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<html><head></head><body style="overflow-wrap: break-word; -webkit-nbsp-mode:
space; line-break: after-white-space;">Seminar project on biochemical bases of drug

metabolism and pharmacokinetics. <div> </div><div>Submitted by
Sadiya Hussain Muhammad </div><div>HND/BCH/22/0010</div><div>Biochemistry
department of Kano state
polytechnic </div><div> </div><div><br></div><div><br></div><div><br></
div><div>INTRODUCTION </div><div><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
color: rgb(13, 60, 38); font-family: __ALPINA_d83382, __ALPINA_Fallback_d83382, ui-
serif, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size:
19px; letter-spacing: -0.19px; white-space: pre-wrap; -webkit-text-size-adjust:
100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">"Drug </span><span style="caret-color:
rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60, 38); font-family: __ALPINA_d83382,
__ALPINA_Fallback_d83382, ui-serif, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman",
Times, serif; font-size: 19px; letter-spacing: -0.19px; white-space: pre-wrap; -
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">metabolism
</span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60, 38); font-
family: __ALPINA_d83382, __ALPINA_Fallback_d83382, ui-serif, Georgia, Cambria,
"Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 19px; letter-spacing: -
0.19px; white-space: pre-wrap; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">and </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
rgb(13, 60, 38); font-family: __ALPINA_d83382, __ALPINA_Fallback_d83382, ui-serif,
Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 19px;
letter-spacing: -0.19px; white-space: pre-wrap; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">pharmacokinetics </span><span style="caret-
color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60, 38); font-family: __ALPINA_d83382,
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">play
rgb(250, 243, 234);">a </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">critical </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">role
rgb(250, 243, 234);">in </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">determining </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">the
rgb(250, 243, 234);">effectiveness </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60,
38); color: rgb(13, 60, 38); font-family: __ALPINA_d83382,
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">and
rgb(250, 243, 234);">safety </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">of </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">medications.
rgb(250, 243, 234);">Understanding </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60,
rgb(250, 243, 234);">biochemical </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">bases </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">of
rgb(250, 243, 234);">drug </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">metabolism </span><span style="caret-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">pharmacokinetic </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60,
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">is
rgb(250, 243, 234);">essential </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
serif,
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">for </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13,
60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60, 38); font-family: __ALPINA_d83382,
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">developing
rgb(250, 243, 234);">more </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">effective </span><span style="caret-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">safer </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">drug </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243,
234);">therapies.</span></div><div><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">Drug </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">metabolism
rgb(250, 243, 234);">refers </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">to </span><span style="caret-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">biochemical </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">processes </span><span style="caret-
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">that
rgb(250, 243, 234);">occur </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">in </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13,
rgb(250, 243, 234);">body </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">when </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">a
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">is </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13,
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">ingested.
rgb(250, 243, 234);">These </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">processes </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">involve
rgb(250, 243, 234);">the </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
rgb(13, 60, 38);
font-family: __ALPINA_d83382, __ALPINA_Fallback_d83382, ui-serif, Georgia,
Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 19px; letter-
spacing: -0.19px; white-space: pre-wrap; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">breakdown </span><span style="caret-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">drugs </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">into </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">smaller,
rgb(250, 243, 234);">more </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">water-soluble </span><span style="caret-
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">molecules
rgb(250, 243, 234);">that </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">can </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13,
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">be
rgb(250, 243, 234);">excreted </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">from </span><span style="caret-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">body.</span></div><div><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60,
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">Enzymes
rgb(250, 243, 234);">are </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">the </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13,
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">primary
rgb(250, 243, 234);">agents </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">involved </span><span style="caret-
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">in
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">metabolism. </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">The
rgb(250, 243, 234);">most </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">important </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">enzymes
rgb(250, 243, 234);">in </span><span
style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60, 38); font-family:
__ALPINA_d83382, __ALPINA_Fallback_d83382, ui-serif, Georgia, Cambria, "Times
New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 19px; letter-spacing: -0.19px; white-
space: pre-wrap; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243,
234);">drug </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60,
38); font-family: __ALPINA_d83382, __ALPINA_Fallback_d83382, ui-serif, Georgia,
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">metabolism </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">are
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">cytochrome </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">P450
rgb(250, 243, 234);">enzymes, </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">which </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">are
rgb(250, 243, 234);">found </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">in </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13,
rgb(250, 243, 234);">liver </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">and </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13,
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">other
rgb(250, 243, 234);">organs. </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">These </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">enzymes
rgb(250, 243, 234);">catalyze </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">the </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">oxidation,
rgb(250, 243, 234);">reduction, </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">and </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">hydrolysis
rgb(250, 243, 234);">of </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">drugs, </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">leading
rgb(250, 243, 234);">to </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">the </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">formation
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">metabolites.</span><br></div><div>
<span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
100%;">In addition to enzymes, transporters play a key role in drug metabolism.
Transporters are proteins that move drugs and other molecules across cell
membranes. There are two main types of transporters involved in drug metabolism:
influx transporters and efflux transporters.</span></div><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">Influx
rgb(250, 243, 234);">transporters </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">move </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">drugs
rgb(250, 243, 234);">into </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">cells, </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">while
rgb(250, 243, 234);">efflux </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">transporters </span><span
New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 19px; letter-spacing: -0.19px; white-
space: pre-wrap; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243,
234);">move </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60,
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">drugs </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">out
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">cells. </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">The
rgb(250, 243, 234);">most </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">important </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">influx
rgb(250, 243, 234);">transporter </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">is </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">P-
glycoprotein, </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60,
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">which </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">is
0.19px; white-space: pre-wrap; -webkit-text-size-adjust:
100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">involved </span><span style="caret-
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">in
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">transport </span><span style="caret-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">many </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">drugs </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">across
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">intestinal </span><span style="caret-color:
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">wall
rgb(250, 243, 234);">and </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">the </span><span style="caret-color: rgb(13,
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">blood-brain
rgb(250, 243, 234);">barrier."</span><br class="Apple-interchange-newline"
style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-size-adjust:
auto;"><div> <span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60,
spacing: -0.19px; white-space: pre-wrap; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;">Once a
drug enters the body, it is distributed to various tissues and organs. The
distribution of a drug depends on several factors, including its lipid solubility,
its binding to plasma proteins, and its affinity for specific
tissues.</span></div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-
sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231, 235); --tw-border-spacing-x: 0;
--tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; --tw-rotate: 0;
--tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-pan-x: ; --
tw-pan-y: ; --tw-pinch-zoom: ; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-
gradient-from-position: ; --tw-gradient-via-position: ; --tw-gradient-to-
position: ; --tw-ordinal: ; --tw-slashed-zero: ; --tw-numeric-figure: ; --tw-
numeric-spacing: ; --tw-numeric-fraction: ; --tw-ring-inset: ; --tw-ring-offset-
width: 0px; --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-color: rgba(59,130,246,0.5); --
tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0
#0000; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-blur: ; --tw-brightness: ; --tw-
contrast: ; --tw-grayscale: ; --tw-hue-rotate: ; --tw-invert: ; --tw-saturate: ; --
tw-sepia: ; --tw-drop-shadow: ; --tw-backdrop-blur: ; --tw-backdrop-brightness: ;
--tw-backdrop-contrast: ; --tw-backdrop-grayscale: ; --tw-backdrop-hue-rotate: ; --
tw-backdrop-invert: ; --tw-backdrop-opacity: ; --tw-backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-
backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap; caret-color: rgb(13,
Times, serif; font-size: 19px; letter-spacing: -0.19px; -webkit-text-size-adjust:
100%;">The absorption of a drug also plays a key role in <span style="letter-
spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">pharmacokinetics.
</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243,
234);">Absorption </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">refers </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">to </span><span style="letter-spacing: -
0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">the </span><span style="letter-
spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">movement </span><span
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">of
234);">a </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250,
243, 234);">drug </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">from </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-
color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">the </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">site </span><span style="letter-spacing: -
0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">of </span><span style="letter-
spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">administration
234);">(e.g., </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">the </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-
color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">gut </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">or </span><span style="letter-spacing: -
0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">the </span><span style="letter-
spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">skin) </span><span
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">into
234);">the </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250,
243, 234);">bloodstream.</span></div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-
0" style="box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231, 235); --tw-
border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-
y: 0; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-
y: 1; --tw-pan-x: ; --tw-pan-y: ; --tw-pinch-zoom: ; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness:
proximity; --tw-gradient-from-position: ; --tw-gradient-via-position: ; --tw-
gradient-to-position: ; --tw-ordinal: ; --tw-slashed-zero: ; --tw-numeric-figure: ;
--tw-numeric-spacing: ; --tw-numeric-fraction: ; --tw-ring-inset: ; --tw-ring-
offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-color:
rgba(59,130,246,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000;
--tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0
#0000; --tw-blur: ; --tw-brightness: ; --tw-contrast: ; --tw-grayscale: ; --tw-hue-
rotate: ; --tw-invert: ; --tw-saturate: ; --tw-sepia: ; --tw-drop-shadow: ; --tw-
backdrop-blur: ; --tw-backdrop-brightness: ; --tw-backdrop-contrast: ; --tw-
backdrop-grayscale: ; --tw-backdrop-hue-rotate: ; --tw-backdrop-invert: ; --tw-
backdrop-opacity: ; --tw-backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom:
0px; white-space: pre-wrap; caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
font-family: __ALPINA_d83382, __ALPINA_Fallback_d83382, ui-serif, Georgia, Cambria,
0.19px; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);"> </span></div><div class="whitespace-pre-
wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231,
235); --tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --
tw-translate-y: 0; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1;
--tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-pan-x: ; --tw-pan-y: ; --tw-pinch-zoom: ; --tw-scroll-snap-
strictness: proximity; --tw-gradient-from-position: ; --tw-gradient-via-position: ;
--tw-gradient-to-position: ; --tw-ordinal: ; --tw-slashed-zero: ; --tw-numeric-
figure: ; --tw-numeric-spacing: ; --tw-numeric-fraction: ; --tw-ring-inset: ; --tw-
ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-color:
rgba(59,130,246,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0
#0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-blur: ; --tw-
brightness: ; --tw-contrast: ; --tw-grayscale: ; --tw-hue-rotate: ; --tw-invert: ;
--tw-saturate: ; --tw-sepia: ; --tw-drop-shadow: ; --tw-backdrop-blur: ; --tw-
backdrop-brightness: ; --tw-backdrop-contrast: ; --tw-backdrop-grayscale: ; --tw-
backdrop-hue-rotate: ; --tw-backdrop-invert: ; --tw-backdrop-opacity: ; --tw-
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 0px; white-space: pre-
wrap; caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60, 38); font-family:
New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 19px; letter-spacing: -0.19px; -webkit-
text-size-adjust: 100%;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);"> THE BIOCHEMICAL BASES OF DRUG IN
METABOLISM.</span></div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-
backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap; caret-color: rgb(13,
100%;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243,
234);"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250,
243, 234);">The </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">biochemical </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">bases </span><span style="letter-spacing: -
spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">drug </span><span
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">metabolism
234);">can </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250,
243, 234);">be </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">divided </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">into </span><span style="letter-spacing: -
0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">two </span><span style="letter-
spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">main </span><span
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">categories:
234);">Phase </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">I </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-
color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">and </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">Phase </span><span style="letter-spacing: -
0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">II </span><span style="letter-
spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243,
234);">reactions.</span></div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0"
style="box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231, 235); --tw-border-
spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0;
--tw-rotate: 0; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1;
--tw-pan-x: ; --tw-pan-y: ; --tw-pinch-zoom: ; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness:
wrap; caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60, 38); font-family:
New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 19px; letter-spacing: -0.19px; -webkit-
text-size-adjust: 100%;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);"><br></span></div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-
wrap; font-size: 19px;"><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0"
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; caret-color:
Times, serif; box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231, 235); --tw-
backdrop-brightness: ; --tw-backdrop-contrast:
; --tw-backdrop-grayscale: ; --tw-backdrop-hue-rotate: ; --tw-backdrop-invert: ;
--tw-backdrop-opacity: ; --tw-backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; margin-
bottom: 1rem;">Phase I reactions involve the oxidation, reduction, or hydrolysis of
drugs by enzymes such as cytochrome P450. These reactions often produce free
radicals or other reactive intermediates, which can cause cellular
damage.</div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="letter-spacing:
-0.19px; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color:
Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; box-sizing: border-
box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231, 235); --tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-
spacing-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-skew-
x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-pan-x: ; --tw-pan-y: ;
--tw-pinch-zoom: ; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-gradient-from-
position: ; --tw-gradient-via-position: ; --tw-gradient-to-position: ; --tw-
ordinal: ; --tw-slashed-zero: ; --tw-numeric-figure: ; --tw-numeric-spacing: ; --
tw-numeric-fraction: ; --tw-ring-inset: ; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-
offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-color: rgba(59,130,246,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-shadow:
0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow-
colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-blur: ; --tw-brightness: ; --tw-contrast: ; --tw-
grayscale: ; --tw-hue-rotate: ; --tw-invert: ; --tw-saturate: ; --tw-sepia: ; --tw-
drop-shadow: ; --tw-backdrop-blur: ; --tw-backdrop-brightness: ; --tw-backdrop-
contrast: ; --tw-backdrop-grayscale: ; --tw-backdrop-hue-rotate: ; --tw-backdrop-
invert: ; --tw-backdrop-opacity: ; --tw-backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ;
margin-bottom: 0px;">Phase II reactions involve the conjugation of drugs with
endogenous molecules such as glutathione or glycine. These reactions make the drugs
more water-soluble and facilitate their excretion from the body."</div><div
class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; -webkit-
text-size-adjust: 100%; caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60, 38); font-
"Times New Roman", Times, serif; box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px
solid rgb(229, 231, 235); --tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-
translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y:
0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-pan-x: ; --tw-pan-y: ; --tw-pinch-zoom: ;
--tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-gradient-from-position: ; --tw-
gradient-via-position: ; --tw-gradient-to-position: ; --tw-ordinal: ; --tw-slashed-
zero: ; --tw-numeric-figure: ; --tw-numeric-spacing: ; --tw-numeric-fraction: ; --
tw-ring-inset: ; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-
ring-color: rgba(59,130,246,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-
shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-
blur: ; --tw-brightness: ; --tw-contrast: ; --tw-grayscale: ; --tw-hue-rotate: ; --
tw-invert: ; --tw-saturate: ; --tw-sepia: ; --tw-drop-shadow: ; --tw-backdrop-blur:
; --tw-backdrop-brightness: ; --tw-backdrop-contrast: ; --tw-backdrop-grayscale: ;
--tw-backdrop-hue-rotate: ; --tw-backdrop-invert: ; --tw-backdrop-opacity: ; --tw-
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span
style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); color: rgb(69, 69, 69); font-family: -apple-
system-body;"><br></span></div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0"
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; box-sizing: border-
margin-bottom: 0px;"><font color="#0d3c26" face="__ALPINA_d83382,
__ALPINA_Fallback_d83382, ui-serif, Georgia, Cambria, Times New Roman, Times,
serif"><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);">THE ROLES OF ENZYMES AND
TRANSFORTER.</span></font></div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0"
margin-bottom: 0px;"><font color="#0d3c26" face="__ALPINA_d83382,
__ALPINA_Fallback_d83382, ui-serif, Georgia, Cambria, Times New Roman, Times,
serif"><span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);"> </span></font><span
New Roman", Times, serif; letter-spacing: -0.19px;">Enzymes and transporters
play critical roles in the metabolism and distribution of drugs.</span></div><div
text-size-adjust: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231,
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 1rem; caret-color:
Times, serif;">Enzymes catalyze the metabolic transformation of drugs, while
transporters move drugs across cell membranes.</div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap
mb-4 last:mb-0" style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;
box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231, 235); --tw-border-spacing-
x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; --tw-
rotate: 0; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-
pan-x: ; --tw-pan-y: ; --tw-pinch-zoom: ; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity;
--tw-gradient-from-position: ; --tw-gradient-via-position: ; --tw-gradient-to-
backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 1rem; caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13,
60, 38); font-family: __ALPINA_d83382, __ALPINA_Fallback_d83382, ui-serif,
Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif;">The activity of
enzymes and transporters can be influenced by a variety of factors, including
genetics, diet, age, and drug-drug interactions.</div><div class="whitespace-pre-
wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; -webkit-text-size-adjust:
100%; box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231, 235); --tw-border-
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 0px; caret-color:
Times, serif;">Genetic polymorphisms can affect the activity of enzymes and
transporters, leading to interindividual differences in drug metabolism.</div><div
text-size-adjust: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231,
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 0px; caret-color:
Times, serif;"> <span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;">In addition to their
role in drug metabolism, enzymes and transporters can also influence the toxicity
and efficacy of drugs.</span></div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0"
margin-bottom: 1rem; caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60, 38); font-
"Times New Roman", Times, serif;">Drug-drug interactions can occur when a
drug inhibits or induces the activity of an enzyme or transporter, leading to
changes in the metabolism of other drugs.</div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4
last:mb-0" style="box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231, 235); --
tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-
translate-y: 0; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --
tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-pan-x: ; --tw-pan-y: ; --tw-pinch-zoom: ; --tw-scroll-snap-
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 1rem; font-family:
New Roman", Times, serif;"><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0"
style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60, 38); letter-spacing: -
0.19px; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid
rgb(229, 231, 235); --tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 1rem;"><br></div><div
class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
color: rgb(13, 60, 38); letter-spacing: -0.19px; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;
backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 1rem;">Drug-drug interactions can be serious and
can lead to adverse effects or therapeutic failure.</div><div class="whitespace-
pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60,
38); letter-spacing: -0.19px; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; box-sizing: border-
tw-numeric-fraction: ; --tw-ring-inset: ; --tw-ring-offset-width:
0px; --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-color: rgba(59,130,246,0.5); --tw-
ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000;
--tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-blur: ; --tw-brightness: ; --tw-contrast: ; --
tw-grayscale: ; --tw-hue-rotate: ; --tw-invert: ; --tw-saturate: ; --tw-sepia: ; --
tw-drop-shadow: ; --tw-backdrop-blur: ; --tw-backdrop-brightness: ; --tw-backdrop-
margin-bottom: 0px;">Drug-drug interactions can be avoided by carefully selecting
the drugs that are prescribed, monitoring the therapeutic effects of drugs, and
monitoring the plasma concentrations of drugs.</div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap
mb-4 last:mb-0" style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
letter-spacing: -0.19px; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; box-sizing: border-box;
border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231, 235); --tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-
margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); color: rgb(0, 0, 0);
letter-spacing: normal; -webkit-text-size-adjust: auto;"> </span></div><div
class="break-anywhere" style="white-space: normal; box-sizing: border-box; border:
0px solid rgb(229, 231, 235); --tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0;
--tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-
skew-y: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-pan-x: ; --tw-pan-y: ; --tw-
pinch-zoom: ; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-gradient-from-
overflow-wrap: anywhere; --tw-space-y-reverse: 0; margin-top: calc(1.5rem * calc(1
- var(--tw-space-y-reverse))); margin-bottom: calc(1.5rem * var(--tw-space-y-
reverse));"><div class="flex items-center" style="box-sizing: border-box; border:
display: flex; align-items: center;"><div class="w-full" style="box-sizing: border-
width: 286px;"><ul class="[&_li]:mb-2 leading-7 pl-6 mb-4 last:mb-0 list-disc
marker:text-lg" style="box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231,
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; list-style-position: initial; list-
style-image: initial; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1.5rem; line-height: 1.75rem;"><li
class="pl-1 marker:text-neutral-700" data-projection-id="43" style="box-sizing:
border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231, 235); --tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-
border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; --tw-rotate: 0; --
tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-pan-x: ; --tw-
pan-y: ; --tw-pinch-zoom: ; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-gradient-
from-position: ; --tw-gradient-via-position: ; --tw-gradient-to-position: ; --tw-
padding-left: 0.25rem; margin-bottom: 0.5rem; opacity: 1;"><div class="w-full"
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; width: 258px;"><div class="whitespace-
pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="caret-color: rgb(0,
0, 0); color: rgb(0, 0, 0); letter-spacing: normal; -webkit-text-size-adjust:
auto; box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231, 235); --tw-border-
wrap;"><div class="break-anywhere" style="white-space: normal; box-sizing: border-
overflow-wrap: anywhere; --tw-space-y-reverse: 0; margin-top: calc(1.5rem * calc(1
- var(--tw-space-y-reverse))); margin-bottom: calc(1.5rem * var(--tw-space-y-
reverse));"><div class="flex items-center" style="box-sizing: border-box; border:
display: flex; align-items: center;"><div class="w-full" style="box-sizing: border-
width: 286px;"><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-sizing:
margin-bottom: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap
mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231,
wrap;">HOW DRUGS WORKS IN THE BODY.</div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4
wrap;"><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-sizing: border-
contrast: ; --tw-backdrop-grayscale: ; --tw-backdrop-hue-rotate:
; --tw-backdrop-invert: ; --tw-backdrop-opacity: ; --tw-backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-
backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 1rem; caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13,
60, 38); letter-spacing: -0.19px; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"><br></div><div
class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-sizing: border-box; border:
margin-bottom: 1rem; caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60, 38); letter-
spacing: -0.19px; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;">Drugs work in the body by
interacting with specific receptors or targets to produce a biological response.
Here's a general overview of the process:</div><ul class="[&_li]:mb-2 leading-7
pl-6 mb-4 last:mb-0 list-disc marker:text-lg" style="white-space: normal; box-
backdrop-sepia: ; list-style: disc; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1.5rem; line-height:
1.75rem; caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60, 38); letter-spacing: -
0.19px; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"><li class="pl-1 marker:text-neutral-700"
data-projection-id="210" style="box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229,
231, 235); --tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0;
--tw-translate-y: 0; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-scale-x:
1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-pan-x: ; --tw-pan-y: ; --tw-pinch-zoom: ; --tw-scroll-
snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-gradient-from-position: ; --tw-gradient-via-
position: ; --tw-gradient-to-position: ; --tw-ordinal: ; --tw-slashed-zero: ; --tw-
numeric-figure: ; --tw-numeric-spacing: ; --tw-numeric-fraction: ; --tw-ring-inset:
; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-color:
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; padding-left: 0.25rem; margin-bottom:
0.5rem; opacity: 1;"><div class="w-full" style="box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px
pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229,
wrap;">Administration: A drug is administered through various routes, such as oral,
injection, or inhalation.</div></div></li><li class="pl-1 marker:text-neutral-700"
data-projection-id="211" style="box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229,
position: ; --tw-gradient-to-position:
; --tw-ordinal: ; --tw-slashed-zero: ; --tw-numeric-figure: ; --tw-numeric-
spacing: ; --tw-numeric-fraction: ; --tw-ring-inset: ; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px;
--tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-color: rgba(59,130,246,0.5); --tw-ring-
offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --
tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-blur: ; --tw-brightness: ; --tw-contrast: ; --
tw-grayscale: ; --tw-hue-rotate: ; --tw-invert: ; --tw-saturate: ; --tw-sepia: ; --
tw-drop-shadow: ; --tw-backdrop-blur: ; --tw-backdrop-brightness: ; --tw-backdrop-
margin-bottom: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;">Absorption: The drug is absorbed from
the site of administration into the bloodstream.</div></div></li><li class="pl-1
marker:text-neutral-700" data-projection-id="212" style="box-sizing: border-box;
wrap;">Distribution: The drug is distributed to various tissues and organs
throughout the body.</div></div></li><li class="pl-1 marker:text-neutral-700" data-
projection-id="213" style="box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231,
wrap;">Metabolism: The drug is metabolized by enzymes in the liver and other
organs, which may alter its chemical structure.</div><div class="whitespace-pre-
wrap;"><ul class="[&_li]:mb-2 leading-7 pl-6 mb-4 last:mb-0 list-disc
marker:text-lg" style="white-space: normal; box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px
solid
rgb(229, 231, 235); --tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; list-style: disc; padding: 0px 0px 0px
1.5rem; line-height: 1.75rem; letter-spacing: -0.19px;"><li class="pl-1
wrap;"><br></div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-sizing:
margin-bottom: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;">Target binding: The drug binds to its
target receptor or enzyme in the body, initiating a biological
response.</div></div></li><li class="pl-1 marker:text-neutral-700" data-projection-
id="238" style="box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231, 235); --tw-
backdrop-saturate:
; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;">Biological
response: The drug's effect is produced as a result of its interaction with the
target.</div></div></li><li class="pl-1 marker:text-neutral-700" data-projection-
wrap;">Elimination: The drug and its metabolites are eliminated from the body
through various routes, such as urine or feces.</div></div></li><li class="pl-1
wrap;">Duration of action: The duration of the drug's effect depends on its
pharmacokinetics (e.g., half-life), route of administration and dose. </div><div
margin-bottom: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></div><div class="whitespace-pre-
#0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000;
--tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-blur: ; --tw-brightness: ; --tw-contrast: ;
--tw-grayscale: ; --tw-hue-rotate: ; --tw-invert: ; --tw-saturate: ; --tw-sepia: ;
--tw-drop-shadow: ; --tw-backdrop-blur: ; --tw-backdrop-brightness: ; --tw-
backdrop-contrast: ; --tw-backdrop-grayscale: ; --tw-backdrop-hue-rotate: ; --tw-
backdrop-invert: ; --tw-backdrop-opacity: ; --tw-backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-
backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;">SOURCES OF DRUGS
</div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-sizing: border-
margin-bottom: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 1rem; letter-spacing: -
0.19px;"><br></div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-
backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 1rem; letter-spacing: -0.19px;">There are various
sources of drugs, including:</div><ul class="[&_li]:mb-2 leading-7 pl-6 mb-4
last:mb-0 list-disc marker:text-lg" style="white-space: normal; box-sizing: border-
list-style: disc; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1.5rem; line-height: 1.75rem; letter-
spacing: -0.19px;"><li class="pl-1 marker:text-neutral-700" data-projection-
wrap;">Natural sources: Many drugs are derived from plants, animals, and other
natural sources. For example, the opioid drug morphine is derived from the opium
poppy plant, and digitalis (a drug used to treat heart failure) is derived from the
foxglove plant.</div></div></li><li class="pl-1 marker:text-neutral-700" data-
--tw-scale-y:
1; --tw-pan-x: ; --tw-pan-y: ; --tw-pinch-zoom: ; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness:
wrap;">Chemical synthesis: Many drugs are synthesized in the laboratory using
chemical reactions. For example, the antibiotic penicillin was originally derived
from a mold, but it is now produced by chemical
synthesis.</div></div></li></ul></div></div></li></ul></div></div></li></ul></
div></div></div></div></div></div></li></ul></div></div></div><div
class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 0px;">CLASSIFICATIONS AND NAMING OF
DRUGS.</div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="caret-color:
rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13, 60, 38); letter-spacing: -0.19px; -webkit-text-
size-adjust: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231, 235); --
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 0px;"> <span
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;">Drugs can be classified in several ways, including
by their chemical structure, their therapeutic use, or their legal status. Some
common classifications include:</span></div><div class="space-y-6 pt-20" data-
projection-id="1" style="white-space: normal; box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; padding-top: 5rem; --tw-space-y-
reverse: 0; margin-top: calc(1.5rem * calc(1 - var(--tw-space-y-reverse))); margin-
bottom: calc(1.5rem * var(--tw-space-y-reverse)); caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38);
opacity: 1;"><div class="break-anywhere" style="box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; overflow-wrap: anywhere; --tw-space-y-
reverse: 0; margin-top: calc(1.5rem * calc(1 - var(--tw-space-y-reverse))); margin-
bottom: calc(1.5rem * var(--tw-space-y-reverse));"><div class="flex items-center"
proximity; --tw-gradient-from-position:
; --tw-gradient-via-position: ; --tw-gradient-to-position: ; --tw-ordinal: ; --tw-
slashed-zero: ; --tw-numeric-figure: ; --tw-numeric-spacing: ; --tw-numeric-
fraction: ; --tw-ring-inset: ; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-offset-color:
#fff; --tw-ring-color: rgba(59,130,246,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --
tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000;
--tw-blur: ; --tw-brightness: ; --tw-contrast: ; --tw-grayscale: ; --tw-hue-rotate:
; --tw-invert: ; --tw-saturate: ; --tw-sepia: ; --tw-drop-shadow: ; --tw-backdrop-
blur: ; --tw-backdrop-brightness: ; --tw-backdrop-contrast: ; --tw-backdrop-
grayscale: ; --tw-backdrop-hue-rotate: ; --tw-backdrop-invert: ; --tw-backdrop-
opacity: ; --tw-backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; display: flex; align-
items: center;"><div class="w-full" style="box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; width: 286px;"><ul
class="[&_li]:mb-2 leading-7 pl-6 mb-4 last:mb-0 list-disc marker:text-lg"
style-image: initial; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1.5rem; line-height: 1.75rem;"><li
wrap;">Chemical structure: Drugs can be classified by their chemical structure,
such as opioids (e.g., morphine), benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax), or beta blockers
(e.g., propranolol).</div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0"
wrap;"><ul class="[&_li]:mb-2 leading-7 pl-6 mb-4 last:mb-0 list-disc
marker:text-lg" style="white-space: normal; box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; list-style: disc; padding: 0px 0px 0px
1.5rem; line-height: 1.75rem; letter-spacing: -0.19px;"><li class="pl-1
marker:text-neutral-700" data-projection-id="460" style="box-sizing:
wrap;"><br></div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-sizing:
margin-bottom: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;">Therapeutic use: Drugs can be
classified by their therapeutic use, such as antibiotics (e.g., penicillin),
analgesics (e.g., ibuprofen), or antihistamines (e.g.,
Benadryl).</div></div></li><li class="pl-1 marker:text-neutral-700" data-
wrap;">Legal status: Drugs can be classified by their legal status, such as
prescription drugs (e.g., insulin), over-the-counter drugs (e.g., acetaminophen),
or illicit drugs (e.g., cocaine). </div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4
--tw-saturate: ; --tw-sepia: ;
--tw-drop-shadow: ; --tw-backdrop-blur: ; --tw-backdrop-brightness: ; --tw-
backdrop-contrast: ; --tw-backdrop-grayscale: ; --tw-backdrop-hue-rotate: ; --tw-
backdrop-invert: ; --tw-backdrop-opacity: ; --tw-backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-
backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 0px; white-space:
pre-wrap;"><br></div></div></li></ul></div></div></li></ul></div></div></div></
div></div>PHARMACOKINETICS </div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0"
wrap; font-size: 19px;"> <span style="caret-color: rgb(13, 60, 38); color: rgb(13,
60, 38); font-family: __ALPINA_d83382, __ALPINA_Fallback_d83382, ui-serif, Georgia,
Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; letter-spacing: -0.19px; -
webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;">Pharmacokinetics refers to the time course of a
drug's absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) by the
body.</span></div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-
backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 1rem; white-space: pre-wrap; caret-color: rgb(13,
100%;">The four main processes of pharmacokinetics are:</div><ul
class="[&_li]:mb-2 leading-7 pl-6 mb-4 last:mb-0 list-disc marker:text-lg"
style-image: initial; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1.5rem; line-height: 1.75rem; caret-
100%;"><li class="pl-1 marker:text-neutral-700" data-projection-id="40" style="box-
backdrop-sepia: ; padding-left: 0.25rem; margin-bottom: 0.5rem; opacity: 1;"><div
class="w-full" style="box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px solid rgb(229, 231, 235);
--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-
wrap;">Absorption: The movement of a drug from the site of administration into the
bloodstream.</div></div></li><li class="pl-1 marker:text-neutral-700" data-
brightness: ; --tw-contrast: ; --tw-grayscale:
; --tw-hue-rotate: ; --tw-invert: ; --tw-saturate: ; --tw-sepia: ; --tw-drop-
shadow: ; --tw-backdrop-blur: ; --tw-backdrop-brightness: ; --tw-backdrop-contrast:
; --tw-backdrop-grayscale: ; --tw-backdrop-hue-rotate: ; --tw-backdrop-invert: ; --
tw-backdrop-opacity: ; --tw-backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; padding-
left: 0.25rem; margin-bottom: 0.5rem; opacity: 1;"><div class="w-full" style="box-
backdrop-sepia: ; width: 258px;"><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0"
wrap;">Distribution: The movement of a drug from the bloodstream into the tissues
and organs.</div></div></li><li class="pl-1 marker:text-neutral-700" data-
wrap;">Metabolism: The biochemical transformation of a drug into
metabolites.</div></div></li><li class="pl-1 marker:text-neutral-700" data-
rgba(59,130,246,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow:
0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-blur: ; --
tw-brightness: ; --tw-contrast: ; --tw-grayscale: ; --tw-hue-rotate: ; --tw-invert:
; --tw-saturate: ; --tw-sepia: ; --tw-drop-shadow: ; --tw-backdrop-blur: ; --tw-
wrap;">Excretion: The removal of a drug and its metabolites from the
body."</div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-sizing:
margin-bottom: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4
backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 1rem; letter-spacing: -0.19px;">"The rate and
extent of a drug's absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion can vary
widely depending on several factors, including the drug's chemical properties, the
route of administration, and the patient's age, weight, and medical
history.</div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-sizing:
margin-bottom: 0px; letter-spacing: -0.19px;">Pharmacokinetic parameters are
commonly used to characterize a drug's ADME profile and to guide drug
therapy."</div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-sizing:
margin-bottom: 0px; letter-spacing: -0.19px;"> </div><div class="whitespace-pre-
backdrop-saturate: ; --tw-backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 0px; letter-spacing: -
backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 0px; letter-spacing: -0.19px;">ABSTRACT </div><div
--tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y:
0; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y:
1; --tw-pan-x: ; --tw-pan-y: ; --tw-pinch-zoom: ; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness:
0.19px;"> <span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243,
234);">Drug </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250,
243, 234);">metabolism </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-
color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">and </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">pharmacokinetics </span><span style="letter-
spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">are </span><span
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">critical
234);">factors </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">that </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-
color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">affect </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">drug </span><span style="letter-spacing: -
0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">efficacy </span><span style="letter-
spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">and </span><span
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">safety.
234);">This </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250,
243, 234);">presentation </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-
color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">will </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">provide </span><span style="letter-spacing:
-0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">a </span><span style="letter-
spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">comprehensive </span><span
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">overview
234);">of </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250,
243, 234);">the </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">biochemical </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">bases </span><span style="letter-spacing: -
spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">drug </span><span
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">metabolism,
234);">including </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">the </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-
color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">role </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">of </span><span style="letter-spacing: -
0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">enzymes </span><span style="letter-
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">transporters
234);">in </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250,
243, 234);">drug </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">metabolism. </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">In </span><span style="letter-spacing: -
0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">addition, </span><span
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">the
234);">presentation </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">will </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-
color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">discuss </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">the </span><span style="letter-spacing: -
0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">four </span><span style="letter-
spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">main </span><span
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">processes
234);">of </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250,
243, 234);">pharmacokinetics </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">(absorption, </span><span style="letter-
spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">distribution, </span><span
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">metabolism,
234);">and </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250,
243, 234);">excretion). </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-
color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">This </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">presentation </span><span style="letter-
spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">will </span><span
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">provide
234);">a </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250,
243, 234);">better </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">understanding </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">of </span><span style="letter-spacing: -
0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">drug </span><span style="letter-
spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">metabolism </span><span
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">and
234);">pharmacokinetics, </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-
color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">which </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">will </span><span style="letter-spacing: -
0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">aid </span><span style="letter-
spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">in </span><span
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">the
234);">development </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);">of </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-
color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">more </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;
background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">effective </span><span style="letter-
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">safer
234);">drug </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250,
243, 234);">therapies." </span></div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-
0.19px;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243,
234);"> </span></div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-
--tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-pan-x:
; --tw-pan-y: ; --tw-pinch-zoom: ; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-
backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 0px; letter-spacing: -0.19px;"><span
style="letter-spacing: -0.19px; background-color: rgb(250, 243,
234);"><br></span></div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-
backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 0px; letter-spacing: -0.19px;"><span
style="background-color: rgb(250, 243, 234);">CONCLUSION </span></div><div
margin-bottom: 0px; letter-spacing: -0.19px;"><span style="background-color:
rgb(250, 243, 234);"> </span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.19px;">In summary,
drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics play crucial roles in determining the efficacy
and safety of medications. Understanding the biochemical bases of drug metabolism,
including the role of enzymes and transporters, can help optimize drug therapy and
prevent drug-drug interactions.</span></div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4
0.19px;">Pharmacokinetic parameters, such as clearance and half-life, provide
important information about a drug's absorption, distribution, metabolism, and
excretion.</div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0" style="box-sizing:
margin-bottom: 0px; letter-spacing: -0.19px;">In conclusion, the study of drug
metabolism and pharmacokinetics is essential for improving drug therapy and
enhancing patient outcomes."</div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0"
backdrop-sepia: ; margin-bottom: 0px; letter-spacing: -0.19px;"><br></div><div
tw-numeric-fraction: ; --tw-ring-inset:
0.19px;">REFERENCES </div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4 last:mb-0"
0.19px;"> </div><ul class="[&_li]:mb-2 leading-7 pl-6 mb-4 last:mb-0 list-
disc marker:text-lg" style="white-space: normal; box-sizing: border-box; border:
list-style: disc; margin-bottom: 1rem; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1.5rem; line-height:
1.75rem; letter-spacing: -0.19px;"><li class="pl-1 marker:text-neutral-700" data-
wrap;">Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 12th
edition (2017)</div></div></li><li class="pl-1 marker:text-neutral-700" data-
snap-strictness:
wrap;">Drug Metabolism, 3rd edition </div><div class="whitespace-pre-wrap mb-4
wrap;">(2016)</div></div></li><li class="pl-1 marker:text-neutral-700" data-
wrap;">Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, 4th edition (2017)</div></div></li><li
wrap;">Transporters in Drug Discovery and Development (2014)</div></div></li><li
border-spacing-y:
0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-
wrap;">Drug-Drug Interactions: Clinical Aspects and Management, 2nd edition
(2015)</div></div></li></ul></div></div></li></ul></body></html>

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space; line-break: after-white-space;">Seminar project on biochemical bases of drug

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