UNIT - I:

Overview of Computer Graphics System: Video Display Devices – Raster Scan Systems – Random
– Scan Systems - Graphics Monitors and Workstations – Input Devices – Hardcopy Devices –
Graphics Software.

UNIT - II:
Output Primitives: Line Drawing Algorithms – Loading the Frame Buffer – Line Function – Circle
– Generating Algorithms. Attributes of Output Primitives: Line Attributes – Curve Attributes –
Color and Grayscale levels– Area fill Attributes – Character Attributes – Bundled Attributes –
Inquiry Functions.

UNIT - III:
2D Geometric Transformations: Basic Transformation – Matrix Representations – Composite
Transformations – Window to View port Co-Ordinate Transformations. Clipping: Point Clipping
– Line Clipping – Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping – Liang Barsky Line Clipping – Polygon
Clipping – Sutherland – Hodgman Polygon Clipping – Curve Clipping – Text Clipping.

UNIT - IV:
Graphical User Interfaces and Interactive Input Methods: The User Dialogue – Input of Graphical
Data – Input Functions – Interactive Picture Construction Techniques. Three Dimensional
Concepts: 3D-Display Methods – #Three Dimensional Graphics Packages.

UNIT - V:
3D Geometric and Modelling Transformations: Translation – Scaling – Rotation – Other
Transformations. Visible Surface Detection Methods: Classification of Visible Surface Detection
Algorithm –Blackface Detection – Depth-Buffer Method – A-Buffer Method – Scan-Line Method –
Applications of Computer Graphics.

UNIT-I
 Computer graphics is an art of drawing pictures, lines, charts, etc. using computers with the
help of programming. Computer graphics image is made up of number of pixels. Pixel is the smallest

addressable graphical unit represented on the computer screen. It is including digital

images, animations, and interactive graphics used in various sectors such
as entertainment, education, scientific visualization, and virtual reality.

Application of computer graphics User interface: -

Visual object which we observe on screen which communicates with user is one of the most useful
applications of the computer graphics. Plotting of graphics and chart in industry, business,
government and educational organizations drawing like bars, pie-charts, histogram’s are very useful
for quick and good decision making.
Office automation and desktop publishing:-
It is used for creation and dissemination of information. It is used in in-house creation and printing of
documents which contains text, tables, graphs and other forms of drawn or scanned images or
picture. Computer aided drafting and design: -
It uses graphics to design components and system such as automobile bodies structures of building
etc.
Simulationandanimation:-Useofgraphicsinsimulationmakesmathematicmodelsandmechanical
systems more realistic and easy to study.
Art and commerce:-Therearemanytoolsprovidedbygraphicswhichallowsusedtomaketheirpicture
animated and attracted which are used in advertising.
Process control:-Nowaday’s automation is used which is graphically displayed on the screen.
Cartography: - Computer graphics is also used to represent geographic maps, weather maps,
oceanographic charts etc.
Education and training: - Computer graphics can be used to generate models of physical, financial
and economic systems. These models can be used as educational aids.
Image processing: -It is used to process image by changing property of the image

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):

CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube. CRT is a technology used in traditional computer
monitors and televisions. The image on CRT display is created by firing electrons
from the back of the tube of phosphorus located towards the front of the screen.

Once the electron heats the phosphorus, they light up, and they are projected on a
screen. The color you view on the screen is produced by a blend of red, blue and
green light.
Components of CRT:
Main Components of CRT are:

1. Electron Gun: Electron gun consisting of a series of elements, primarily a heating

filament (heater) and a cathode. The electron gun creates a source of electrons
which are focused into a narrow beam directed at the face of the CRT.

2. Control Electrode: It is used to turn the electron beam on and off.

3. Focusing system: It is used to create a clear picture by focusing the electrons

into a narrow beam.

4. Deflection Yoke: It is used to control the direction of the electron beam. It creates
an electric or magnetic field which will bend the electron beam as it passes through
the area. In a conventional CRT, the yoke is linked to a sweep or scan generator.
The deflection yoke which is connected to the sweep generator creates a fluctuating
electric or magnetic potential.

5. Phosphorus-coated screen: The inside front surface of every CRT is coated with
phosphors. Phosphors glow when a high-energy electron beam hits them.
Phosphorescence is the term used to characterize the light given off by a phosphor
after it has been exposed to an electron beam.

Random Scan Display:

Random Scan System uses an electron beam which operates like a pencil to create
a line image on the CRT screen. The picture is constructed out of a sequence of
straight-line segments. Each line segment is drawn on the screen by directing the
beam to move from one point on the screen to the next, where its x & y coordinates
define each point. After drawing the picture. The system cycles back to the first line
and design all the lines of the image 30 to 60 time each second. The process is
shown in fig:
Random-scan monitors are also known as vector displays or stroke-writing displays
or calligraphic displays.

Advantages:
1. A CRT has the electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen where an
image is to be drawn.
2. Produce smooth line drawings.
3. High Resolution

Disadvantages:
1. Random-Scan monitors cannot display realistic shades scenes.

Raster Scan Display:

A Raster Scan Display is based on intensity control of pixels in the form of a
rectangular box called Raster on the screen. Information of on and off pixels is
stored in refresh buffer or Frame buffer. Televisions in our house are based on
Raster Scan Method. The raster scan system can store information of each pixel
position, so it is suitable for realistic display of objects. Raster Scan provides a
refresh rate of 60 to 80 frames per second.

Frame Buffer is also known as Raster or bit map. In Frame Buffer the positions are
called picture elements or pixels. Beam refreshing is of two types. First is horizontal
retracing and second is vertical retracing. When the beam starts from the top left
corner and reaches the bottom right scale, it will again return to the top left side
called at vertical retrace. Then it will again more horizontally from top to bottom call
as horizontal retracing shown in fig:

Types of Scanning or travelling of beam in Raster Scan

1. Interlaced Scanning
2. Non-Interlaced Scanning

In Interlaced scanning, each horizontal line of the screen is traced from top to
bottom. Due to which fading of display of object may occur. This problem can be
solved by Non-Interlaced scanning. In this first of all odd numbered lines are traced
or visited by an electron beam, then in the next circle, even number of lines are
located.

For non-interlaced display refresh rate of 30 frames per second used. But it gives
flickers. For interlaced display refresh rate of 60 frames per second is used.

Advantages:
1. Realistic image
2. Million Different colors to be generated
3. Shadow Scenes are possible.

Disadvantages:
1. Low Resolution
2. Expensive
Differentiate between Random and Raster Scan
Display:
Random Scan Raster Scan

1. It has high Resolution 1. Its resolution is low.

2. It is more expensive 2. It is less expensive

3. Any modification if needed is easy 3.Modification is tough

4. Solid pattern is tough to fill 4.Solid pattern is easy to fill

5. Refresh rate depends or resolution 5. Refresh rate does not depend on the picture.

6. Only screen with view on an area is displayed. 6. Whole screen is scanned.

7. Beam Penetration technology come under it. 7. Shadow mark technology came under this.

8. It does not use interlacing method. 8. It uses interlacing

9. It is restricted to line drawing applications 9. It is suitable for realistic display.

Color CRT Monitors:

The CRT Monitor display by using a combination of phosphors. The phosphors are
different colors. There are two popular approaches for producing color displays with
a CRT are:

1. Beam Penetration Method

2. Shadow-Mask Method

1. Beam Penetration Method:

The Beam-Penetration method has been used with random-scan monitors. In this
method, the CRT screen is coated with two layers of phosphor, red and green and
the displayed color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates the phosphor
layers. This method produces four colors only, red, green, orange and yellow. A
beam of slow electrons excites the outer red layer only; hence screen shows red
color only. A beam of high-speed electrons excites the inner green layer. Thus
screen shows a green color.

Advantages:
1. Inexpensive

Disadvantages:
1. Only four colors are possible
2. Quality of pictures is not as good as with another method.

2. Shadow-Mask Method:
o Shadow Mask Method is commonly used in Raster-Scan System because they
produce a much wider range of colors than the beam-penetration method.
o It is used in the majority of color TV sets and monitors.

Construction: A shadow mask CRT has 3 phosphor color dots at each pixel
position.

o One phosphor dot emits: red light

o Another emits: green light
o Third emits: blue light

This type of CRT has 3 electron guns, one for each color dot and a shadow mask
grid just behind the phosphor coated screen.

Shadow mask grid is pierced with small round holes in a triangular pattern.

Figure shows the delta-delta shadow mask method commonly used in color CRT
system.
Working: Triad arrangement of red, green, and blue guns.

The deflection system of the CRT operates on all 3 electron beams simultaneously;
the 3 electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow mask,
which contains a sequence of holes aligned with the phosphor- dot patterns.

When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a
dotted triangle, which occurs as a small color spot on the screen.
The phosphor dots in the triangles are organized so that each electron beam can
activate only its corresponding color dot when it passes through the shadow mask.

Inline arrangement: Another configuration for the 3 electron guns is an Inline

arrangement in which the 3

electron guns and the corresponding red-green-blue color dots on the screen, are
aligned along one scan line rather of in a triangular pattern.

This inline arrangement of electron guns in easier to keep in alignment and is

commonly used in high-resolution color CRT's.

Advantage:
1. Realistic image
2. Million different colors to be generated
3. Shadow scenes are possible

Disadvantage:
1. Relatively expensive compared with the monochrome CRT.
2. Relatively poor resolution
3. Convergence Problem

Direct View Storage Tubes:

DVST terminals also use the random scan approach to generate the image on the
CRT screen. The term "storage tube" refers to the ability of the screen to retain the
image which has been projected against it, thus avoiding the need to rewrite the
image constantly.
Function of guns: Two guns are used in DVST

1. Primary guns: It is used to store the picture pattern.

2. Flood gun or Secondary gun: It is used to maintain picture display.

Advantage:
1. No refreshing is needed.
2. High Resolution
3. Cost is very less

Disadvantage:
1. It is not possible to erase the selected part of a picture.
2. It is not suitable for dynamic graphics applications.
3. If a part of picture is to modify, then time is consumed.

Flat Panel Display:

The Flat-Panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume,
weight and power requirement compare to CRT.
Example: Small T.V. monitor, calculator, pocket video games, laptop computers, an
advertisement board in elevator.

1. Emissive Display: The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical
energy into light. Examples are Plasma Panel, thin film electroluminescent display
and LED (Light Emitting Diodes).

2. Non-Emissive Display: The Non-Emissive displays use optical effects to convert

sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Examples are LCD
(Liquid Crystal Device).

Plasma Panel Display:

Plasma-Panels are also called as Gas-Discharge Display. It consists of an array of
small lights. Lights are fluorescent in nature. The essential components of the
plasma-panel display are:

1. Cathode: It consists of fine wires. It delivers negative voltage to gas cells. The
voltage is released along with the negative axis.
2. Anode: It also consists of line wires. It delivers positive voltage. The voltage is
supplied along positive axis.
3. Fluorescent cells: It consists of small pockets of gas liquids when the voltage is
applied to this liquid (neon gas) it emits light.
4. Glass Plates: These plates act as capacitors. The voltage will be applied, the cell
will glow continuously.

The gas will slow when there is a significant voltage difference between horizontal
and vertical wires. The voltage level is kept between 90 volts to 120 volts. Plasma
level does not require refreshing. Erasing is done by reducing the voltage to 90 volts.

Each cell of plasma has two states, so cell is said to be stable. Displayable point in
plasma panel is made by the crossing of the horizontal and vertical grid. The
resolution of the plasma panel can be up to 512 * 512 pixels.
Figure shows the state of cell in plasma panel display:

Advantage:
1. High Resolution
2. Large screen size is also possible.
3. Less Volume
4. Less weight
5. Flicker Free Display

Disadvantage:
1. Poor Resolution
2. Wiring requirement anode and the cathode is complex.
3. Its addressing is also complex.

LED (Light Emitting Diode):

In an LED, a matrix of diodes is organized to form the pixel positions in the display
and picture definition is stored in a refresh buffer. Data is read from the refresh buffer
and converted to voltage levels that are applied to the diodes to produce the light
pattern in the display.
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):
Liquid Crystal Displays are the devices that produce a picture by passing polarized
light from the surroundings or from an internal light source through a liquid-crystal
material that transmits the light.

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LCD uses the liquid-crystal material between two glass plates; each plate is the right
angle to each other between plates liquid is filled. One glass plate consists of rows of
conductors arranged in vertical direction. Another glass plate is consisting of a row of
conductors arranged in horizontal direction. The pixel position is determined by the
intersection of the vertical & horizontal conductor. This position is an active part of
the screen.

Liquid crystal display is temperature dependent. It is between zero to seventy degree

Celsius. It is flat and requires very little power to operate.
Advantage:
1. Low power consumption.
2. Small Size
3. Low Cost

Disadvantage:
1. LCDs are temperature-dependent (0-70°C)
2. LCDs do not emit light; as a result, the image has very little contrast.
3. LCDs have no color capability.
 4. The resolution is not as good as that of a CRT.

Look-Up Table:
Image representation is essentially the description of pixel colors. There are three
primary colors: R (red), G (green) and B (blue). Each primary color can take on
intensity levels produces a variety of colors. Using direct coding, we may allocate 3
bits for each pixel, with one bit for each primary color. The 3-bit representation allows
each primary to vary independently between two intensity levels: 0 (off) or 1 (on).
Hence each pixel can take on one of the eight colors.

Bit 1:r Bit 2:g Bit 3:b Color name

0 0 0 Black

0 0 1 Blue

0 1 0 Green

0 1 1 Cyan

1 0 0 Red

1 0 1 Magenta

1 1 0 Yellow

1 1 1 White

A widely accepted industry standard uses 3 bytes, or 24 bytes, per pixel, with one
byte for each primary color. The way, we allow each primary color to have 256
different intensity levels. Thus a pixel can take on a color from 256 x 256 x 256 or
16.7 million possible choices. The 24-bit format is commonly referred to as the actual
color representation.

Lookup Table approach reduces the storage requirement. In this approach pixel
values do not code colors directly. Alternatively, they are addresses or indices into a
table of color values. The color of a particular pixel is determined by the color value
in the table entry that the value of the pixel references. Figure shows a look-up table
with 256 entries. The entries have addresses 0 through 255. Each entry contains a
24-bit RGB color value. Pixel values are now 1-byte. The color of a pixel whose
value is i, where 0 <i<255, is persistence by the color value in the table entry whose
address is i. It reduces the storage requirement of a 1000 x 1000 image to one
million bytes plus 768 bytes for the color values in the look-up table.