R is symmetric because
whenever (x, y) R , (y, x) R . Finally, R is transitive because whenever (x, y) and (y,
z) are in R , (x, z) is also in R. Thus,
R is an equivalence relation.
2. The relation R on the set X = {1, 2, 3, 4} defined by (x, y)  R if x ≤ y, where x, y X
is not an equivalence relation since R is not symmetric.
3. Let X = {a, b, c} and define R as (x, y) R if x=y. Then, R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c)}.
Then, R is an equivalence relation since R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Note: Given an equivalence relation on a set X, we can partition X by grouping related
members of X together. Elements related to one another can be thought of as
equivalent.
Theorem 4
Let R be an equivalence relation on a set X. For each aX, let [
a] = {xX | xR a}.
Then,
S = {[a] | a X }
Set [a] is called the equivalence classes of X given by the relation R.
Proof:
We need to show that every element in X belongs to exactly one member of S. Let aX.
Since aR a, a[a]. Thus, every element in X belongs to at least one member of S. It
remains to show that every element in X belongs to exactly one member of S ;
that is If xX and x[a] ∩ [b], then [a] = [b]. We first show that if aR b, then, [a] = [b].
Suppose that aR b and let x[a]. Then, xR a. Since R is transitive, we have xR b. Thus,
x[b] and [a]  [b]. Similarly, using the same argument, [b]  [a]. Thus, [a] = [b]. Now,
assume that xX and x[a] ∩ [b]. Then, xR a and xR b.
The preceding result shows that [x] = [a] and [x] = [b]. Thus, [a] = [b].
Examples:
1. Consider the equivalence relation on the partition S = {{1, 3, 5}, {2, 6}, {4}} of the
previous example. The equivalence class [1] containing 1 consist of all x such that (x, 1)
R . Therefore, [1] = {1, 3, 5}. The remaining equivalence classes are [3] = [5] = {1, 3,
5}, [2] = [6] = {2, 6}, and [4] = {4}.
2. The equivalence relation R = { (1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 3),(3, 5),
(4, 2), (4, 4), (5, 1), (5, 3), (5, 5)} has two equivalence classes. Namely, [1] = [3] = [5]
={ 1, 3, 5} and [2]=[4]={2, 4}.
3. The equivalence classes for the equivalence relation R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c)} are [a]
= {a}, [b] = {b} and [c] = {c}.
4. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. Define xR y to mean that 3 divides x – y. Verify
that R is an equivalence relation on X. The equivalence class [1] consists of all x with
xR 1. Thus, [1]= {xX | 3 divides x - 1} = { 1, 4, 7, 10}. Similarly, [2] = {2, 5, 8}, [3] = {3,
6, 9}, [4] = {1, 4, 7, 10} and so on. Thus we only have 3 distinct partitions, namely [1] =
[4] = [7] = [10], [2] = [5] = [8], and [3] = [6] = [9].
Note: For this relation, equivalence “has the same remainder when divided by 3”.

Theorem 5
Let R be an equivalence relation on a finite set X. If each equivalence class has r
elements, then there are |X| / r equivalence classes.
Example:
Consider the equivalence classes for the equivalence relation R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c,
c)} .Since each equivalence class has 1 element, there are |X|/1 = 3/1 = 3 equivalence
classes.

FUNCTIONS

One of the most important concepts in mathematics is that of a function. A function is a

special kind of relation.
Definition 26
A function f :X →Y is a relation from X to Y satisfying the following properties:
i. The domain of f is X
ii. ii. If (x, y), (x y’)  f , then y = y’.
If x X, then the elements of Y assigned to x will be denote by f (x) . f (x) is
called the image of x under f .

Loosely speaking, a function is also a subset of the Cartesian product that

assigns each elements of X to distinct elements of Y. That is, two distinct
elements of the domain of a function cannot have the same image.

Examples:

1. Let X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {a, b, c}. Define f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c)}. Then f is a
function.

2. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Y = {a, b, c}. Define f = {(1, a), (2,b), (3,c)} and g =
{(1,a), (2, a), (3,b), (4, c)}. Then f is not a function while g is a function.

3. f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c), (1, b)} is not a function.

4. Let X be the set of real numbers and Y be the set of all nonnegative real
numbers. Define f (x) = x 2 . Then, f is a function. In particular, we can have
 f (1) = 12 = 1;
f (2) = 2 = 4;
f (-2) = -2 2 = 4.

5. Let X be the set of real numbers and Y be the set integers. Define the function
f (x) = [x], where [x] is the largest integer less than or equal to x. In particular,

f (2.5) = 2
f (0.25) = 0

f (-7/3) = -3
f (1) =1

Such function is called the greatest integer function

6. Let A and B be non- empty sets. Then the function f :AxB → B is sometimes
called a transition function. One reason that such functions is called like this is
illustrated by the following :

Let A = {sad, happy, ecstatic} and B = {bad news, good news}.

Thus

f (sad, bad news) = sad

f (sad, good news) = sad
f (happy, bad news) = happy
f (happy, good news) = happy
f (ecstatic, bad news) = ecstatic
f (ecstatic, good news) = ecstatic

Definition 27

Let f :X →Y be a function.

 f is said to be one- to- one (or injective) if for each yY

there is at most one xX with f (x) = y. In symbols, a function
is one-to-one if x1 = x2 implies that f (x )1 = f (x )2

 f is said to be onto Y if the image of f is the range of f .(onto

functions are also called surjective functions). In symbols, a
function is onto if for every yY, there is an x X such that y = f (x).
Examples:
1. The function f = { (1,a), (2, b), (3,c)} with domain X={1, 2, 3} and range Y = {a, b,
c} is one-to–one and onto Y.

Note: A function that is both one-to-one and onto is called a bijection.

2. Let X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {a, b, c, d}. Define the function as f = {(1, b), (3, a), (2, c)}.
Then f is one-to-one but not onto Y.

3. The function f (x) = x 2 from the set of real numbers to the set of all non-negative real
numbers is onto but not one-to-one.

4. Let greatest integer function f (x) = [x] is onto but not one-to-one.

5. Define a function f of the set of real numbers as f (x) = x+1. In particular we can have

f (1) = 2
f (1/2) = 3/2
f (-5) = -4 f (0) =1
Then f is a bijection

Definition 28 Let f :X→Y be a bijection.

The inverse of f denoted by
f -1 is the set f -1 = {(y, x) | (x, y)  f }
Examples:
-1
a. Let f = { (1,a), (2, b), (3,c)}. Then f = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3)}.

b. Let f (x) = x 2 . Then f -1 does not exist since f is not abijection.

c. Let f (x) = x+1. Then, f -1 (x) = x – 1 . In particular,

f -1 (2) = 1

f-1 (3/2) = 1/2

f -1 (-4) = -5
f-1 (1) = 0

Generally, we can obtain the inverse of a function by the following steps:

 Given the function, replace f (x) by y. For example, consider the

function f (x) = x+1. We now have y = x + 1.
 Interchange the x with y. Thus, we have x = y + 1
 Then solve for y in terms of x. y = x -1
 Replace y with f -1 (x). f -1 (x) =x -1

Definition 29
Suppose that g: X→ Y and f :Y→ Z. The composition function denoted by f o g is
defined as
Examples:
1. Let g = { (1, a), (2, a), (3, c)}, a function from X = {1, 2, 3} to Y= {a, b, c} and f = {(a,
y), (b, x), (c, z)}, a function from Y to Z = {x, y,z}. Then, f og = { (1, y), (2, y), (3, z)}.

2. Let X = {a, b, c}, Y = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Z = { a, 2, -6 }. Let g: X →Y defined by g (a) = 2,

g (b) = 2 , g (c) = 1 and Let f: Y→ Z defined by f(1) = a , f(2) = - 6 , f(3) = - 6, f(4)
= a. Then f og : X→ Z is the function given by

fog (a) = f(g(a)) =f(2) =- 6

fog (b) = f(g(b)) = f(2) = - 6
fog (c) = f(g(c)) = f(1) = a

3. Let X =Y = Z = R (set of real numbers).

Let f: R→ R be defined by f(x) = x 2 + 1 and

Let g: R → R be defined by g(x) = 2x – 1.

Then fog (x) = f(g(x)) = f(2x – 1) = (2x – 1 )2 + 1 = 4x2 -4x + 2.

Note: In general, the composition fog is not the same as the function gof. In fact,
it is usually the case that only one of the compositions can even be defined.