THE

BHARATIYA
SAKSHYA
ADHINIYAM
2023
Secondary Stage: Phase 2
Classes XI And XII
August 2024
Shravana 1946

PD 1H BS

© National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2024

Published at the Publication Division, by the Secretary, National Council of

Educational Research and Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016
and printed at .......
THE BHARATIYA SAKSHYA
ADHINIYAM, 2023

Secondary Stage: Phase 2

Classes XI and XII
 Strengthening Transparency

You might have heard of the incidents of fraud, robbery and about the
various proceedings through which legal cases are solved. Did you wonder
what must have helped to solve the cases? How the evidences are gathered
or how are these linked to different aspects of theft or robbery? You will learn
about Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam (BSA) and its different provisions and
facts. This will also help you to understand what constitutes as “evidences”.
Let us learn and act responsibly, particularly in the present digital era.

Learning
outcomes

• Understand Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, (BSA) 2023 and its salient features.
• Understand the basics of evidence law, including types of evidence like direct,
circumstantial, and hearsay.
• Explores how technology influences evidence collection, preservation, and
presentation in legal settings.
• Practice applying evidence law knowledge to analyse cases and assess the
admissibility of evidence.
• When the reader is caught in a situation where they are a witness to or victim
of a crime, the knowledge of this module will be a major guiding factor in
strengthening their case with the help of appropriate evidence so collected.

2 The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023

Evolution of Evidence Law in India

The word “evidence” is derived from the Latin word evidens or evidere, which
means “to show clearly; to make clear to the sight; to discover clearly; to
make plainly certain; to ascertain; to prove”.
The Indian Evidence Act (IEA), originally passed by the Imperial
Legislative Council in 1872, during the British Raj, provides for laws relating
to evidence and assist courts in establishing facts of the case brought before it
and pronouncing judgments based on such facts. It falls within the category
of ‘adjective law’ and it defines the pleading and methodology by which the
substantive and procedural law are operationalised. The Act governed all
court processes in India, both civil and criminal.
As per BSA, “evidence” means and includes—
• all statements including statements given electronically which
the Court permits or requires to be made before it by witnesses in
relation to matters of fact under inquiry and such statements are
called oral evidence;
• all documents including
electronic or digital
records produced for the Ensures
inspection of the Court Fairness
in Legal
and such documents Proceedings
are called documentary
Adapts to Protects
evidence. Technological Rights of
The definitions of document Advances Individuals
Why do we
and evidence have become wider need Evidence
to include electronic record and Law? Promotes
Balances
digital records. Anything done Competing Reliability
in electronic or digital mode will Interests and
Enhances Accuracy
be considered as document and Efficiency
will be recognised as evidence. in Justice
System
The definition of ‘Evidence’
empowers the courts to examine
witnesses during trial by way of
video conference.

Fig.1. Why do we need Evidence Law?

Strengthening Transparency 3
 Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023

The aim of BSA is to consolidate and to provide

general rules and principles as evidence for
fair trial. The Act includes various forward-
looking provisions, such as, expansion of the
definition of evidence to include electronic
and digital records, expansion of definition of
primary evidence, provision for admissibility
of electronic or digital records as evidence,
exclusion of privileged communication between
the Ministers and the President of India from
the purview of Courts, provision of certificate
for handling of electronic and digital evidence,
etc. In BSA, there are total 170 sections whereas
there were a total of 167 sections in the Indian
Evidence Act (IEA).

Rationale

The law of evidence is a fundamental part of our legal system which is

primarily based on the principle that an accused person is presumed to
be innocent until proven guilty. It provides the rules and guidelines for
determining what evidence can be presented in court, how it should be
presented, and how it should be evaluated. Here are several reasons why
evidence law is essential:
Relevant, authentic, and obtained legally, evidence law promotes the
reliability and accuracy of the information presented in court. This helps to
ensure that judicial decisions are based on trustworthy and verifiable facts.
Ensures Fairness in Legal Proceedings: Evidence law ensures
that both parties in a legal dispute have a fair opportunity to present
their case. By establishing clear rules for what can be considered as
evidence, it helps to prevent biased or irrelevant information from
influencing the outcome of a trial.

4 The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023

 Protects the Rights of Individuals: The law of evidence protects
the rights of individuals by setting standards for how evidence must
be obtained and presented. For example, it prohibits the use of
evidence obtained through coercion or illegal means, ensuring that
the legal process respects the rights of all parties involved.
Promotes Reliability and Accuracy: By requiring that evidence be
relevant, authentic, and obtained legally, evidence law promotes the
reliability and accuracy of the information presented in court. This
helps to ensure that judicial decisions are based on trustworthy and
verifiable facts.
Enhances Efficiency in the Judicial System: Clear rules of
evidence streamline the judicial process by setting out what is
admissible and what is not. This helps to avoid unnecessary delays
and ensures that trials proceed in an orderly and efficient manner.
Balances Competing Interests: In legal proceedings, there are
often competing interests at play. Evidence law helps to balance these
interests by ensuring that the rights of the accused are protected
while also allowing the prosecution to present a compelling case.
This balance is crucial for maintaining justice and fairness.
Adapts to Technological Advances: As technology evolves, so does
the nature of evidence. Evidence law should be designed to adapt to
these changes by incorporating rules for new types of evidence, such
as electronic records and digital communications. This adaptability
ensures that the legal system can effectively handle modern forms
of evidence.

Highlights of BSA

OO It provides that evidence includes any information given

electronically which would permit appearance of witness, accused,
experts and victims through electronic means.
OO It provides the admissibility of an electronic or digital record having the
same legal effect, validity and enforceability as any other document.
OO It seeks to expand the scope of secondary evidence.

Strengthening Transparency 5
 OO It seeks to put limits on the facts which are admissible and its
certification as such in the Courts.
OO It includes electronic and digital signature.
OO In BSA the references to colonial terms, such as, ‘Parliament
of the United Kingdom’, ‘Provincial Act’, ‘London Gazette’,
‘Commonwealth’, ‘Privy Council’, ‘Queen’s Printer’, ‘Her Majesty’,
colonial proclamations and orders have been removed. Archaic
terms like ‘vakil’, ‘pleader’, ‘barrister’ have been replaced with
‘advocate’. Terms like ‘lunatic’ have also been replaced with more
sensitive terminologies, like ‘person of unsound mind’.

Classification of BSA

Relevancy of Facts
Sections 3–50

Facts which need not be

proved Sections 51–103

Production and effect of

evidence Sections 104–170

6 The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023

Important procedures under BNSS

Use of Technology and Digital Means in

Did you know that
Processing Evidence: The definition of certain communications
‘documents’ has been expanded to include are considered privileged
communication and cannot
electronic or digital records on emails, be disclosed in court? For
example, communication
server logs, documents on computers, between a lawyer and their
laptop or Smartphone, messages, client, or between spouses,
are protected. This ensures
websites, location evidence and voice confidentiality and trust in
mail messages stored on digital devices. sensitive relationships.

Further, the definition of ‘evidence’ has

been expanded to include any information
given electronically which will enable the
appearance of witnesses, accused, experts Primary Evidence
and victims through electronic means. is the highest quality of
evidence and is considered the
Primary Evidence: The definition of most reliable. It refers to the
original documents or materials
primary evidence has been expanded to produced before the court for
include electronic or digital record which inspection. This type of evidence
is directly presented to the court
is created or stored, electronic or digital without any intermediaries.
Example: The original contract
record produced from proper custody, signed between two parties
video recording simultaneously stored in a business deal is primary
evidence.
in electronic form and transmitted or
broadcast to another; and electronic or
digital record stored in multiple storage
spaces in a computer resource.
Secondary Evidence: The scope of
secondary evidence has been expanded Secondary evidence, as the
to include copies made from original by name suggests, is used when
primary evidence is unavailable.
mechanical processes, copies made from or It includes copies or substitutes
of the original documents or
compared with the original, counterparts materials. Secondary evidence
of documents as against the parties who is acceptable in court under
specific circumstances when
did not execute them and oral accounts of primary evidence cannot be
the contents of a document given by some obtained. Example: A photocopy
of the original contract, when
person who has himself seen it. It will also the original document is lost
or destroyed, is considered
include oral admission when genuineness secondary evidence.
of the document itself is in question.

Strengthening Transparency 7
 Further, secondary evidence may be given when
the existence, condition or content of the original
Evidence is admissible
is admitted in writing. when it is deemed
proper to be received
Admissibility of Electronic or Digital Record: by the court of law.
A new section has been added to provide for
admissibility of electronic or digital record.
Electronic Records: A certificate has been added in the schedule
to authenticate and verify the contents of electronic records with
riders that the conditions that computer must be regularly in use
for regular activities by person having lawful control over it, data
was regularly fed in it, computer was working properly, etc.
Privileged communication between Ministers and President:
A proviso has been added to bar Courts from inquiring into any
privileged communication between Ministers and the President of
India.
Experts: BSA enlarges the definition of the experts by adding
“foreign law, science or art” and “or any other field” to the definition
who may give their opinion by adding to “foreign law, science or art.”

Fact, Fact in Issue and Relevant Fact

FACTS

As per BSA, “fact” means and includes—

• anything, state of things, or relation of things,
capable of being perceived by the senses;
Did you know that the
• any mental condition of which any person is doctrine of estoppel prevents a
person from contradicting what
conscious. they have previously stated or
agreed to if someone else has
“Facts in issue” means and includes any fact relied on that statement?
from which, either by itself or in connection with For example, if a landlord
acknowledges a person as a
other facts, the existence, non-existence, nature or tenant and then tries to deny
it in court, the landlord is
extent of any right, liability or disability, asserted estopped [is this ok?]
or denied in any suit or proceeding, necessarily from doing so.
follows.

8 The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023

A fact is considered relevant to another fact when they are connected in
a way that matters according to the rules in the Act about relevant facts.
Relevancy means there’s a connection, and this connection helps the judge
decide if the fact is true or not in the case being discussed.
Example- Imagine a legal case where a person is accused of stealing a
valuable item from a store. In this case:
OO The “fact” in question would be the presence of the stolen item in the
accused person’s possession.
OO The “fact in issue” would be whether the accused person actually
stole the item.
OO The “relevancy” of the fact that the item was found in the accused
person’s possession is determined by how it connects to the overall
case. If there is evidence that the accused person was seen taking
the item without permission or if the item was found hidden in their
belongings, this fact becomes relevant to establishing their guilt or
innocence in the theft case.

Proved, Disproved and Not Proved Facts

A fact is said to be “proved” when, after considering

the matters before it, the court either believes it to
exist, or considers its existence so probable that a
prudent man ought, under the circumstances of the
particular case, to act upon the supposition that it
does exist.
A fact is said to be “disproved” when, after
considering the matters before it, the court either
believed that it does not exist, or considers its non-
existence so probable that a prudent man ought,
under the circumstances of the particular case, to
act upon the supposition that it does not exist.
A fact is said to be “not proved” when it is neither
proved nor disproved.” It means neither the fact
is proved with certainty nor the fact is believed to
exist. In other words, the man of ordinary prudence
neither believes that the fact exists nor he believes
that the fact does not exist.
Strengthening Transparency 9
 Burden of Proof

As per BSA any person who wants a court to make a decision in their favour
regarding any legal right or liability must prove the facts they are asserting.
This obligation to prove the existence of these facts is known as the burden
of proof.
The BSA further clarifies that the burden of proof lies upon the person
who would lose the case if no evidence were presented. In other words,
the burden of proof falls on the party that initiates a lawsuit or any legal
proceeding.
Example: If a person files a lawsuit claiming that their neighbour
damaged their property, the burden of proof is on the person who filed the
lawsuit. They must provide evidence to support their claim. If they cannot
provide sufficient evidence, the court will not rule in their favour.

Motive, Preparation and Conduct

Motive: Motive is the driving force that pushes

someone to act. It’s what encourages or persuades Did you know that the
character of a person is
them to do something. Evidence of motive is generally not admissible to
crucial because people usually don’t act without prove their conduct? However,
there are certain exceptions. For
a reason. This evidence becomes especially instance, in cases of defamation,
the character of the person
important when a case relies heavily on indirect defamed can be relevant, and in
clues or circumstantial evidence. For example, in criminal cases, the accused can
introduce evidence
a burglary case where valuable items were stolen of good character as part
from a house, the motive of the accused—such as of their defence.

financial distress or revenge—can help establish

why the crime occurred.
Preparation: When someone plans to commit a crime, they often take
certain steps or actions to prepare for it. This preparation can include
acquiring tools or substances needed to carry out the crime. For example,
if an individual intends to poison someone (let’s call them Y) with a toxic
substance, they would need to obtain that poison beforehand.
Now, in legal terms, evidence of preparation refers to the actions or
steps taken by the person before committing the actual crime. It becomes
crucial in criminal investigations because it helps establish a connection

10 The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023

between the planning phase and the execution of the crime. In our example,
if Y is found in possession of the poison or evidence that they acquired it, it
strengthens the case against them for planning and carrying out the crime.
Conduct: Under BSA, the conduct of specific individuals holds crucial
importance in legal proceedings. For instance, in a case involving financial
fraud, the conduct of the accused party’s authorized agent, such as their
financial advisor, becomes relevant. The advisor’s conduct, including their
advice, transactions, and communication with the accused, can provide
insights into the alleged fraud and the extent of the agent’s involvement.
Similarly, the conduct of the victim, like their response to the fraud,
interactions with the accused, and efforts to address the issue, helps in
understanding the impact and circumstances surrounding the crime.

Admissibility of Evidence

Admissibility of evidence refers to whether

something can be accepted or used as evidence Did you know that a dying
in a court of law. Evidence includes documents, declaration— a statement
made by a person who believes
testimony, or physical objects presented to prove they are about to die, is
or disprove facts in a trial. Not all evidence is considered strong evidence
under the Indian Evidence Act?
allowed in court; only reliable and relevant The rationale is that a
person on their deathbed
evidence is considered admissible. This means is unlikely to lie.
that the evidence must be trustworthy and directly
related to the case being tried. The court carefully
evaluates the admissibility of evidence to ensure
that only appropriate and credible information is Did you know that
used to make legal decisions. statements made as part of the
same transaction as the crime
For example, in a theft case, if the prosecution are admissible as evidence?
wants to submit security camera footage showing This principle, known as “res
gestae” allows statements
the accused at the crime scene, the court will assess that are spontaneous and
contemporaneous with the
whether the footage meets certain criteria. This event to be considered reliable.
includes verifying the authenticity of the footage, For example, a cry for help
during an attack can be
ensuring it is relevant to the case (i.e., shows the used as evidence
accused committing the theft), and confirming that in court.

it was legally obtained. If the court determines that

the footage meets these criteria and is reliable, it will be deemed admissible
and can be used as evidence during the trial.
Strengthening Transparency 11
 Admissions and Confessions

Admission is defined as a statement made by

witnesses, which shows inference to any fact in Did you know that
confessions made to police
issue or relevant fact in a case. Admission can be officers are generally not
in the form of a document, oral statement or may admissible in court under the
Indian Evidence Act? This
be contained in an electronic form. Statements is to prevent coercion and
ensure that confessions are
made by party to the proceeding, or by an agent to given voluntarily. However, if a
any such party, whom the Court regards, under the confession leads to the
discovery of a fact,
circumstances of the case, as expressly or impliedly that fact can
authorized by him to make them, are admissions. be used as evidence.

Generally speaking, an admission by the accused

in a criminal case admitting his guilt is known as
confession. The inference that the statement should suggest should be that
he is guilty of the crime.
For example, in a theft case, Jhuma is accused of stealing a valuable item.
During the trial, a person who was there at the time of the theft, makes a
statement saying, “Yes, I saw this girl (referring to Jhuma) taking the item
from the store.” This statement is an admission because it directly relates to
the fact in question, which is whether Jhuma committed the theft.
Now, if Jhuma herself says, “Yes, I took the item,” that would be a
confession. It’s an admission of guilt and is considered strong evidence
against her in the case.

Witness

A witness is someone who has personally seen or experienced an event,

such as a crime, accident, or any significant occurrence.

Types of Witness

OO Prosecution Witness: This witness is brought in by the prosecution

to support their case. For example, a person who saw the crime and
can describe what happened.
OO Defence Witness: This witness is brought in by the defence to help
prove the accused innocent.

12 The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023

 OO Eye Witness: Someone who was present at the scene and saw the
event firsthand.
OO Expert Witness: A specialist with professional, educational, or
technical knowledge about a particular subject relevant to the case.
For example, a forensic scientist who can explain DNA evidence.
OO Hostile Witness: A witness whose statements suggest they are not
truthful or are reluctant to reveal the truth. For example, a witness
who keeps changing their story under oath.
OO Child Witness: A child who understands the questions asked by
the court and can give rational answers.
OO Chance Witness: A person who was at the crime scene by
coincidence. For example, someone passing by who happened to see
the event unfold.
OO Accomplice Witness: A person involved in the crime who testifies
about it. For example, a thief who cooperates with the police and
testifies against their partners in crime.

Types of Witnesses

Eye Expert Chance Witness Hostile Witness

Witness Witness

Prosecution Defence Witness Child Accomplice

Witness Witness Witness

Fig 2: Types of Witnesses

Strengthening Transparency 13
 Expert evidence

An expert witness is someone who has specialized

knowledge or skills in a particular field that is
Did you know that expert
not directly related to the case but can help the opinions are admissible in
court understand complex issues. These experts court? For example, an expert’s
opinion on handwriting,
provide their professional opinions to give the fingerprints, or even a doctor’s
opinion on medical matters can
court a broader perspective and assist in delivering be critical in resolving a case.
justice. This allows the court to make
informed decisions based on
When the court needs to form an opinion specialised knowledge.
on a specific topic, such as, foreign law, science,
art, handwriting, or fingerprints, it relies on the
opinions of experts in those areas. The opinions
of these especially skilled individuals are considered relevant facts. These
experts are called upon to explain technical or specialised information that
is beyond the average person’s understanding.

Electronic Records

Definition of Document: Under the BSA, the definition of “document”

includes electronic and digital records. This means that emails, server logs,
documents on computers, laptops, or Smartphone, messages, websites,
location evidence, and voicemail messages stored on digital devices are all
considered documents.
To qualify as a “document” or “documentary evidence” under the BSA, it’s
not necessary for the information to be expressed through letters, figures,
or marks. Any information recorded by any means on any substance will
qualify as a document.
Definition of Evidence: The BSA also includes
electronic information as evidence. Statements Did you know that some
given electronically by witnesses are treated as facts are presumed by the
court without needing proof?
evidence, just like oral statements. For instance, if a person hasn’t
been heard of for seven years by
Primary Evidence: Primary evidence includes those who would naturally hear
original documents and certain electronic and of them, the law presumes they
are dead unless
digital records. proven otherwise.

14 The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023

 The BSA provides examples where electronic records are considered
primary evidence:
1. Multiple Files: If an electronic record is created or stored in multiple
files, each file is primary evidence.
2. Proper Custody: If an electronic record is produced from proper
custody and is not disputed, it is primary evidence.
3. Simultaneous Storage: If a video recording is stored electronically
and also transmitted or transferred elsewhere, each stored recording
is primary evidence.
4. Multiple Storage Spaces: If an electronic record is stored in
multiple places within a computer, each storage space, including
temporary files, is primary evidence.
Admissibility of Electronic Records: The BSA provides a specified
format for certificate to be submitted along with electronic evidence each
time it is presented for admission in court. This certificate helps verify the
authenticity of the electronic evidence.

Examination-in-chief, Re-examination and

Cross Examination

The party on whom the burden of proof lies is

responsible for beginning the examination of Did you know that leading
witnesses. This process is crucial in presenting questions, which suggest
the answer, are generally
and challenging evidence in court. The steps not allowed during direct
examination but are permitted
involved are as follows: during cross-examination? This
1. Examination-in-Chief: This is the initial distinction helps ensure that
witnesses provide their own
examination of a witness by the party who testimony rather than merely
agreeing with suggestions
called them. The purpose is to elicit facts from the examining lawyer.
that support the case of the party who
bears the burden of proof.
2. Cross-Examination: After the Examination-in-Chief, the opposing
party gets the opportunity to question the witness. The aim here is
to challenge the credibility and reliability of the testimony given
during the Examination-in-Chief.
3. Re-Examination: Following the Cross-Examination, the party
who initially called the witness can conduct a Re-Examination. This
step is intended to clarify or explain any answers given during the
Strengthening Transparency 15
 Cross-Examination that might have undermined the witness’ initial
testimony.

Types of Evidence

1. Direct Evidence: Direct evidence

means the fact which without the
intervention of any other fact Direct Circumstantial
Evidence Evidence
proves the existence of a fact in
issue. Conclusive Oral
2. Oral Evidence: Oral evidence Evidence Evidence
renders to the evidence that is Types of
Evidence
mainly words spoken by mouth. It
is adequate to be proved without Hearsay Documentary
Evidence Evidence
the support of any documentary
evidence, provided it has
credibility.
3. Documentary Evidence:
Documentary evidence is the
evidence that mentions any issue described or expressed upon any
material by way of letters, figures or marks or by more than one of
the ways which can be used for recording the issue. Such evidence
is presented in the form of a document to prove a disputed fact in
court.
4. Circumstantial Evidence: Circumstantial evidence is the
testimony of a witness to other relevant facts from which the fact in
issue may be inferred.
5. Hearsay Evidence: Hearsay evidence is also called derivative
or second-hand evidence. It is the testimony of the witness as to
statements made out of court which are offered as evidence of their
own truth.
6. Conclusive Evidence: Refers to a type of evidence that, when
presented in court, is considered to be final and conclusive.

16 The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023

7. Quiz

1. Who are considered experts in Evidence Law?

(a) Lawyers representing the parties
(b) Any person with knowledge of the case
?
(c) Persons skilled in foreign law, science, art, or other fields
(d) Judges presiding over the case
Answer: C

2. What type of evidence is testimony of a witness to other relevant

facts from which the fact in issue may be inferred?
(a) Direct evidence
(b) Circumstantial evidence
(c) Hearsay evidence
(d) Oral evidence
Answer: B
3. Which act has replaced the Indian Evidence Act, 1872?
(a) Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023
(b) Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023
(c) Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023
(d) BharatiyaNagarikAdhiniyam, 2023
Answer: B

4. What does the term ‘secondary evidence’ refer to in Evidence

Law?
(a) Evidence presented by the opposing party
(b) Evidence that is not as reliable as primary evidence
(c) Evidence used in the absence of primary evidence
(d) Evidence obtained through illegal means
Answer: C
5. How does Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023, expand the scope
of primary evidence?
(a) By including handwritten documents
(b) By including only physical records
(c) By including electronic and digital records
(d) By excluding all forms of secondary evidence
Answer: C

Strengthening Transparency 17
 Activities

1. Organise a debate on the topic “The Impact of Technological Advances

on Evidence Law.” Divide students into groups representing different
perspectives (e.g., lawyers, judges, tech experts) and let them debate
the pros and cons of incorporating electronic evidence in court
proceedings.
2. Assign research projects on specific aspects of evidence law reform,
such as the admissibility of digital records, the role of expert
witnesses, or the use of forensic evidence. Students can present
their findings through reports or presentations.
3. Invite legal professionals, forensic experts, or scholars specialising
in evidence law to conduct interactive sessions with students. They
can share real-world experiences, discuss recent case examples, and
answer students’ questions.

The law and Us

18 The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023

Reflections

This module delves into the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023, the rulebook
for presenting evidence in Indian courts. It’s your guide to understanding
how information is presented, analysed, and used to determine the truth
in legal proceedings. Whether you’re a curious student, a future legal
advocate, or simply a citizen interested in the workings of the legal system,
this module will equip you with the knowledge to navigate the intricate
world of evidence.

Message for parents

As parents, it’s beneficial to familiarise yourself
with the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023, and
its impact on evidence laws. Discuss with them the
expanded scope of evidence, including electronic
and digital records, and how this modernises
our approach to legal proceedings. Emphasise
the importance of fair trial principles, including
the admissibility of evidence and protection of
individual rights, as integral aspects of our legal
system. By nurturing this understanding, we equip
our children to appreciate the nuances of evidence
law and contribute positively to a just society.

References
248th Report - Parliamentary Standing Committee Report- SC_Report_Bharatiya_Sakshya_
Bill_2023.pdf (prsindia.org)
Batul, L. 2014. The Law of Evidence. Central Law Agency
Crime in India, 2022, Statistics Volume I, National Crime Records Bureau (Ministry of Home
Affairs) Government of India National Highway 48, Mahipalpur, New Delhi – 110037.
Ratanlal & Dhirajlal, 2022. The Law of Evidence. LexisNexis
Sarathi, V. P. 2013. Law of Evidence. EBC Explorer
Srivastava, Gouri, et.al, 2024-25, Legal Literacy Handbook for Curriculum Developers
(Draft), NCERT, New Delhi, under Publication.
The Gazette of India, 2023. The Bharatiya Sakshaya Adhiniyam, 2023

Strengthening Transparency 19