JSS Mahavidyapeetha

JSS Science and Technology University

JSS Technical Institution Campus, Mysuru – 570 006

Department of Computer Applications

Course Code: BCA320

Course Title: Java Programming

Unit:1: Java Basics

Dr. Siddesha S MCA, M.Sc Tech, Ph.D.
Associate Professor,
Dept. of Computer Applications,
JSS Science and Technology University
Mysuru – 570 006
COURSE OUTCOMES: (COs)
COs Topics
CO 1 Demonstrate and implement programs on structure and
components of a Java Language.
CO 2 Understand classes, objects, members of a class and use packages
and interfaces appropriately.
CO 3 Demonstrate multithread, synchronization and exception
handling concepts
CO 4 Use the concept of string and members of classes of Java API in
application development
CO 5 Understand the Collection Framework in Java and Learn to use
them effectively.
2
 Java History
• Computer language innovation and development occurs for two fundamental
reasons:
– to adapt to changing environments and uses
– to implement improvements in the art of programming
• The development of Java was driven by both in equal measures.
• Many Java features are inherited from the earlier languages:
B  BCPL  C  C++  Java

3
 Before Java: C

• Designed by Dennis Ritchie in 1970s.

• Before C: BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, PASCAL

• C- structured, efficient, high-level language that could replace assembly code

when creating systems programs.

• Designed, implemented and tested by programmers.

4
 Before Java: C++
• Designed by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1979.
• Response to the increased complexity of programs and respective improvements in
the programming paradigms and methods:
1) assembler languages
2) high-level languages
3) structured programming
4) object-oriented programming (OOP)
• OOP – methodology that helps organize complex programs through the use of
inheritance, encapsulation and polymorphism.
• C++ extends C by adding object-oriented features.

5
 Java: History
• In 1990, Sun Microsystems started a project called Green.
• Objective: to develop software for consumer electronics.
• Project was assigned to James Gosling, a veteran of classic network software
design. Others included Patrick Naughton, ChrisWarth, Ed Frank, and Mike
Sheridan.
• The team started writing programs in C++ for embedding into
– toasters
– washing machines
– VCR’s
• Aim was to make these appliances more “intelligent”.

6
 Java: History (contd.)
 C++ is powerful, but also dangerous. The power and popularity of C derived from the
extensive use of pointers. However, any incorrect use of pointers can cause memory leaks,
leading the program to crash.
 In a complex program, such memory leaks are often hard to detect.
 Robustness is essential. Users have come to expect that Windows may crash or that a
program running under Windows may crash. (“This program has performed an illegal
operation and will be shut down”)
 However, users do not expect toasters to crash, or washing machines to crash.
 A design for consumer electronics has to be robust.
 Replacing pointers by references, and automating memory management was the proposed
solution.

7
 Java: History (contd.)
• Hence, the team built a new programming language called Oak, which avoided
potentially dangerous constructs in C++, such as pointers, pointer arithmetic,
operator overloading etc.
• Introduced automatic memory management, freeing the programmer to
concentrate on other things.
• Architecture neutrality (Platform independence)
• Many different CPU’s are used as controllers. Hardware chips are evolving rapidly.
As better chips become available, older chips become obsolete and their
production is stopped.
• Manufacturers of toasters and washing machines would like to use the chips
available off the shelf, and would not like to reinvest in compiler development
every two-three years. So, the software and programming language had to be
architecture neutral.
8
 Java: History (contd)
• It was soon realized that these design goals of consumer electronics perfectly suited an
ideal programming language for the Internet and WWW, which should be:
 object-oriented (& support GUI)
 robust
 architecture neutral
• Internet programming presented a BIG business opportunity. Much bigger than
programming for consumer electronics.
• Java was “re-targeted” for the Internet
• In 1994, an early web browser called WebRunner was written in Oak. WebRunner was
later renamed HotJava.
• In 1995, Oak was renamed Java. A common story is that the name Java relates to the place
from where the development team got its coffee. The name Java survived the trade mark
search.

9
 Java History
 Designed by James Gosling, Patrick Naughton, Chris Warth, Ed Frank and Mike Sheridan
at Sun Microsystems in 1991.

 The original motivation is not Internet: platform-independent software embedded in

consumer electronics devices.

 With Internet, the urgent need appeared to break the fortified positions of Intel,
Macintosh and Unix programmer communities.

 Java as an “Internet version of C++”? ------No.

 Java was not designed to replace C++, but to solve a different set of problems.

 Now Java owned by Oracle Corp.

10
11
 The Java Buzzwords
The key considerations were summed up by the Java team in the following list of buzzwords:

 Simple  Distributed
 Secure  Dynamic
 Portable
 Object-oriented
 Robust
 Multithreaded
 Architecture-neutral
 Interpreted
High performance

12
• Simple: Java is designed to be easy for the professional programmer to learn
and use.
• object-oriented: a clean, usable, pragmatic approach to objects, not
restricted by the need for compatibility with other languages.
• Robust: restricts the programmer to find the mistakes early, performs
compile-time (strong typing) and run-time (exception-handling) checks,
manages memory automatically.
• Multithreaded: supports multi-threaded programming for writing program
that perform concurrent computations
• Architecture-neutral: Java Virtual Machine provides a platform
independent environment for the execution of Java byte code

13
• Interpreted and high-performance: Java programs are compiled into an
intermediate representation – byte code:
a) can be later interpreted by any JVM
b) can be also translated into the native machine code for efficiency.
• Distributed: Java handles TCP/IP protocols, accessing a resource through its URL
much like accessing a local file.
• Dynamic: substantial amounts of run-time type information to verify and resolve
access to objects at run-time.
• Secure: programs are confined to the Java execution environment and cannot
access other parts of the computer.

14
• Portability: Many types of computers and operating systems are in use
throughout the world—and many are connected to the Internet.
• For programs to be dynamically downloaded to all the various types of platforms
connected to the Internet, some means of generating portable executable code is
needed. The same mechanism that helps ensure security also helps create
portability.
• Indeed, Java's solution to these two problems is both elegant and efficient.

15
 Data Types
• Java defines eight simple types:
1)byte – 8-bit integer type
2)short – 16-bit integer type
3) int – 32-bit integer type
4)long – 64-bit integer type
5)float – 32-bit floating-point type
6)double – 64-bit floating-point type
7)char – symbols in a character set
8) boolean – logical values true and false

16
• byte: 8-bit integer type.
Range: -128 to 127.
Example: byte b = -15;
Usage: particularly when working with data streams.
• short: 16-bit integer type.
Range: -32768 to 32767.
Example: short c = 1000;
Usage: probably the least used simple type.
• int: 32-bit integer type.
Range: -2147483648 to 2147483647.
Example: int b = -50000;
Usage:
1) Most common integer type.
2) Typically used to control loops and to index arrays.
3) Expressions involving the byte, short and int values are promoted to int before 17
calculation.
 long: 64-bit integer type.
Range: -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807.
Example: long l = 10000000000000000;
Usage: 1) useful when int type is not large enough to hold the desired value
 float: 32-bit floating-point number.
Range: 1.4e-045 to 3.4e+038.
Example: float f = 1.5;
Usage:
1) fractional part is needed
2) large degree of precision is not required

18
• double: 64-bit floating-point number.
Range: 4.9e-324 to 1.8e+308.
Example: double pi = 3.1416;
Usage:
1) accuracy over many iterative calculations
2) manipulation of large-valued numbers

• char: 16-bit data type used to store characters.

Range: 0 to 65536.
Example: char c = ‘a’;
Usage: 1) Represents both ASCII and Unicode character sets; Unicode defines a
character set with characters found in (almost) all human languages.
2) Not the same as in C/C++ where char is 8-bit and represents ASCII only.

19
• boolean: Two-valued type of logical values.
Range: values true and false.
Example: boolean b = (1<2);
Usage:
1) returned by relational operators, such as 1<2
2) required by branching expressions such as if or for

20
 Variables
• declaration – how to assign a type to a variable

• initialization – how to give an initial value to a variable

• scope – how the variable is visible to other parts of the program

• lifetime – how the variable is created, used and destroyed

• type conversion – how Java handles automatic type conversion

• type casting – how the type of a variable can be narrowed down

• type promotion – how the type of a variable can be expanded.

21
 Variables
• Java uses variables to store data.
• To allocate memory space for a variable JVM requires:
1) to specify the data type of the variable
2) to associate an identifier with the variable
3) optionally, the variable may be assigned an initial value
• All done as part of variable declaration.

Basic Variable Declaration

• datatype identifier [=value];
• datatype must be
– A simple datatype
– User defined datatype (class type)
• Identifier is a recognizable name confirm to identifier rules
• Value is an optional initial value. 22
 Variable Declaration
• We can declare several variables at the same time:

type identifier [=value][, identifier [=value] …];

Examples:

int a, b, c;

int d = 3, e, f = 5;

byte g = 22;

double pi = 3.14159;

char ch = 'x';

23
 Variable Scope
• Scope determines the visibility of program elements with respect to other program
elements.
• In Java, scope is defined separately for classes and methods:
1) variables defined by a class have a global scope
2) variables defined by a method have a local scope
A scope is defined by a block:
{
…
}
A variable declared inside the scope is not visible outside:
{
int n;
}
n = 1;// this is illegal 24
 Variable Lifetime
• Variables are created when their scope is entered by control flow and destroyed
when their scope is left:

• A variable declared in a method will not hold its value between different
invocations of this method.

• A variable declared in a block looses its value when the block is left.

• Initialized in a block, a variable will be re-initialized with every re-entry. Variables

lifetime is confined to its scope!

25
 Arrays
• An array is a group of liked-typed variables referred to by a
common
• name, with individual variables accessed by their index.
• Arrays are:
1) declared
2) created
3) initialized
4) used
• Also, arrays can have one or several dimensions.

26
 Array Declaration
Array declaration involves:

1) declaring an array identifier

2) declaring the number of dimensions

3) declaring the data type of the array elements

• Two styles of array declaration:

type array-variable[];

or

type [] array-variable;
27
 Array Creation
• After declaration, no array actually exists.

• In order to create an array, we use the new operator:

type array-variable[];

array-variable = new type[size];

• This creates a new array to hold size elements of type type, which reference
will be kept in the variable array-variable.

28
 Array Indexing
• Later we can refer to the elements of this array through their indexes:

• array-variable[index]

• The array index always starts with zero!

• The Java run-time system makes sure that all array indexes are in the correct
range, otherwise raises a run-time error.

29
 Array Initialization
• Arrays can be initialized when they are declared:

• int month_Days[] = {31,28,31,30,31,30,31,31,30,31,30,31};

• Note:

1) there is no need to use the new operator

2) the array is created large enough to hold all specified elements

30
 Multidimensional Arrays
• Multidimensional arrays are arrays of arrays:

1) declaration: int array[ ][ ];

2) creation: int array = new int [2][3];

3) initialization

int array[ ][ ] = { {1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6} };

31
 Operators Types
• Java operators are used to build value expressions.

• Java provides a rich set of operators:

1) assignment

2) arithmetic

3) relational

4) logical

5) bitwise

32
 Arithmetic assignments
+= v += expr; v = v + expr ;
-= v -=expr; v = v - expr ;
*= v *= expr; v = v * expr ;
/= v /= expr; v = v / expr ;
%= v %= expr; v = v % expr ;

Basic Arithmetic Operators

+ op1 + op2 ADD
- op1 - op2 SUBSTRACT
* op1 * op2 MULTIPLY
/ op1 / op2 DIVISION
% op1 % op2 REMAINDER
33
 Relational operator
== Equals to Apply to any type
!= Not equals to Apply to any type
> Greater than Apply to numerical type
< Less than Apply to numerical type
>= Greater than or equal Apply to numerical type
<= Less than or equal Apply to numerical type
Logical operators
& op1 & op2 Logical AND
| op1 | op2 Logical OR
&& op1 && op2 Short-circuit AND
|| op1 || op2 Short-circuit OR
! ! op Logical NOT
^ op1 ^ op2 Logical XOR 34
 Bit wise operators
~ ~op Inverts all bits

& op1 & op2 Produces 1 bit if both operands are 1

| op1 |op2 Produces 1 bit if either operand is 1

^ op1 ^ op2 Produces 1 bit if exactly one operand is 1

>> op1 >> op2 Shifts all bits in op1 right by the value of op2

<< op1 << op2 Shifts all bits in op1 left by the value of op2

35
 Expressions
• An expression is a construct made up of variables, operators, and method
invocations, which are constructed according to the syntax of the language,
that evaluates to a single value.

• Examples of expressions are in bold below:

int number = 0;

anArray[0] = 100;

System.out.println("Element 1 at index 0: " + anArray[0]);

int result = 1 + 2; // result is now 3 if(value1==value2)

System.out.println("value1 == value2");

36
 Expressions
 The data type of the value returned by an expression depends on the elements used in the
expression.

 The expression number = 0 returns an int because the assignment operator returns a
value of the same data type as its left-hand operand; in this case, number is an int.

 As you can see from the other expressions, an expression can return other types of values
as well, such as boolean or String.

 The Java programming language allows you to construct compound expressions from
various smaller expressions as long as the data type required by one part of the
expression matches the data type of the other.

 Here's an example of a compound expression: 1 * 2 * 3

37
 Control Statements
• Java control statements cause the flow of execution to advance and branch
based on the changes to the state of the program.

• Control statements are divided into three groups:

• 1) selection statements allow the program to choose different parts of the

execution based on the outcome of an expression

• 2) iteration statements enable program execution to repeat one or more

statements

• 3) jump statements enable your program to execute in a non-linear fashion

38
 Selection Statements

• Java selection statements allow to control the flow of program’s execution

based upon conditions known only during run-time.

• Java provides four selection statements:

1) if

2) if-else

3) if-else-if

4) switch
39
 Iteration Statements

• Java iteration statements enable repeated execution of part of a

program until a certain termination condition becomes true.

• Java provides three iteration statements:

1) while

2) do-while

3) for
40
 Jump Statements
• Java jump statements enable transfer of control to other parts of program.
• Java provides three jump statements:
1) break
2) continue
3) return
• In addition, Java supports exception handling that can also alter the control flow
of a program.

41
 Type Conversion
• Size Direction of Data Type

– Widening Type Conversion (Casting down)

• Smaller Data Type  Larger Data Type

– Narrowing Type Conversion (Casting up)

• Larger Data Type  Smaller Data Type

• Conversion done in two ways

– Implicit type conversion

• Carried out by compiler automatically

– Explicit type conversion

• Carried out by programmer using casting 42

 Type Conversion
• Widening Type Conversion
– Implicit conversion by compiler automatically

byte -> short, int, long, float, double

short -> int, long, float, double
char -> int, long, float, double
int -> long, float, double
long -> float, double
float -> double

43
 Type Conversion

• Narrowing Type Conversion

– Programmer should describe the conversion explicitly

byte -> char

short -> byte, char
char -> byte, short
int -> byte, short, char
long -> byte, short, char, int
float -> byte, short, char, int, long
double -> byte, short, char, int, long, float

44
 Type Conversion

• byte and short are always promoted to int

• if one operand is long, the whole expression is promoted to
long
• if one operand is float, the entire expression is promoted to
float
• if any operand is double, the result is double

45
 Type Casting

• General form: (targetType) value

• Examples:
• 1) integer value will be reduced module bytes range:
int i;
byte b = (byte) i;
• 2) floating-point value will be truncated to integer value:
float f;
int i = (int) f;

46
 Simple Java Program
• A class to display a simple message:

class MyProgram
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println(“First Java program.");
}
}

47
 What is an Object?
• Real world objects are things that have:

1) state

2) behavior

Example: your dog:

• state – name, color, breed, sits?, barks?, wages tail?, runs?

• behavior – sitting, barking, waging tail, running

• A software object is a bundle of variables (state) and methods (operations).

48
 What is a Class?

• A class is a blueprint that defines the variables and methods

common to all objects of a certain kind.

• Example: ‘your dog’ is a object of the class Dog.

• An object holds values for the variables defines in the class.

• An object is called an instance of the Class

49
 Object Creation
• A variable is declared to refer to the objects of type/class String:

String s;

• The value of s is null; it does not yet refer to any object.

• A new String object is created in memory with initial “abc” value:

String s = new String(“abc”);

• Now s contains the address of this new object.

50
 Object Destruction
• A program accumulates memory through its execution.
• Two mechanism to free memory that is no longer need by the
program:
1) manual – done in C/C++
2) automatic – done in Java
• In Java, when an object is no longer accessible through any
variable, it is eventually removed from the memory by the garbage
collector.
• Garbage collector is parts of the Java Run-Time Environment.

51
 Class

• A basis for the Java language.

• Each concept we wish to describe in Java must be included inside a

class.

• A class defines a new data type, whose values are objects:

• A class is a template for objects

• An object is an instance of a class

52
 Class Definition
 A class contains a name, several variable declarations (instance variables)
and several method declarations.
All are called members of the class.

 General form of a class:

class classname {
type instance-variable-1;
…
type instance-variable-n;
type method-name-1(parameter-list) { … }
type method-name-2(parameter-list) { … }
…
type method-name-m(parameter-list) { … }
}

53
 Example: Class Usage
class BoxDim {
double wid;
double hgt;
double dep;
}

class BoxDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
BoxDim box = new BoxDim();
double vol;
box.wid = 10;
box.hgt = 20;
box.dep = 15;
vol = box.wid * box.hgt * box.dep;
System.out.println ("Volume is " + vol);
}} 54
 Constructor
• A constructor initializes the instance variables of an object.
• It is called immediately after the object is created but before the new
operator completes.
1) it is syntactically similar to a method
2) it has the same name as the name of its class
3) it is written without return type; the default return type of a class
• Constructor is in the same class
• When the class has no constructor, the default constructor automatically
initializes all its instance variables with zero. 55
 Example: Constructor (BoxDemo.java)
class BoxConst {
double width;
double height;
double depth;

BoxConst() {
System.out.println("Constructing Box");
width = 10; height = 10; depth = 10;
}
double volume() {
return width * height * depth;
}
} 56
package myjava;
public class BoxDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
// declare, allocate, and initialize Box objects
BoxConst mybox1 = new BoxConst();
BoxConst mybox2 = new BoxConst();
double vol;
// get volume of first box
vol = mybox1.volume();
System.out.println("Volume is " + vol);
// get volume of second box
vol = mybox2.volume();
System.out.println("Volume is " + vol);
}}
57
 Parameterized Constructor
class Box {
double width;
double height;
double depth;

Box(double w, double h, double d) {

width = w; height = h; depth = d;
}

double volume()
{
return width * height * depth;
}
}
ParamBoxDemo.java
58
 Methods
 General form of a method definition:
type name(parameter-list) {
… return value;
…
}

 Components:

1) type - type of values returned by the method. If a method does not return any
value, its return type must be void.
2) name is the name of the method
3) parameter-list is a sequence of type-identifier lists separated by commas
4) return value indicates what value is returned by the method. 59
 Example: Method
• Classes declare methods to hide their internal data structures, as well as for
their own internal use: Within a class, we can refer directly to its member
variables:
class Box {

double width, height, depth;

void volume() {

System.out.print("Volume is ");

System.out.println(width * height * depth);

}
60
 Parameterized Method
• Parameters increase generality and applicability of a method:

• 1) method without parameters

int square() { return 10*10; }

• 2) method with parameters

int square(int i) { return i*i; }

• Parameter: a variable receiving value at the time the method is invoked.

• Argument: a value passed to the method when it is invoked.

61
 Access Control: Data Hiding and Encapsulation

• Java provides control over the visibility of variables and methods.

• Encapsulation, safely sealing data within the capsule of the class Prevents
programmers from relying on details of class implementation, so you can
update without worry

• Helps in protecting against accidental or wrong usage.

• Keeps code elegant and clean (easier to maintain)

62
 Access Modifiers: Public, Private, Protected
• Public: keyword applied to a class, makes it available/visible everywhere.
Applied to a method or variable, completely visible.
PublicClassBox.java

• Default (No visibility modifier is specified): it behaves like public in its

package and private in other packages.

• Default Public keyword applied to a class, makes it available/visible

everywhere. Applied to a method or variable, completely visible.

63
 Access Modifiers: Public, Private, Protected
• Private fields or methods for a class only visible within that class. Private
members are not visible within subclasses, and are not inherited.
TestPrivate.java

• Protected members of a class are visible within the class, subclasses and also
within all classes that are in the same package as that class.

MyNewPackage.TestProtected.java

64
 Visibility
public class Circle {
private double x,y,r;
// Constructor
public Circle (double x, double y, double r){
this.x = x;
this.y = y;
this.r = r;
//Methods to return circumference and area

public double circumference() { return 2*3.14*r;}

public double area() { return 3.14 * r * r; }
}

65
 this Keyword
• Can be used by any object to refer to itself in any class method

• Typically used to

– Avoid variable name collisions

– Pass the receiver as an argument

– Chain constructors

66
 this Keyword
• Keyword this allows a method to refer to the object that invoked it.
• It can be used inside any method to refer to the current object:
Box(double width, double height, double depth) {
this.width = width;
this.height = height;
this.depth = depth;
}

67
68
 Garbage Collection
• Garbage collection is a mechanism to remove objects from memory when
they are no longer needed.

• Garbage collection is carried out by the garbage collector:

1) The garbage collector keeps track of how many references an object has.

2) It removes an object from memory when it has no longer any references.

3) Thereafter, the memory occupied by the object can be allocated again.

4) The garbage collector invokes the finalize method.

69
 finalize( ) Method
• A constructor helps to initialize an object just after it has been created.

• In contrast, the finalize method is invoked just before the object is destroyed:

1) implemented inside a class as:

protected void finalize( ) { … }

2) implemented when the usual way of removing objects from memory is

insufficient, and some special actions has to be carried out

70
 Method Overloading

• It is legal for a class to have two or more methods with the same name.
• However, Java has to be able to uniquely associate the invocation of a method
with its definition relying on the number and types of arguments.
• Therefore the same-named methods must be distinguished:
1) by the number of arguments, or
2) by the types of arguments
• Overloading and inheritance are two ways to implement polymorphism.

MethodOverload.java
71
 Example: Overloading
class OverloadDemo {
void test() {
System.out.println("No parameters");
}
void test(int a) {
System.out.println("a: " + a);
}
void test(int a, int b) {
System.out.println("a and b: " + a + " " + b);
}
double test(double a) {
System.out.println("double a: " + a);
return a*a;
}
}
72
 Constructor Overloading
class Box {
double width, height, depth;
Box(double w, double h, double d) {
width = w; height = h; depth = d;
}
Box() {
width = -1; height = -1; depth = -1;
}
Box(double len) {
width = height = depth = len;
}
double volume() {
return width * height * depth;
}
}

ConstructorOverload.java 73
 Parameter Passing

• Two types of variables:

1) simple types

2) class types

• Two corresponding ways of how the arguments are passed to methods:

1) by value a method receives a cope of the original value; parameters of

simple types

2) by reference a method receives the memory address of the original value,

not the value itself; parameters of class types (Object reference)
74
 Call by value
class CallByValue {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Test ob = new Test();
int a = 15, b = 20;
System.out.print("a and b before call: “);
System.out.println(a + " " + b);
ob.meth(a, b);
System.out.print("a and b after call: ");
System.out.println(a + " " + b);
}
}
CallbyVal.java

75
 Call by reference
• As the parameter hold the same address as the argument,
changes to the object inside the method do affect the
object used by the argument:
class CallByRef{
public static void main(String args[]) {
Test ob = new Test(15, 20);
System.out.print("ob.a and ob.b before call: “);
System.out.println(ob.a + " " + ob.b);
ob.meth(ob);
System.out.print("ob.a and ob.b after call: ");
System.out.println(ob.a + " " + ob.b);
} }
CallbyRef.java
76
 Recursion
• A recursive method is a method that calls itself:

1) all method parameters and local variables are allocated on the stack

2) arguments are prepared in the corresponding parameter positions

3) the method code is executed for the new arguments

4) upon return, all parameters and variables are removed from the stack

5) the execution continues immediately after the invocation point

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 Example: Recursion
class Factorial {
int fact(int n) {
if (n==1) return 1;
return fact(n-1) * n;
}
}
class Recursion {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Factorial f = new Factorial();
System.out.print("Factorial of 5 is ");
System.out.println(f.fact(5));
} }
factorialDemo.java
78
 String Handling
• String is probably the most commonly used class in Java's class library. The
obvious reason for this is that strings are a very important part of
programming.
• The first thing to understand about strings is that every string you create is
actually an object of type String. Even string constants are actually String
objects.
• For example, in the statement
System.out.println("This is a String, too");
the string "This is a String, too" is a String constant

79
 String Handling

• Java defines one operator for String objects: +.

• It is used to concatenate two strings. For example, this statement

• String myString = "I" + " like " + "Java.";

results in myString containing

“I like Java.”

80
• The String class contains several methods that you can use. Here are a few.

• You can test two strings for equality by using equals( ).

• You can obtain the length of a string by calling the length( ) method.

• You can obtain the character at a specified index within a string by calling
charAt( ). The general forms of these three methods are shown here:

StringDemo2.java

81
// Demonstrating some String methods.
class StringDemo2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String strOb1 = "First String";
String strOb2 = "Second String";
String strOb3 = strOb1;
System.out.println("Length of strOb1: " + strOb1.length());
System.out.println ("Char at index 3 in strOb1: " +
strOb1.charAt(3));
if (strOb1.equals(strOb2))
System.out.println("strOb1 == strOb2");
else
System.out.println("strOb1 != strOb2");
if (strOb1.equals(strOb3))
System.out.println("strOb1 == strOb3");
else
System.out.println("strOb1 != strOb3");
} }
output:
Length of strOb1: 12
Char at index 3 in strOb1: s
strOb1 != strOb2
strOb1 == strOb3 82