Introduction To Microprocessors - Text

What is Microprocessor
Microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-computer, fabricated on a small chip

capable of performing ALU (Arithmetic Logical Unit) operations and communicating
with the other devices connected to it.
Microprocessor consists of an ALU, register array, and a control unit. ALU performs
arithmetical and logical operations on the data received from the memory or an input
device. Register array consists of registers identified by letters like B, C, D, E, H, L
and accumulator. The control unit controls the flow of data and instructions within the
computer.
Block Diagram of a Basic Microcomputer
How does a Microprocessor Work?

The microprocessor follows a sequence: Fetch, Decode, and then Execute.
Initially, the instructions are stored in the memory in a sequential order. The
microprocessor fetches those instructions from the memory, then decodes it and
executes those instructions till STOP instruction is reached. Later, it sends the result
in binary to the output port. Between these processes, the register stores the
temporarily data and ALU performs the computing functions.
List of Terms Used in a Microprocessor
Here is a list of some of the frequently used terms in a microprocessor −
• Instruction Set − It is the set of instructions that the microprocessor can
understand.
• Bandwidth − It is the number of bits processed in a single instruction.
• Clock Speed − It determines the number of operations per second the
processor can perform. It is expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz).It
is also known as Clock Rate.
• Word Length − It depends upon the width of internal data bus, registers, ALU,
etc. An 8-bit microprocessor can process 8-bit data at a time. The word length
ranges from 4 bits to 64 bits depending upon the type of the microcomputer.
• Data Types − The microprocessor has multiple data type formats like binary,
BCD, ASCII, signed and unsigned numbers.
Features of a Microprocessor
Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of any microprocessor −
• Cost-effective − The microprocessor chips are available at low prices and
results its low cost.
• Size − The microprocessor is of small size chip, hence is portable.
• Low Power Consumption − Microprocessors are manufactured by using
metaloxide semiconductor technology, which has low power consumption.
• Versatility − The microprocessors are versatile as we can use the same chip
in a number of applications by configuring the software program.
• Reliability − The failure rate of an IC in microprocessors is very low, hence it is
reliable.
Types of Microprocessors:
A microprocessor can be classified into three categories −
RISC Processor
RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. It is designed to reduce the
execution time by simplifying the instruction set of the computer. Using RISC
processors, each instruction requires only one clock cycle to execute results in uniform
execution time. This reduces the efficiency as there are more lines of code, hence
more RAM is needed to store the instructions. The compiler also has to work more to
convert high-level language instructions into machine code.
Some of the RISC processors are −
• Power PC: 601, 604, 615, 620

• DEC Alpha: 210642, 211066, 21068, 21164
• MIPS: TS (R10000) RISC Processor
• PA-RISC: HP 7100LC
Architecture of RISC
RISC microprocessor architecture uses highly-optimized set of instructions. It is used
in portable devices like Apple iPod due to its power efficiency.
Characteristics of RISC
The major characteristics of a RISC processor are as follows −
• It consists of simple instructions.
• It supports various data-type formats.
• It utilizes simple addressing modes and fixed length instructions for pipelining.
• It supports register to use in any context.
• One cycle execution time.
• “LOAD” and “STORE” instructions are used to access the memory location.
• It consists of larger number of registers.
• It consists of less number of transistors.
CISC Processor
CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. It is designed to minimize the
number of instructions per program, ignoring the number of cycles per instruction. The
emphasis is on building complex instructions directly into the hardware.
The compiler has to do very little work to translate a high-level language into assembly
level language/machine code because the length of the code is relatively short, so
very little RAM is required to store the instructions.
Some of the CISC Processors are −
• IBM 370/168
• VAX 11/780
• Intel 80486
Architecture of CISC
Its architecture is designed to decrease the memory cost because more storage is
needed in larger programs resulting in higher memory cost. To resolve this, the
number of instructions per program can be reduced by embedding the number of
operations in a single instruction.
Characteristics of CISC
• Variety of addressing modes.
• Larger number of instructions.
• Variable length of instruction formats.
• Several cycles may be required to execute one instruction.
• Instruction-decoding logic is complex.
• One instruction is required to support multiple addressing modes.
Special Processors
These are the processors which are designed for some special purposes. Few of the
special processors are briefly discussed −
Coprocessor
A coprocessor is a specially designed microprocessor, which can handle its particular
function many times faster than the ordinary microprocessor.
For example − Math Coprocessor.
Some Intel math-coprocessors are −
• 8087-used with 8086

• 80287-used with 80286
• 80387-used with 80386
Input/Output Processor
It is a specially designed microprocessor having a local memory of its own, which is
used to control I/O devices with minimum CPU involvement.
For example −
• DMA (direct Memory Access) controller

• Keyboard/mouse controller
• Graphic display controller
• SCSI port controller
DSP (Digital Signal Processor)

This processor is specially designed to process the analog signals into a digital form.
This is done by sampling the voltage level at regular time intervals and converting the
voltage at that instant into a digital form. This process is performed by a circuit called
an analogue to digital converter, A to D converter or ADC.
A DSP contains the following components −
• Program Memory − It stores the programs that DSP will use to process data.
• Data Memory − It stores the information to be processed.
• Compute Engine − It performs the mathematical processing, accessing the
program from the program memory and the data from the data memory.
• Input/Output − It connects to the outside world.
Its applications are −
• Sound and music synthesis

• Audio and video compression
• Video signal processing
• 2D and 3d graphics acceleration.
For example − Texas Instrument’s TMS 320 series, e.g., TMS 320C40, TMS320C50.

Introduction To Microprocessors - Text

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Introduction To Microprocessors - Text

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What is Microprocessor

Microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-computer, fabricated on a small chip

How does a Microprocessor Work?

• Power PC: 601, 604, 615, 620

• 8087-used with 8086

• DMA (direct Memory Access) controller

DSP (Digital Signal Processor)

• Sound and music synthesis

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