PARUL UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Department of Applied Science & Humanities
3rd Semester B. Tech (CSE, IT) 2024-25
Discrete Mathematics (303191202)
UNIT-5 GRAPHS and TREES – Lecture Notes

GRAPHS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Definition:
Graph:
A graph G = (V ,E) consists of V , a nonempty set of vertices (or nodes) and E, a set of edges. Each edge
has either one or two vertices associated with it, called its endpoints. An edge is said to connect its
endpoints.
For example: A graph with vertex set V={a,b,c,d} and with 4 edges (a,b), (b,d), (b,c), (a,c) is as follows:

Definition:
Infinite Graph:
The set of vertices V of a graph G may be infinite. A graph with an infinite vertex set or an infinite number
of edges is called an infinite graph.
For example:

Definition:
Finite Graph:
A graph with a finite vertex set and a finite edge set is called a finite graph.
For example: In following figure finite vertices connected with edges.

Definition:
Simple Graph:
A graph in which each edge connects two different vertices and where no two edges connect the same pair
of vertices is called a simple graph.
For example:

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Definition:
Multiple Edges:
Graphs that may have multiple edges connecting the same vertices are called multigraphs.

For example:

Definition:
Loops:
The edges that connect a vertex to itself. Such edges are called loops.
For example:

Definition:
Pseudo Graphs
Graphs that may include loops, and possibly multiple edges connecting the same pair of vertices or a vertex
to itself are called pseudo graphs.
For example:

Definition:
Directed Graph
A directed graph (or digraph) (V ,E) consists of a nonempty set of vertices V and a set of directed edges
(or arcs) E. Each directed edge is associated with an ordered pair of vertices. The directed edge associated
with the ordered pair (u, v) is said to start at u and end at v.

Definition:
Undirected Graph
If direction is not assign to edges in a graph then such graph is call undirected graph.
For example:

Definition:
Simple directed Graph:
A directed graph has no loops and has no multiple directed edges, it is called a simple directed graph.

Definition:
Multiple Directed Edges:
Directed graphs that may have multiple directed edges from a vertex to a second (possibly the same)
vertex are used to model the networks.
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For example:

Definition:
Mixed Graph:
A graph with both directed and undirected edges is called a mixed graph.
For example:

Definition:
Adjacent and incident vertices:
Two vertices u and v in an undirected graph G are called adjacent (or neighbours) in G if u and v are
endpoints of an edge e of G. Such an edge e is called incident with the vertices u and v and e is said to
connect u and v.
For example:

𝑒1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1

Fig. A Fig. B Fig. C

Definition:
Degree of a vertex:
The degree of a vertex in an undirected graph is the number of edges incident with it, except that a loop at
a vertex contributes twice to the degree of that vertex. The degree of the
vertex v is denoted by deg(v).

Definition:
Isolated vertex:
A vertex of degree zero is called isolated. [Summer 2021-22], [Winter 2023-24], [ Summer 2023-24]

For Example.: “In above fig.-C vertex-5 is an Isolated Vertex.”

Definition:
Pendent Vertex:
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A vertex is pendant if and only if it has degree one. [Winter 2023-24], [Summer 2023-24]
For Example.: “In above fig.-C vertex-4 is an Isolated Vertex.”

Short Summary:

Example: Determine whether the graph shown has directed or undirected edges, whether it has multiple
edges, and whether it has one or more loops. Use your answers to determine the type of graph from above
Table.

The Handshaking theorem:

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐺(𝑉, 𝐸)𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑚 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝟐𝒎 = ∑ 𝐝𝐞𝐠 𝒗
𝒗𝝐𝑽
→ 𝐼𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝐺(𝑉, 𝐸)𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ.

Example: How many edges are there in a graph with 10 vertices each of degree six?
Solution: Because the sum of the degrees of the vertices is 6 ・ 10 = 60, it follows that 2m = 60 where m
is the number of edges. Therefore, m = 30.

Example: Give the statement of THE HANDSHAKING THEOREM and use it to find the number of
vertices If simple graph G has 24 edges and degree of each vertex is 4. [Summer 2021-22]

Definition:
Initial and end vertices:
When (u, v) is an edge of the graph G with directed edges, u is said to be adjacent to v and v is said to be
adjacent from u. The vertex u is called the initial vertex of (u, v), and v is called the terminal or end vertex
of (u, v). The initial vertex and terminal vertex of a loop are the same.

Definition:
In degree and Out degree:
In a graph with directed edges the in-degree of a vertex v, denoted by deg−(v), is the number of edges with
v as their terminal vertex. The out-degree of v, denoted by deg+(v), is the number of edges with v as their
initial vertex.

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Example:
Find the number of vertices, the number of edges, and the degree of each vertex in the given undirected
graph. Identify all isolated and pendant vertices. Find the sum of the degrees of the vertices of following
graph and verify that it equals twice the number of edges in the graph.

Example:
Determine the number of vertices and edges and find the in-degree and out-degree of each vertex for the
given directed multigraph.

Types of Graphs:

Definition:
Regular graphs: A simple graph is called regular if every vertex of this graph has the same degree. A
regular graph is called n-regular if every vertex in this graph has degree n.

2-regular 3-regular

Example: For which values of n are the following graphs regular? (i) K n (ii) C n

Definition:
Complete Graphs:
A complete graph on n vertices, denoted by K n , is a simple graph that contains exactly one edge between
each pair of distinct vertices.

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Definition:
Cycles :
A cycle Cn, n ≥ 3, consists of n vertices v1, v2, . . . , vn and edges {v1, v2),{v2, v3}, . . . , {vn−1, vn}, and
{vn, v1}. The cycles C3 , C 4 , C5 & C6 are displayed in figure

Definition:
Wheels:
We obtain a wheel W n when we add an additional vertex to a cycle C n , for n ≥ 3, and connect this new
vertex to each of the n vertices in C n , by new edges. The wheels W3 ,W4 ,W5 & W6 are displayed in Figure

Definition:
n-Cubes:
An n-dimensional hypercube, or n-cube, denoted by Q n , is a graph that has vertices representing the 2n
bit strings of length n. Two vertices are adjacent if and only if the bit strings that they represent differ in
exactly one bit position.

Definition:
Bipartite Graph:
A simple graph G is called bipartite if its vertex set V can be partitioned into two disjoint sets V1 and V2
such that every edge in the graph connects a vertex in V1 and a vertex in V2 (so that no edge in G connects
either two vertices in V1 or two vertices in V2 ). When this condition holds, we call the pair ( V1 , V2 ) a
bipartition of the vertex set V of G.

Example: Is C6 and K 3 a bipartite graph or not?

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Definition:
Complete Bipartite Graphs:
A complete bipartite graph Km,n is a graph that has its vertex set partitioned into two subsets of m and n
vertices, respectively with an edge between two vertices if and only if one vertex is in the first subset and
the other vertex is in the second subset. The complete bipartite graphs K 2,3 , K 3,3 , K 3,5 , and K 2,6 are
displayed in Figure

Example:[Summer-2021-22]

Definition:
Complementary graph:
The complementary graph G of a simple graph G has the same vertices as G. Two vertices are adjacent
in G if and only if they are not adjacent in G.

Example: Describe each of these graphs. (i) K n (ii) C n

Definition:
Subgraph:
A subgraph of a graph G = (V ,E) is a graph H = (W, F), where W ⊆ V and F ⊆ E. A
subgraph H of G is a proper subgraph of G if H = G.

Example: Draw all subgraphs of this graph.

Definition:
Adjacency Matrix (for undirected graph):
Suppose that G = (V ,E) is a simple graph where |V| = n. The adjacency matrix A (or AG ) of G, with
respect to this listing of the vertices, is the n x n zero–one matrix with 1 as its (i, j )th entry when v i and

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v j are adjacent, and 0 as its (i, j )th entry when they are not adjacent. In other words, if its adjacency matrix
is A = [ aij ], then
1, if {vi , v j }is an edge of G
aij = 
0, otherwise

Definition:
Adjacency Matrix (for Directed graph):
An adjacency matrix is defined as follows: Let G be a graph with "n" vertices that are assumed to be
ordered from v1 to vn. The n x n matrix A, in which aij= 1 if there exists a path from vi to vj , aij = 0
otherwise is called an adjacency matrix.
For example:
1.

2.

Example: Use an adjacency matrix to represent the graph shown in Figure

Example: Draw a graph with the adjacency matrix with respect to the ordering of vertices a, b, c, d.

Definition:
Incidence matrix (for undirected graph):

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Let G = (V ,E) be an undirected graph. Suppose that v1 , v 2 ,....., v n are the vertices and e1 , e2 ,....., em are the
edges of G. Then the incidence matrix with respect to this ordering of V and E is the n × m matrix M = [mij
], where
1, when ei is incident with vertex vi
mij = 
0, otherwise
Definition:
Incidence matrix (for directed graph): The incidence matrix of a directed graph is a n × m matrix B
where n and m are the number of vertices and edges respectively such that,
−1, whenthe edge ei leaves vertex vi

bii = 1, if it enters vertex vi
0, otherwise


Example: Represent the graph shown in below Figure with an incidence matrix.
Solution:

The Incidence Matrix of given figure is

Example: Represent the graph shown in the figure with an incidence matrix

Definition:
Isomorphism
Graphs 𝐺(𝑉, 𝐸) and 𝐺(𝑉 ∗ , 𝐸 ∗ ) are said to be isomorphic if there exists a one-to-one correspondence 𝑓: 𝑉 →
𝑉 ∗ such that {u, v} is an edge of G if and only if {f (u), f (v)} is an edge of 𝐺 ∗ . Normally, we do not
distinguish between isomorphic graphs (even though their diagrams may “look different”). Figure 8-6 gives
ten graphs pictured as letters. We note that A and R are isomorphic graphs. Also, F and T are isomorphic
graphs, K and X are isomorphic graphs and M, S, V , and Z are isomorphic graphs.

Example: Determine whether the graphs G and H shown in Figure are isomorphic.

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Solution:
Both G and H have five vertices and six edges, both have two vertices of degree three and three vertices of
degree two, and both have a simple circuit of length three, a simple circuit of length four, and a simple
circuit of length five. Because all these isomorphic invariants agree, G and H may be isomorphic.

Example: Show that the following graphs displayed in Figures a and b are isomorphic in both the cases.

Figure-a Figure-b

Example: Show that the following graphs G=(V,E) and H=(W, F) are not isomorphic.

Example: Determine whether the following pairs of graphs are isomorphic or not? [Summer-2021-22]

Definitions: Walk, Path, Circuit and Cycle:

Walk:
A walk can be defined as a sequence of edges and vertices of a graph. When we have a graph and traverse
it, then that traverse will be known as a walk. In a walk, there can be repeated edges and vertices. The
number of edges which is covered in a walk will be known as the Length of the walk. In a graph, there can
be more than one walk.
So for a walk, the following two points are important, which are described as follows:
o Edges can be repeated
o Vertex can be repeated

For example: In this example, we have a graph, which is described as follows:

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 There can be many walks, but some of them are described
as follows:
1. 1. A, B, C, E, D (length of walk = 4)
2. 2. D, B, A, C, E, D, C (length of walk = 7)
3. 3. E, C, B, A, C, E, D (length of walk= 6)

Types of Walks
There are two types of the walk, which are described as follows:
1. Open walk
2. Closed walk

Definitions:

Open Walk:
A walk will be known as an open walk in the graph theory if the vertices at which the walk starts and ends
are different. That means for an open walk, the starting vertex and ending vertex must be different. In an
open walk, the length of the walk must be more than 0.

Closed Walk:
A walk will be known as a closed walk in the graph theory if the vertices at which the walk starts and ends
are identical. That means for a closed walk, the starting vertex and ending vertex must be the same. In a
closed walk, the length of the walk must be more than 0.

In this graph, there is also a closed walk and an open walk,

which are described as follows:

1. Closed walk = A, B, C, D, E, C, A
2. Open walk = A, B, C, D, E, C

Trails
A trail can be described as an open walk where no edge is allowed to repeat. In the trails, the vertex can be
repeated.
So for a trail, the following point is important, which is described as follows:
o Vertex can be repeated
In this graph, there is a tail and closed tail, which is
described as follows:

1. Tail = A, C, H, F, C, B
Closed tail = A, C, H, F, C, B, A

Circuit
A circuit can be described as a closed walk where no edge is allowed to repeat. In the circuit, the vertex can
be repeated. A closed trail in the graph theory is also known as a circuit.
So for a circuit, the following two points are important, which are described as follows:
o Edges cannot be repeated
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 o Vertex can be repeated
In the above graph, there is a circuit, which is described
as follows:

1. Circuit: A, B, D, C, F, H, C, A

Cycle:
A closed path in the graph theory is also known as a Cycle. A cycle is a type of closed walk where neither
edges nor vertices are allowed to repeat. There is a possibility that only the starting vertex and ending vertex
are the same in a cycle.
So for a cycle, the following two points are important, which are described as follows:
o Edges cannot be repeated
o Vertex cannot be repeated

In the above graph, there is a cycle, which is described

as follows:

1. Cycle: A, B, D, C, A

Path:
A path is a type of open walk where neither edges nor vertices are allowed to repeat. There is a possibility
that only the starting vertex and ending vertex are the same in a path. In an open walk, the length of the
walk must be more than 0.
So for a path, the following two points are important, which are described as follows:
o Edges cannot be repeated
o Vertex cannot be repeated

In the above graph, there is a path, which is described as

follows:

1. Path: F, H, C, A, B, D

Remarks

o Every path can be a trail, but it is not possible that every trail is a path.
o Every cycle can be a circuit, but it is not important that every circuit is a cycle.
The above definitions can be easily remembered with the help of following chart:

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 ]

Example: Find all possible sequence of vertices determining walks.

Solution:

The sequence is described below

1. A, B, G, F, C, D
2. B, G, F, C, B, G, A
3. C, E, F, C
4. C, E, F, C, E
5. A, B, F, A
6. F, D, E, C, B

Example: Does each of these lists of vertices form a path in the following graph? Which paths are simple?
Which are circuits? What are the lengths of those that are paths?
a) a, e, b, c, b b) a, e, a, d, b, c, a c) e, b, a, d, b, e d) c, b, d, a, e, c

Definition:
➢ An undirected graph is called connected if there is a path between every pair of distinct vertices of the
graph. An undirected graph that is not connected is called disconnected.
➢ A connected component of a graph G is a connected subgraph of G that is not a proper subgraph of
another connected subgraph of G.

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➢ Sometimes the removal from a graph of a vertex and all incident edges produces a subgraph with more
connected components. Such vertices are called cut vertices (or articulation points).
➢ The removal of a cut vertex from a connected graph produces a subgraph that is not connected.
Analogously, an edge whose removal produces a graph with more connected components than in the
original graph is called a cut edge or bridge.

Figure-1 Figure-2
Example: Find the cut vertices and cut edges in the graph G shown in Figure.

Solution:
The cut vertices of G1 are b, c, and e. The removal of one of these vertices (and its adjacent edges)
disconnects the graph. The cut edges are {a, b} and {c, e}. Removing either one of these edges disconnects
G1.
➢ A directed graph is strongly connected if there is a path from a to b and from b to a whenever
a and b are vertices in the graph.
➢ A directed graph is weakly connected if there is a path between every two vertices in the
underlying undirected graph.

Example: How many paths of length four are there from a to d in the simple graph G in Figure?

Solution:
The adjacency matrix of G (ordering the vertices as a, b, c, d) is

The adjacency matrix of G (ordering the vertices as a, b, c, d) is there are exactly eight paths of length four
from a to d. By inspection of the graph, we see that a, b, a, b, d; a, b, a, c, d; a, b, d, b, d; a, b, d, c, d; a, c,
a, b, d; a, c, a, c, d; a, c, d, b, d; and a, c, d, c, d are the eight paths of length four from a to d.

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EULERIAN AND HAMILTONIAN PATH:
The Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler solved this problem. His solution, published in 1736, may be the
first use of graph theory. Euler studied this problem using the multigraph obtained when the four regions
are represented by vertices and the bridges by edges. This multigraph is shown in Figure

Seven bridges of koinsberg Multigraph Model of the Town of Königsberg

The problem of traveling across every bridge without crossing any bridge more than once can be rephrased
in terms of this model. The question becomes: Is there a simple circuit in this multigraph that contains every
edge?

Definition:
Euler Circuit
An Euler circuit in a graph G is a simple circuit containing every edge of G. An Euler path in G is a simple
path containing every edge of G.
-In other words: A path that travels through every edge of a connected graph once and only once and starts
and ends at different vertices. An Euler path that starts and ends at the same vertex
For example:

Theorem: [Without Proof] A connected multigraph with at least two vertices has an Euler circuit if and
only if each of its vertices has even degree.

Theorem: [Without Proof] A connected multigraph has an Euler path but not an Euler circuit if and only
if it has exactly two vertices of odd degree.

Example: Which graphs shown in Figure have an Euler path?

Definition:
Hamiltonian Path
A simple path in a graph G that passes through every vertex exactly once is called a Hamilton path, and a
simple circuit in a graph G that passes through every vertex exactly once is called a Hamilton circuit.

Example : In the following graph with 5 nodes, determine whether this graph contains a Hamiltonian path
or not?

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Solution:
In the above graph, we can see that when we start from A, then we can go to B, C, D, and then E. So this is
the path that contains all the vertices (A, B, C, D, and E) only once, and there is no repeating edge. That's
why we can say that this graph has a Hamiltonian path, which is described as follows:
Hamiltonian path = ABCDE

Example: In the following graph with 5 nodes, determine whether this graph contains a Hamiltonian path.

Solution:
In the above graph, we can see that when we start from the E, then we can go to A, B, C, and then D. So
this is the path that contains all the vertices (A, B, C, D, and E) only once, and there is no repeating edge.
That's why we can say that this graph has a Hamiltonian path, which is described as follows:
Hamiltonian path = EABCD

Example: Which of the simple graphs in Figure have a Hamilton circuit or, if not, a Hamilton path?

Remarks:
• DIRAC’S THEOREM [Without Proof]: If G is a simple graph with n vertices with n ≥ 3 such that
the degree of every vertex in G is at least n/2, then G has a Hamilton circuit.

• ORE’S THEOREM [Without Proof]: If G is a simple graph with n vertices with n ≥ 3 such that
deg (u) + deg(v) ≥ n for every pair of nonadjacent vertices u and v in G, then G has a Hamilton
circuit.

Definition:
Planar Graphs: A graph is called planar if it can be drawn in the plane without any edges crossing (where
a crossing of edges is the intersection of the lines or arcs representing them at a point other than their
common endpoint). Such a drawing is called a planar representation of the graph.

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Example: The graph shown in fig is planar graph.

Example: Is Q3, shown in Figure, planar?

Definition:
Graph Colouring
A coloring of a simple graph is the assignment of a color to each vertex of the graph so that no two adjacent
vertices are assigned the same color.
Definition:
Chromatic Number
The chromatic number of a graph is the least number of colors needed for a coloring of this graph. The
chromatic number of a graph G is denoted by χ(G). (Here χ is the Greek letter chi.)

THE FOUR-COLOR THEOREM: [Without Proof] The chromatic number of a planar graph is no greater
than four.

Example: What are the chromatic numbers of the graphs G and H shown in Figure?

Solution:
The chromatic number of G is at least three, because the vertices a, b, and c must be assigned different
colors. To see if G can be colored with three colors, assign red to a, blue to b, and green to c. Then, d can
(and must) be colored red because it is adjacent to b and c. Furthermore, e can (and must) be colored green
because it is adjacent only to vertices colored red and blue, and f can (and must) be colored blue because it
is adjacent only to vertices colored red and green. Finally, g can (and must) be colored red because it is
adjacent only to vertices colored blue and green. This produces a coloring of G using exactly three colors.
Below Figure displays such a coloring.
The graph H is made up of the graph G with an edge connecting a and g. Any attempt to color H using
three colors must follow the same reasoning as that used to color G, except at the last stage, when all
vertices other than g have been colored. Then, because g is adjacent (in H) to vertices colored red, blue,
and green, a fourth color, say brown, needs to be used. Hence, H has a chromatic number equal to 4. A
coloring of H is shown in Figure

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Definition:
Edge coloring:
An edge coloring of a graph is an assignment of colors to edges so that edges incident with a common
vertex are assigned different colors. The edge chromatic number of a graph is the smallest number of
colors that can be used in an edge coloring of the graph. The edge chromatic number of a graph G is denoted
by χ’(G).

Example: Find the edge chromatic number of each of the graphs in figure.

Definition:
Clique:
Let G be a graph, Z be a subset of its vertex set. If every pair of vertices in Z are adjacent then Z is called a
clique of G.

Example: The following graph is adjacent because every vertex is connected to every other vertex and its
clique number is 4.
For example:

Definition:
Clique Number:
The cardinal number of the largest clique in a graph. G is called the clique number of G. It is denoted by
 (G ) .

Definition:
Perfect Graphs:
A perfect graph is a graph in which the chromatic number of every induced subgraph equals the size of
the largest clique of that subgraph.
For example:

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Here chromatic number of the above graph is 3 i.e.  (G ) = 3 and clique number  (G ) =3. Therefore perfect
graph.

Definition:
Weighted Graphs:
Graphs that have a number assigned to each edge are called weighted graphs.

Dijkstra's Algorithm:

• This algorithm maintains a set of vertices whose shortest paths from source is already known.
• The graph is represented by its cost adjacency matrix, where cost is the weight of the edge.
• In the cost adjacency matrix of the graph, all the diagonal values are zero.
• If there is no path from source vertex Vs to any other vertex Vi then it is represented by +∞. .
• In this algorithm, we have assumed all weights are positive.
• Following are the steps of Dijkstra’s Algorithm.
1. Initially, there is no vertex in sets.
2. Include the source vertex Vs in S. Determine all the paths from Vs to all other vertices without going
through any other vertex.
3. Now, include that vertex in S which is nearest to Vs and find the shortest paths to all the vertices
through this vertex and update the values.
4. Repeat the step until n-1 vertices are not included in S if there are n vertices in the graph.
After completion of the process, we got the shortest paths to all the vertices from the source vertex.

Example: Use Dijkstra’s algorithm to find the

length of a shortest path between the vertices a and
z in the weighted graph displayed in the beside
Figure

Solution:
• The steps used by Dijkstra’s algorithm to find a shortest path between a and z are shown in below
Figures.
• At each iteration of the algorithm the vertices of the set Sk are circled.
• A shortest path from a to each vertex containing only vertices in Sk is indicated for each iteration.
• The algorithm terminates when z is circled.
• We find that a shortest path from a to z is a, c, b, d, e, z, with length 13.

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Definition:
Tree:
A tree is a connected undirected graph with no simple circuits.
➢ A tree is a connected undirected graph with
– No simple circuits
– No multiple edges
– No loops
➢ An undirected graph is a tree if and only if there is a unique simple path between any two
of its vertices
Example

In the above example, all are trees with fewer than 6 vertices.

Example: Which graphs are trees among the below drawn graphs?

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Solution: G1, G2

Definition:
Rooted trees:
A rooted tree is a tree in which one vertex has been designated as the root and every edge is directed away
from the root.

Parent vertex:
T is a rooted tree. If v is a vertex in T other than the root, the parent of v is the unique vertex u such that
there is a directed edge from u to v (the reader should show that such a vertex is unique).

Child vertex:
When u is the parent of v, v is called a child of u.

Siblings:
Vertices with the same parent are called siblings.

Ancestors:
The ancestors of a vertex other than the root are the vertices in the path from the root to this vertex,
excluding the vertex itself and including the root (that is, its parent, its parent’s parent, and so on, until the
root is reached).

Descendants:
The descendants of a vertex v are those vertices that have v as an ancestor.

Leaf vertex:
A vertex of a rooted tree is called a leaf if it has no children.

Internal Vertices:
Vertices that have children are called internal vertices.
• The root is an internal vertex unless it is the only vertex in the graph, in which case it is a leaf.

Subtree of a Tree:
If a is a vertex in a tree, the subtree with a as its root is the subgraph of the tree consisting of a and its
descendants and all edges incident to these descendants.

Example: In the rooted tree T (with root a) shown in Figure, find the parent of c, the children of g, the
siblings of h, all ancestors of e, all descendants of b, all internal vertices, and all leaves. What is the subtree
rooted at g?

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 Rooted Tree T Subtree roooted at g

Solution:
The parent of c is b. The children of g are h, i, and j . The siblings of h are i and j . The ancestors of e are c,
b, and a. The descendants of b are c, d, and e. The internal vertices are a, b, c, g, h, and j . The leaves are d,
e, f , i, k, l, and m. The subtree rooted at g is shown in Figure.

Definition:
m-ary tree:
A rooted tree is called an m-ary tree if every internal vertex has no more than m children.
Definition:
Full m-ary tree :
The tree is called a full m-ary tree if every internal vertex has exactly m children.

Definition:
Binary Tree:
An m-ary tree with m = 2 is called a binary tree.

Properties of Tree:
1. Every tree which has at least two vertices should have at least two leaves.
2. Trees have many characterizations:
Let T be a graph with n vertices, then the following statements are equivalent:
• T is a tree.
• T contains no cycles and has n-1 edges.
• T is connected and has (n -1) edge.
• T is connected graph, and every edge is a cut-edge.
• Any two vertices of graph T are connected by exactly one path.
• T contains no cycles, and for any new edge e, the graph T+ e has exactly one cycle.
3. Every edge of a tree is cut -edge.
4. Adding one edge to a tree defines exactly one cycle.
5. Every connected graph contains a spanning tree.
6. Every tree has at least two vertices of degree two.

Definition:
Complete m-ary Tree:
A complete m-ary tree is a full m-ary tree in which every leaf is at the same level.

Definition:
22 | P a g e UNIT-5 GRAPHS & TREES
Eccentricity of a vertex:
The eccentricity of a vertex in an unrooted tree is the length of the longest simple path beginning at this
vertex.

Definition:
Centre of a vertex:
A vertex is called a center if no vertex in the tree has smaller eccentricity than this vertex.

Definition:
Prefix codes:
One way to ensure that no bit string corresponds to more than one sequence of letters is to encode letters
so that the bit string for a letter never occurs as the first part of the bit string for another letter. Codes with
this property are called prefix codes. For instance, the encoding of e as 0, a as 10, and t as 11 is a prefix
code.

For example: The string 10110 is the encoding of ate. To see this, note that the initial 1 does not represent
a character, but 10 does represent a (and could not be the first part of the bit string of another letter). Then,
the next 1 does not represent a character, but 11 does represent t. The final bit, 0, represents e.

Definition:
Spanning Tree:
Let G be a simple graph. A spanning tree of G is a subgraph of G that is a tree containing every vertex of
G.

Example: Find a spanning tree of the simple graph shown in below Figure

G
Solution:
• The graph G is connected, but it is not a tree because it contains simple circuits.
• Remove the edge {a, e}.
• This eliminates one simple circuit, and the resulting subgraph is still connected and still contains
every vertex of G.
• Next remove the edge {e, f } to eliminate a second simple circuit. Finally, remove edge {c, g} to
produce a simple graph with no simple circuits.
• This subgraph is a spanning tree, because it is a tree that contains every vertex of G.
The sequence of edge removals used to produce the spanning tree is illustrated in Figure

Remark: A simple graph is connected if and only if it has a spanning tree.

Example: Spanning tree of the simple graph is unique(True/False) [Summer 2021-22]

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Example: [Winter 2023-24]

Definition:
Rooted Spanning Tree:
A rooted spanning tree of a directed graph is a rooted tree containing edges of the graph such that every
vertex of the graph is an endpoint of one of the edges in the tree.

Definition:
Minimum Spanning Tree:
A minimum spanning tree in a connected weighted graph is a spanning tree that has the
smallest possible sum of weights of its edges.

PRIM’S ALGORITHM
• Prim's Algorithm is a greedy algorithm that is used to find the minimum spanning tree from a
graph.
• Prim's algorithm finds the subset of edges that includes every vertex of the graph such that the sum
of the weights of the edges can be minimized.
• Prim's algorithm starts with the single node and explores all the adjacent nodes with all the
connecting edges at every step.
• The edges with the minimal weights causing no cycles in the graph got selected.

Steps to be followed for Prim’s Algorithm:

Prim's algorithm is a greedy algorithm that starts from one vertex and continue to add the edges with the
smallest weight until the goal is reached. The steps to implement the prim's algorithm are given as follows
o First, we have to initialize an MST with the randomly chosen vertex.
o Now, we have to find all the edges that connect the tree in the above step with the new vertices.
From the edges found, select the minimum edge and add it to the tree.
o Repeat step 2 until the minimum spanning tree is formed.

The applications of prim's algorithm are -

o Prim's algorithm can be used in network designing.
o It can be used to make network cycles.
o It can also be used to lay down electrical wiring cables.

Example
Suppose, a weighted graph is as shown below:

Step 1 - First, we must choose a vertex from the above graph. Let us choose B.

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 Step 2 - Now, we must choose and add the shortest edge from vertex B.
There are two edges from vertex B that are B to C with weight 10 and edge B to D with
weight 4. Among the edges, the edge BD has the minimum weight. So, add it to the
MST.(MST-minimum spanning tree)

Step 3 - Now, again, choose the edge with the minimum weight among all the other edges. In this
case, the edges DE and CD are such edges. Add them to MST and explore the adjacent of
C, i.e., E and A. So, select the edge DE and add it to the MST.

Step 4 - Now, select the edge CD, and add it to the MST.

Step 5 - Now, choose the edge CA. Here, we cannot select the edge CE as it would create a cycle to
the graph. So, choose the edge CA and add it to the MST.

So, the graph produced in step 5 is the minimum spanning tree of the given graph. The cost
of the MST is given below -
Cost of MST = 4 + 2 + 1 + 3 = 10 units.

Example: Use Prim’s algorithm to find a minimum spanning tree in the graph shown in below Figure
[Summer 2021-22]
Solution:
A minimum spanning tree constructed using Prim’s algorithm is shown in Figure. The successive edges
chosen are displayed.

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Example: Use Prim’s algorithm to find the minimum spanning tree for the following weighted graph.
[Winter 2023-24]

KRUSKAL'S ALGORITHM

• Kruskal's Algorithm is used to find the minimum spanning tree for a connected weighted graph.
• The main target of the algorithm is to find the subset of edges by using which we can traverse every
vertex of the graph.
• It follows the greedy approach that finds an optimum solution at every stage instead of focusing on
a global optimum.

Steps to be followed in Kruskal Algorithm:

• In Kruskal's algorithm, we start from edges with the lowest weight and keep adding the edges until
the goal is reached.
• The steps to implement Kruskal's algorithm are listed as follows -
• First, sort all the edges from low weight to high.
• Now, take the edge with the lowest weight and add it to the spanning tree. If the edge to be added
creates a cycle, then reject the edge.
• Continue to add the edges until we reach all vertices, and a minimum spanning tree is created.

The applications of Kruskal's algorithm are -

• Kruskal's algorithm can be used to layout electrical wiring among cities.

• It can be used to lay down LAN connections.

Example:

Suppose a weighted graph is given as shown in below figure:

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The weight of the edges of the above graph is given in the below table -

Edge AB AC AD AE BC CD DE

Weight 1 7 10 5 3 4 2

Now, sort the edges given above in the ascending order of their weights.

Edge AB DE BC CD AE AC AD

Weight 1 2 3 4 5 7 10

Now, let us start constructing the minimum spanning tree.

Step 1 - First, add the edge AB with weight 1 to the MST.

Step 2 - Add the edge DE with weight 2 to the MST as it is not creating the cycle.

Step 3 - Add the edge BC with weight 3 to the MST, as it is not creating any cycle or loop.

Step 4 - Now, pick the edge CD with weight 4 to the MST, as it is not forming the cycle.

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 Step 5 - After that, pick the edge AE with weight 5. Including this edge will create the cycle,
so discard it.

Step 6 - Pick the edge AC with weight 7. Including this edge will create the cycle, so discard
it.

Step 7 - Pick the edge AD with weight 10. Including this edge will also create the cycle, so
discard it.

So, the final minimum spanning tree obtained from the given weighted graph by using
Kruskal's algorithm is -

The cost of the MST is = AB + DE + BC + CD = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10.

Example: Use Kruskal’s algorithm to find a minimum spanning tree in the weighted graph shown in below
Figure. [Summer 2021-22]
Solution:
A minimum spanning tree and the choices of edges at each stage of Kruskal’s algorithm are shown in below
Figure

Example: Use Kruskal’s algorithm to find the minimum spanning tree for the following weighted graph

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