Module-I (C-I)

RV Institute of Technology & Management ®
MODULE-I
CALCULUS
Introduction
A polar curve is a shape constructed using the polar coordinate system. Polar curves are
defined by points that are a variable distance from the origin (the pole) depending on the angle
measured off the positive x-axis. The Cartesian curves are useful to describe paths in terms of
horizontal and vertical distances, polar curves are more useful to describe paths which are an
absolute distance from a certain point. One practical use of polar curves is to describe
directional microphone pickup patterns. A directional microphone will pick up different
qualities of sound depending on what location the sound comes from outside of the
microphone. For example, a cardioid microphone has a pickup-pattern in the shape of a
cardioid.
A polar equation is any equation that describes a relation between r and θ, where r represents
the distance from the pole (origin) to a point on a curve, and θ represents the counter-clockwise
angle made by a point on a curve, the pole, and the positive x-axis.
Cartesian equations can be converted to polar equations using the same set of identities from
the previous section. Likewise, polar equations can be converted to Cartesian equations using
those same identities.
Topic Learning Objectives:
Upon Completion of this module, student will be able to:
➢ Understand the fundamentals of the differential calculus of functions of one variable.

➢ Transform the coordinates from rectangular to polar and vice versa.
➢ Apply concepts of calculus to find angle between polar curves and consequences.
➢ Curvature for curves defined in different forms and find center and circle of curvature.
➢ Understand particular type of curve evolutes and involutes.
I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

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Review of elementary differential calculus
Continuity: A real valued function f (x ) is said to be continuous at a point x0 if
lim f ( x) = f ( x0 )
x → x0
The function f (x ) is said to be continuous in an interval if it is continuous at every point in the

interval.
Roughly speaking, if we can draw a curve without lifting the pen, then it is a continuous curve
otherwise it is discontinuous, having discontinuities at those points at which the curve will have
breaks or jumps.
We note that all elementary functions such as algebraic, exponential, trigonometric,

logarithmic, hyperbolic functions are continuous functions. Also, the sum, difference, product
of continuous functions is continuous. The quotient of continuous functions is continuous at all
those points at which the denominator does not become zero.
Differentiability: A real valued function f (x ) is said to be differentiable at point x0 if

f ( x) − f ( x0 )
lim exists uniquely and it is denoted by f ' ( x0 ) .
x → x0 x − x0
A real valued function f(x) is said to be differentiable in an interval if it is differentiable at

f ( x + h) − f ( x )
every in the interval or if lim exists uniquely. This is denoted by f ' ( x) . We
h →0 h
say that either f ' ( x) exists or f(x) is differentiable.
Geometrically, it means that the curve is a smooth curve. In other words, a curve is said to be
smooth if there exists a unique tangent to the curve at every point on it.
For example, a circle is a smooth curve.
Triangle, rectangle, square etc. are not smooth, since we can draw more number of tangents at
every corner point.
We note that if a function is differentiable in an interval then it is necessarily continuous in that
interval. The converse of this need
not be true. That means a function is continuous need not imply that it is differentiable.
Closed interval: An interval of the form a  x  b , that includes every point between a and b
and also the end points, is called a closed interval and is denoted by a, b .
Open Interval: An interval of the form a  x  b , that includes every point between a and b
but not the end points, is called an open interval and is denoted by (a, b)

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Important derivatives
d (xn ) d (c )
1. = nx n −1 2. =0
dx dx
d (sin x) d (cos x)
3. = cos x 4. = − sin x
dx dx
d (tan x) d (sec x)
5. = sec 2 x 6) = sec x tan x
dx dx
d (cot x) d (cos ecx)
7. = − cos ec 2 x 8. = − cos ecx cot x
dx dx
d (e x ) d (log e x) 1
9. = ex 10. =
dx dx x
d (sinh x) d (cosh x)
11. = cosh x 12. = sinh x
dx dx
d (tanh x) d (sec hx)
13. = sec h 2 x 14) = − sec hx tanh x
dx dx
d (coth x) d (cos echx)
15. = − cos ech 2 x 16. = − cos echx coth x
dx dx
d (sin −1 x) 1 d (cos −1 x) 1
17. = 18. =−
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 − x2
d (tan −1 x) 1 d (sec −1 x) 1
19. = 20) =
dx 1 + x2 dx x x2 − 1
d (cot −1 x) −1 d (cos ec −1 x) −1
21. = 22. =
dx 1 + x2 dx x x2 − 1
d (sinh −1 x) 1 d (cosh −1 x) 1
23. = 24. =
dx 1 + x2 dx x2 − 1
d (tanh −1 x) 1 d (coth −1 x) −1
25. = 26. = 2
dx 1 − x2 dx x −1
d (cos ech −1 x) −1 d (sec h −1 x) −1

27. = 28. =
dx x 1 + x2 dx x 1 − x2

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Successive differentiation
This topic deals with the differentiation of a given function of a single variable again &
again.
Let y = f (x ) be a function of x . Then if this function is differentiable w.r.t. x we can find
dy dy
, which is again a function of x and hence we can find derivative of , called the
dx dx
d2y
second derivative of y w.r.t. x & is denoted by .
dx 2
d2y d3y
The derivative of is called the third derivative of y w.r.t. x & is denoted by .
dx 2 dx3
dny
In general, the n th derivative of y w.r.t. x is denoted by .
dx n
We can also denote the successive derivatives of y = f (x ) as,
Dy , D 2 y, D 3 y , ……………., D n y ; OR
y1 , y2 , y3 , …………..., yn ; OR
f 1 ( x), 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥), 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥), … … … … … . f ( n ) ( x ) ; OR
𝑦 ′ , 𝑦 ,, , 𝑦 ′′′ , ……….., y (n ) .
Recapitulation
Functions of single variable

The concept of functions is important in calculus because they play a key role in
describing the real-world problems in mathematical terms.
Example
➢ The temperature at which water boils depends on the elevation above sea level (the boiling
point drops as the height increases).
➢ The interest paid on a cash investment depends on the length of time the investment is held.
➢ The area of a circle depends on the radius of the circle.
➢ The distance an object travels from an initial location along a straight-line path depends on
its speed.
In each case, the value of one variable quantity, which might be called as y, depends on the
value of another variable quantity, which might be called x. Since the value of y is completely
determined by the value of x, it’s said that y is a function of x.

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A symbolic way to say ‘y is a function of x’ is by writing 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). In this notation, the symbol
ƒ represents the function. The letter x, called the independent variable, represents the input
value of ƒ, and y, the dependent variable, represents the corresponding output value of ƒ at x.
Requirement of new coordinate systems

There is already a familiarity with Cartesian coordinate system for specifying a point in the XY
– plane in two-dimensional geometry and XYZ- space in three- dimensional geometry.
The requirement to define any new coordinate system is two-fold.
➢ One is based on geometry of the problem of practical situation wherein a more suitable
coordinate system has to be chosen.
For example, the study of dispersion of a medicine injected in blood flow requires
cylindrical coordinate system as the veins are cylindrical in nature. Use of Cartesian system
may not be very suitable as it represents a rectangular channel and the corner effects have
to be taken care.
➢ The second requirement is more of theoretical in nature. A mathematical expression which
cannot be simplified in one coordinate system may be solved in simple way by transforming
to other coordinate systems.
For example, log(x+y) cannot be further simplified in Cartesian system whereas it’s easier
to solve in Polar coordinates.
Polar Curves
Consider a point P ( x, y ) in xy − plane as shown

in Fig. 1.1. Join OP .
y
Let length of OP = r &  be the angle between
OP and + ve x − axis . Then ( r ,  ) is called the polar P ( x, y )
co – ordinates of the point P. 'r ' is called the radial r

length & ' ' is the polar angle.  y
Note: Every point in xy − plane has unique polar O x M x
Co-ordinates. Fig. 1.1 Polar coordinates

Now from  OPM ,
x y
cos =  x = r cos and sin  =  y = r sin  ---------(1)
r r

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also x 2 + y 2 = r 2 cos 2  + r 2 sin 2 = r 2  r = x 2 + y 2 

y  ------(2)
= tan    = tan −1 x
y
and 
x 
(1) and (2) give the relation between Cartesian and polar co-ordinates of a point.
In polar coordinate system, x − axis is called the initial line & y − axis is called the line

= . Origin is called the pole. OP is called radius vector.
2
Note: A curve in polar coordinates is represented by r = f ( )
r → dependent variable.  → independent variable.
Angle between Radius vector and tangent line y r = f ( )

Consider a polar curve r = f ( ) & a point P ( r ,  )
on the curve as given in Fig. 1.2.
Let PT be the tangent at the point P .  be the angle P(r , )
Between tangent & positive x − axis &  the angle 
Between tangent & radius vector OP. Then we have  

to find an expression for  . O T x
Fig. 1.2 Polar curve
dy
We know that = slope of the tangent = tan  = tan( +  ) (  +  =  )
dx
dy tan  + tan
i.e. = -------(1)
dx 1 − tan  tan
Also, we have x = r cos & y = r sin 
dr
dy r cos + sin  .
= d = d , dividing throughout by cos . dr , we get,
dy

dx dx dr d
d − r sin  + cos .
d
d d
r. + tan  r + tan 
dy dr dr
 = = -------(2)
dx d d
− r tan  + 1 1 − r tan 
dr dr
By comparing (1) & (2) we get,
d 1 𝑑𝑟
tan  = r 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜙 =
dr 𝑟 𝑑𝜃

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Problems
Find the angle between radius vector & the tangent for the following curves:
2a
1. r = a (1 − cos ) 2. r 2 cos 2 = a 2 3. r n = a n sin n 4. = 1 + cos
r
5. r m = a m (cos m + sin m )
1. r = a (1 − cos ) shown in Fig. 1.3

Solution: Given r = a (1 − cos ) , Differentiating w.r.t.  , we get
Fig. 1.3 Cardioid

Consider 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃), Differentiating with respect to 
𝑑𝑟
= 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
𝑟 =
𝑑𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

2 sin 2
d a(1 − cos ) 2  
 tan  = r. = = = tan  =
dr a sin    2 2
2 sin cos
2 2
2. r cos 2 = a
2 2
Solution: Given r 2 cos 2 = a 2 , Differentiating w.r.t.  , we get

dr dr 2r 2 sin 2 d 1
2r cos 2 − 2r 2 sin 2 = 0  = = r tan 2  =
d d 2r cos 2 dr r tan 2
d 1 1    
 tan  = r = r. = = cot 2 = tan  − 2    = − 2
dr r tan 2 tan 2 2  2
3. r n = a n sin n
Solution: Given r n = a n sin n , taking log on both side we get,
n log r = n log a + log(sin n ) , differentiating w.r.t.  , we get

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1 dr 1
n. = 0+ . cos n .n = n cot n
r d sin n
dr d 1 tan n
 = r cot n  = =
d dr r cot n r
d tan n
 tan  = r = r. = tan n   = n
dr r
2a
4. = 1 + cos
r
Solution: Given 2a = r (1 + cos ) , differentiating w.r.t.  , we get
dr dr dr r sin 
0 = r (− sin  ) + (1 + cos ).  (1 + cos ) = r sin   =
d d d 1 + cos
 
2 sin cos
=r 2 2 = r tan 
 2
2 cos 2
2
d   
 tan  = r =
r
=
1
dr r tan / 2 tan / 2
= cot = tan 2 − 2   = −
2 2 2
( )
5. r = a (cos m + sin m )
m m
Solution: Given r m = a m (cos m + sin m ) , taking log on both side we get,

m log r = m log a + log(cos m + sin m ), differentiating w.r.t.  , we get
1 dr 1 cos m − sin m
m. = 0+  (−m sin m + m cos m ) = m
r d cos m + sin m cos m + sin m
dr cos m − sin m
 =r
d cos m + sin m
d cos m + sin m cos m + sin m
 tan  = r = r. = dividing throughout by
dr r (cos m − sin m ) (cos m − sin m )
cos m
1 + tan m   
tan  = = tan  + m    = + m
1 − tan m 4  4
6. Show that for curve r = ae cot (  → a constant) the radius vector is inclined at a constant
angle to the tangent at every point.
Solution: Given r = ae cot , differentiating w.r.t.  , we get
dr
= ae cot . cot  = r cot 
d
𝑑𝜃 1
∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜑 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑟. 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 ⇒ 𝜑 = 𝛼, constant.
Exercise:
Find the angle between radius vector & the tangent for the following curves:
2a
1) r n = a n cos n 2) = (1 − cos ) 3) r 2 = a 2 cos 2 4) r = a (1 + cos )
r
    
Answers: 1)  = + n 2)  = − 3)  = + 2 4)  = +
2 2 2 2 2

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Corollary: Angle of intersection of two polar curves

[We know that angle of intersection of any two curves is equal to the angle between the tangent drawn
at the point of intersection of the two curves] y
Consider two polar curves C1 &C2 intersecting C1
at a point P ( r ,  ) . Let PT1 & PT2 be the tangents P(r , )
C1 &C2 at the point P ( r ,  ) . C2 2

We know that the angle between 2 curves = angle 1 | 1 − 2 | T2
Between their tangents. T1
Let 1 & 2 be the angle between the radius vector & Fig. 1.4 Intersection curves x
tangents to the first & second curves respectively as shown in Fig. 1.4. Then the required angle is
| 1 − 2 | .
tan 1 − tan  2
Also tan | 1 − 2 |=| tan(1 − 2 ) | =
1 + tan 1 tan  2
tan 1 − tan 2
 tan | 1 − 2 |=
1 + tan 1 tan 2
Note:
(i) If 1 and  2 are the angles between the radius vector and the tangents at the point of
intersection of two curves r = f1 ( ) and r = f 2 ( ) then the angle of intersection of the curves
is given by 1 − 2
.
(ii) Suppose we are not able to obtain 1 and  2 explicitly then
tan(1 − 2 ) =
1 + tan 1 tan 2
𝜋
(iii) If tan 1 . tan 2 = −1 then tan(1 − 2 ) = ∞ => 1 -  2 = 2 (condition for the orthogonally
of two polar curves.
Problems
1. Find the angle of intersection of the curves r = sin  + cos & r = 2 sin  . Are
they orthogonal?
dr
Solution: Let r = sin  + cos ,  = cos − sin 
d

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𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 + 1 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝜋 𝜋

∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜑1 = 𝑟 = = = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( + 𝜃) ⇒ 𝜑1 = + 𝜃
𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 4 4
dr dr 2 sin 
Let r = 2 sin  ,  = 2 cos  tan 2 = r = = tan  2 = 
d d 2 cos
 
 angle between the curves =| 1 −  2 |= + − = . So curves are not orthogonal.
4 4
2. Find the angle between the curves r = a (1 + sin  ) & r = a (1 − sin  ) .

Solution: Given r = a (1 + sin  ) & r = a (1 − sin  ) , solving for  , we get,
a(1 + sin  ) = a(1 − sin  )  2 sin  = 0   = 0, is the point of intersection.
dr dr a(1 + sin  ) 1 + sin 
Now consider, r = a (1 + sin  ) ,  = a cos  tan 1 = r = =
d d a cos cos

 at  = 0, tan 1 = 1  1 =
4
dr dr a(1 − sin  ) 1 − sin 
Let r = a (1 − sin  )  = −a cos  tan 2 = r = =
d d − a cos − cos

 at  = 0, tan 2 = −1  2 = −
4
   
 angle between the curves =| 1 − 2 |= −  −  = . So, curves are orthogonal.
4  4 2
a
3. Find the angle between the curves r = a log  , r =
log 
a
Solution: Given r = a log  , r = , solving we get,
log 
a
a log  =  log 2  = 1  log  = 1   = e, is the point of intersection.
log 
dr a d 
Let r = a log  , then =  tan 1 = r = a log   =  log 
d  dr a
 at  = e, tan1 = e log e = e
a dr  1  1 a
Again Let r = ,then = a −  = −
log  d  log 2     log 2 
 
d a  log 2 
 tan 2 = r =  = − log 
dr log  −a
 at  = e, tan2 = −e log e = −e
tan 1 − tan  2 e − ( −e) 2e
Now tan  = tan(1 −  2 ) = = =
1 + tan 1 tan  2 1 + e( − e) 1 − e 2
2e
 Angle of intersection =  = tan −1
1 − e2

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 
4. Show that the curves r = a sec2 and r = b cos ec 2
intersect at right angles.
2 2
 dr    1  
Solution: Let r = a sec2 , then = 2a sec sec tan  = a sec2 tan
2 d 2 2 2 2 2 2

a sec2
d 2      
 tan 1 = r = = cot = tan −   1 = −
dr   2  2 2 2 2
a sec2 tan
2 2
 dr    1  
Let r = b cos ec 2 , then = −2b cos ec cos ec cot  = −b cos ec2 cot
2 d 2 2 2 2 2 2

b cos ec 2
d 2    
 tan  2 = r = = − tan = tan −    2 = −
dr   2  2 2
− b cos ec 2 cot
2 2
    
 Angle of intersection =  =| 1 − 2 |= − − −  =
2 2  2 2
 given curves are intersect at right angles.
5. 𝑟 = 2(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) and 𝑟 2 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

Solution: [𝑟 2 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 is Lemniscate which is given in Fig. 1.5. Curve is symmetrical
about both the axis.]
Fig. 1.5 Lemniscate
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 + log(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
1 𝑑𝑟 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝜃 𝜃
−2 sin (2) cos (2)
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜙1 =
𝜃
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (2)
𝜃 𝜋 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜙1 = − tan ( ) = cot ( + )
2 2 2
𝜋 𝜃
𝜙1 = 2 + 2.
Consider 𝑟 2 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

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𝑑𝑟 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
=−
𝑑𝜃 𝑟
𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙2 = − tan ( + 2𝜃)
2

2 = + 2 .
2
We have to eliminate θ between the given curves,
𝑟 = 2(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃), 𝑟 2 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
Solving for 𝜃, we get

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 1 − √3
3𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (1 − √3)
𝜑1 − 𝜑2 =
2
Exercise: Find the angle of intersection of the following curves

1) r 2 sin 2 = 4 & r 2 = 16 sin 2 2) r = 6 cos & r = 2(1 + cos )
3) r = a(1 + cos ) & r 2 = a 2 cos 2 4) r = 2 sin  & r = 2 cos
3 10 a b
5) r = &r = 6) r = &r =
1+ 1+ 2 1 + cos 1 − cos
a
7) r 2 sin 2 = a 2 & r 2 cos 2 = b 2 8) r = a & r =

 
9) r = a cos n & r = b sin n
n n n n
10) r = ae & re = b
  3 
Answers: 1)  = 2)  = 3)  = cos −1 (1 − 3 ) 4)  =
3 6 2 2
 29      
5)  = tan −1   6)  = 7)  = 8)  = 9)  = 10)  =
 26  2 2 2 2 2
Pedal Equation (p-r equation)
If r is the radius vector of any point on the curve and p is the length of the perpendicular
from the pole on the tangent at that point, then the relation between p and r is called the pedal
equation of the curve.
Length of the perpendicular from pole on the tangent

1 1 1 𝑑𝑟
(i) p = r sin  or (ii) 2 = 2 + 4 ( ) 2
𝑝 𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝜃

P a g e 12 | 35
From the Fig. 1.6, let ON = p, the length of the perpendicular from the pole to the tangent at p
on r = f ( ) .
From the right-angled triangle OPN,
ON
sin  =  ON = OP sin  φ
OP
i.e. p = r sin  ..............(i ) r
P(r, ө)
1 1 1 Ө Ψ
Consider = = cos ec O
p r sin  r
r = f (ө)
 2 = 2 cos ec 2 = 2 (1 + cot 2  )
1 1 1
P
p r r
1   1 dr   N
2
1
= 1 +    Fig. 1.6 Pedal equation.
p 2 r 2   r d  
2
1 1 1  dr 
 = 2 + 4   ............(ii )
 d 
2
p r r
2
1 1  du 
Note: If u = , we get 2 = u 2 +   .
r p  d 
Working rules to find pedal equations

(i) Given 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) we first obtain 𝜙.
(ii) We substitute 𝜙 into the equation 𝑝 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 so that this equation assumes
the form 𝑝 = 𝑟 𝑔(𝜃)
(iii) we need to eliminate  between the Equations r = f ( ) & 𝑝 = 𝑟 𝑔(𝜃) to
obtain an equation in p & r being the pedal equation.
Note: If we are unable to obtain 𝜙 explicitly in terms of 𝜃, we have to use the p-r equation is
2
1 1 1  dr 
= 2+ 4 
p 2
r r  d 
Problems
1. Find the pedal equation to the curve r = a

2
dr 1 1 1  dr 
Solution: Given r = a  = a , by substituting in 2 = 2 + 4   , we get
d p r r  d 
a2 r 2 + a2 r4 r2
1
=
1
+
1
(a )2  1
=
1
+ =  p2 =  p= , is the
p2 r 2 r 4
p2 r2 r4 r4 r 2 + a2 r 2 + a2
pedal equation.

P a g e 13 | 35
2. Prove that the pedal equation to the curve r m = a m cos m is pa m = r m+1

Solution: Given r m = a m cos m  m log r = m log a + log(cos m ) , Differentiating w.r.t.
we get
1 dr 1
m = 0+  (−m sin m ) = −m tan m
r d cos m
1 dr d
= − tan m  r = − cot m
r d dr
  
i.e. tan  = − cot m = tan  + m    = + m
2  2
 
Then p = r sin  = r sin  + m  = r cos m -----(1)
2 
rm
From the given curve r m = a m cos m , we have cos m =
am
rm
 from (1) we get p = r cos m = r 
m
 pa m = r m+1.
a
3. Determine the pedal equation for the polar curve r m = a m sin m + b m cos m .
Solution: Consider r = a sin m + b cos m
m m m
Differentiating with respect to 

= a m (m cos m ) + bm ( −m sin m )
dr
mr m −1
d
m
r dr
= a m cos m − b m sin m
r d
1 dr a m cos m − b m sin m
= m
r d a sin m + bm cos m
a m cos m − b m sin m
cot  = m
a sin m + b m cos m
1 1
Consider p = r sin  , = cos ec 
p r
1   a m cos m − bm sin m  
2
1 1 1
( )
= cos ec  = 2 1 + cot  = 2 1 +  m
p2 r2
2 2
r   a sin m + bm cos m  
 
r  
( ) (
1  a m sin m + bm cos m + a m cos m − bm sin m  )
2 2
= 2 
r 
 (
a m
sin m + b m
cos m) 
2


On simplification, we get
1 1  a 2m + b2m  r 2 ( m +1 )
=    p = 2m
2
is the required pedal equation.
p 2 r 2  r 2m  a + b2 m

P a g e 14 | 35
l
4. Find the pedal equation for the polar curve = 1 + e cos .
r
l
Solution: Consider = 1 + e cos
r
Differentiating with respect to 
 1 dr  l  1 dr 
l − 2  = −e sin     = e sin 
 r d  r  r d 
l
(cot  ) = e sin 
r
r
 cot  =  e sin 
l
We know that 2 = 2 (1 + cot 2  )
1 1
p r
1 1  l 2 + e 2 r 2 sin 2   1  e 2 r 2   l l −r
2
= 2  2  = 2 1 + 2 sin 2   1 + e cos  = r  e cos  = r 
p r  l  r  l 
 2 2 2
  l − r   
2
 l + e r 1 −   
1 1   re      l − r 
=
p2 r2  l2  cos =  re 
    
 
 
1  e −1 2 l −r
sin  = 1 − cos  
2 2
on simplification 2  2  =   + = 1−  
2 2
p  e  lr  re 
Exercise:
Find the pedal equations of the following polar curves
1. r n cos n = a n a 6. r m = a m cos m
4. r =
2. r n sin n = b n  7. r m = b m sin m
3. r = a 5. r = a cos
Answers:
1 1 1
1. 𝑝𝑟 𝑛−1 = 𝑎𝑛 4. 𝑝2 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 7. 𝑝𝑏 𝑚 = 𝑟 𝑚+1
2. 𝑝𝑟 𝑛−1 = −𝑏 𝑛 5. 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑟 2
1 1 𝑎2
3. 𝑝2 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 4 6. 𝑝𝑎𝑚 = 𝑟 𝑚+1

P a g e 15 | 35
Curvature and Radius of Curvature

The distance from the center of a circle or sphere to its surface is its radius. For other curved
lines or surfaces, the radius of curvature at a given point is the radius of a circle that
mathematically best fits the curve at that point.
In mathematics, curvature is any of a number of loosely related concepts in different areas of

geometry. Intuitively, curvature is the amount by which a geometric object deviates from being
flat, or straight in the case of a line, but this is defined in different ways depending on the
context. In geometry, the radius of curvature, R, of a curve at a point is a measure of the
radius of the circular arc which best approximates the curve at that point. It is the inverse of the
curvature. The distance from the center of a circle or sphere to its surface is its radius. For other
curved lines or surfaces, the radius of curvature at a given point is the radius of a circle that
mathematically best fits the curve at that point. In the case of a surface, the radius of curvature
is the radius of a circle that best fits a normal section.
Imagine driving a car on a curvy road on a completely flat plain (so that the geographic
plain is a geometric plane). At any one point along the way, lock the steering wheel in its
position, so that the car thereafter follows a perfect circle. The car will, of course, deviate
from the road, unless the road is also a perfect circle. The radius of that circle the car
makes is the radius of curvature of the curvy road at the point at which the steering wheel
was locked. The more sharply curved the road is at the point you locked the steering
wheel, the smaller the radius of curvature.
Applications
➢ Radius of curvature is applied to measurements of the stress in the semiconductor
structures.
➢ When engineers design trains tracks, they need to ensure the curvature of the track to be
safe and provide a comfortable ride for the given speed of the trains.
Curvature and Radius of Curvature

Let P be a point on the curve y= f (x) at the length ‘s’ from a fixed-point A on it as given
in Fig. 1.7. Let the tangent at ‘P’ makes are angle ψ with positive direction of x – axis.
As the point ‘P’ moves along curve, both s and ψ vary.

P a g e 16 | 35
Fig. 1.7 Curvature
The rate of change ψ w.r.t s, ds is called the Curvature (κ) of the curve at ‘P’.
d
 = .
ds
Radius of curvature
1
If 𝑘 ≠ 0, then 𝑘 is called the radius of curvature and is denoted by ρ (rho - Greek letter).
1 𝑑𝑠
∴𝜌= =
𝑘 𝑑𝜓
Radius of curvature in Cartesian form

Suppose y = f(x) is the Cartesian equation of the curve considered in Fig. 1.8.
y
c
x
0
Fig. 1.8 Radius of curvature

If y = f(x) is the Cartesian equation of the curve considered in Fig. 1.8.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝜓 𝑑𝜓 𝑑𝑠
We have 𝑦 ′ = 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝜓 ⇒ 𝑦 ′′ = 𝑑𝑥 2 = sec 2 𝜓 . 𝑑𝑥 = 1 + tan2 𝜓 ( 𝑑𝑠 ) . (𝑑𝑥)
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 2
But we know that 𝑑𝑥 = √1 + (𝑑𝑥 )
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝜓 𝑑𝑦 2
∴ 2 = [1 + ( ) ] . √
. 1+( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥

P a g e 17 | 35
3
2 2
𝑑𝑦
[1 + ( ) ]
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥
=
𝑑𝜓 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
3
𝑑𝑠 [1 + 𝑦′2 ]2
∴𝜌= =
𝑑𝜓 𝑦′′
This is the expression for radius of curvature in Cartesian form.
3
  dx  2  2
1 +   
  dy  
Note: We note that when 𝑦 ′ = , we find  using the formula  =  .
 d 2x 
 2
 dy 
Radius of curvature in Parametric form
Let 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡) be the parametric equations of a curve C and P(x, y) be a given
point on it.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡 . 𝑑2 𝑦/𝑑𝑡 2 −𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 . 𝑑2 𝑥/𝑑𝑡 2
Then = 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡 and 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑑𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥 ( )
𝑑𝑡
Substituting the values of 𝑦 ′ and 𝑦′′ in the cartesian form of the radius of curvature of the
curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
3
[1 + 𝑦′2 ]2
𝜌=
𝑦′′
3
[𝑥 ′2 + 𝑦′2 ]2
∴ 𝜌 = ′ ′′
𝑥 𝑦 − 𝑦′𝑥′′
This is the expression for radius of curvature in Parametric form.
Problems
1. Find the radius of curvature of the curve x3+y3 = 2a3 at the point (a, a).
x2
Solution: x3 + y3 = 2a3  3x 2 + 3 y 2  y1 = 0  y1 = − hence at ( a, a ) , y1 = −1.
y2
 y 2 ( 2 x ) − x 2 ( 2 y ) y1   2a 3 + 2a 3  4
 y2 = −  4  , hence at ( a , a ) , y 2 = −  4  =−
 y   a  a
3 3
1 + ( y1 )2  2
1 + ( −1)2  2
=  =  a a
i.e.,  = 2 2 = .
y2 −4 4 2
a

P a g e 18 | 35
2. Find the radius of curvature for x + y = a at the point where it meets the line y = x.
a
Solution: On the line y = x, x + x = a i.e 2 x = a or x=
4
a a
i.e., We need to find  at  , 
4 4
1 1 y a a
x+ y= a + y1 = 0 i.e y1 = − , hence at  ,  , y1 = −1.
2 x 2 y x 4 4
 1 1 
 x 2 y  y1 − y 2 x 
Also, y2 = −  
 x 
 
 
 a 1 a 1 
  (−1) − 
 42 a 4
2
a 1 1
(− − )
 a a  
 at  ,  , y2 = −  4 4  = − 2 2 = − (−1) = 4
4 4 a  a a a
 
 4  4 4
 
3 3
1 + ( y1 )2  2
1 + ( −1)2  2
 =   =  a a
= 2 2= .
y2 4 4 2
a
3. Find the radius of curvature for xy2 = a3 - x3 at (a, 0).

Solution: xy 2 = a3 − x3  y 2 + 2 xy y1 = −3x 2
−3 x 2 − y 2
 y1 = and at (a, 0), y1 = 
2 xy
dx 2 xy dx
In such cases we write = and at (a, 0), =0
dy −3x − y
2 2
dy
 2 2  dx   dx 
 ( 3x + y )  2 y + 2 x  − 2 xy  6 x + 2 y  
dx −2 xy d x 2
 dy   dy 
Also = 2  2 =
dy 3 x + y  ( 3x + y ) 
2 2
dy 2 2
 
 
d 2 x  ( 3a + 0 ) ( 0 + 2a ) − 0  −6a3 −2
 2 
 At ( a, 0 ) , = = =
dy2  (3a + 0) 
2 4
2 9 a 3a
 

P a g e 19 | 35
3
  dx 2  2
1 +    3
  dy   1 + o2  2
 =  2  3a
= or  = .
d x 2 −2 2
dy 3a
125
4. Find the points on the parabola y 2 = 8x at which the radius of curvature is .
16
Solution: Given: y 2 = 8x  y = 2 2 x (1)
Differentiating equation (1) w.r.t x , we get
2 −1 (1 + y12 )3/2
y1 = , y2 = . We know that,  =
x 2 x3/2 y2
3/2
 2
  = 1 +  . 2 x3/2 = 2( x + 2)3/2 .
 x
125
Given that  = .
16
3
125  5   5 
 2( x + 2) 3/2
=  ( x + 2)3/2 =    ( x + 2)1/2 =  
16 2 2 2 2
25 9
x= −2=
8 8
9
 y 2 = 8    y = 3
8
125 9 
Hence the points at which the at which the radius of curvature is are  , 3  .
16 8 
(
5. Find the radius of curvature of the curve x4 + x3 + a x2 + y 2 − a 2 y = 0 at ( 0,0) . )
Solution: Given, x + x + a x + y
4 3
( 2 2
) − a y = 0 …(1)
2

4 x3 + 32 + a(2 x + 2 yy1 ) − a 2 y1 = 0 …(2)
At (0,0) we obtain from equation (2), y1 = 0 .
 x-axis is tangent to the given curve (1) at the origin.
 x2 
  (0, 0) = lt   , using Newton’s formulae.
x →0 2 y
 
a
By dividing equation (1) by 2y and taking the limit on both sides as, we obtain  (0, 0) = .
2

P a g e 20 | 35
𝜋
6. Find the radius of curvature of the curve 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡, 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 6 .
Solution: Given 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡

Differentiating w.r.t. t we get
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= −𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡, = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑦1 = = ⁄𝑑𝑥 = = − cot 𝑡
𝑑𝑥 −𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑦1 = − cot 𝑡
𝜋
𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = , 𝑦1 = − cot(𝜋/6) = −√3
6
Differentiating w.r.t. x we get
𝑑𝑡
𝑦2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑡 . 𝑑𝑥
1 cosec 3 𝑡
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑡 =−
−a sin 𝑡 𝑎
−1
𝑦2 =
𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑡
𝜋 8
𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = , 𝑦2 = −
3
6 𝑎
3 3
(1+𝑦12 )2 𝑎 [1+3]2 −𝑎. [4]2
We have, 𝜌 = = = = −𝑎.
𝑦2 −8 8
𝜌 = −𝑎.
7. Find the radius of curvature of the curve 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡).
Solution: Given 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡)
Differentiating w.r.t. t we get
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑎(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡), = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑡/2) cos(𝑡/2)
𝑦1 = = ⁄𝑑𝑥 = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑎(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡) 2 cos2 (𝑡/2)
𝑑𝑡
𝑦1 = tan(𝑡/2)
Differentiating w.r.t. x we get
1 𝑑𝑡
𝑦2 = sec 2 (𝑡/2) . .
2 𝑑𝑥
1 1 sec 2(𝑡/2)
= sec 2 (𝑡/2) . . =
2 𝑎(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡) 4𝑎 cos2 (𝑡/2)
1
𝑦2 = sec 4 (𝑡/2)
4𝑎
We have,

P a g e 21 | 35
3 3
3 2𝑡 2 𝑡 2
(1 + 𝑦12 )2 4𝑎. [1 + tan (2)] 4𝑎. [Sec 2 (2)]
𝜌= = 𝑡 = 𝑡
𝑦2 sec 4 (2) sec 4 (2)
4𝑎 𝑡
𝜌= = 4𝑎. cos ( ).
𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑡/2) 2
Exercise:
Find the radius of curvature for the following curves
3𝑎 3𝑎
(1) x 3 + 𝑦 3 = 3𝑎𝑥𝑦 𝑎𝑡 ( 2 , 2 )
𝑎2 (𝑎 − 𝑥)
(2)𝑦 2 = 𝑎𝑡 (𝑎, 0)
𝑥
(3)𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 + 23 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (−2, 0)
2
𝑎2 (𝑎 − 𝑥)
(4) 𝑦 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
𝑥
(5) 𝑥 2 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝑎𝑡 (−2𝑎, 2𝑎).
2
𝑎𝑥 2𝜌 3 𝑥 2 𝑦 2
(6) 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑎+𝑥 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 (𝑎) = (𝑦) + (𝑥 )
(7) 𝑥 = 𝑡 − sinh 𝑡 cosh 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 2 cosh 𝑡
(8) 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔(sec 𝑡 + tan 𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑎 sec 𝑡
𝜋
(9) 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 3 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin3 𝜃 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 =
4
𝑎 𝑏
(10) 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑎𝑡 ( , )
√2 √2
3𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
Answers: (1) |𝜌| = 8√2 , (2) |𝜌| = 2 (3) |𝜌| = 6 (4) |𝜌| = 2 (5) |𝜌| = 2𝑎
3
2 2 3𝑎 (𝑎2 +𝑏 2 )2
(7) |𝜌| = 2 cosh 𝑡 sinh 𝑡 (8) |𝜌| = 𝑎 sec 𝑡 (9) |𝜌| = (10) |𝜌| =
2 𝑎𝑏
Radius of curvature in polar form
An expression for the radius of curvature in the case of a polar curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃).
Let OP=r be the radius vector and 𝜙 be the angle made by the radius vector with the tangent
at 𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃) as given in the figure
Let 𝜓 be the angle made by the tangent at P with the initial line.
̂ = 𝑠.
Let A be a fixed point on the curve and let 𝐴𝑃

P a g e 22 | 35
We have 𝜓 = 𝜃 + 𝜙
𝑑𝜓 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃
∴ = + = + .
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑠
1 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
𝑖. 𝑒. , = (1 + )
𝜌 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑠
𝜌= 𝑑𝜃 … … … … (1)
𝑑𝜙
(1 + )
𝑑𝜃
We know that
𝑑𝜃 𝑟 𝑟
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 = 𝑟 = =
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑟1
𝑑𝜃 Fig. 1.9 Radius of curvature
Differentiating w.r.t 𝜃 we get,
2
𝑑𝜙 𝑟1 . 𝑟1 − 𝑟. 𝑟2 𝑑2 𝑟
sec 𝜙 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟2 =
𝑑𝜃 𝑟12 𝑑𝜃 2
𝑑𝜙 𝑟12 − 𝑟. 𝑟2 𝑟12 − 𝑟. 𝑟2
= =
𝑑𝜃 sec 2 𝜙 . 𝑟12 𝑟12 (1 + tan2 𝜙)
𝑑𝜙 𝑟12 − 𝑟. 𝑟2 𝑟12 − 𝑟. 𝑟2
= =
𝑑𝜃 𝑟2 (𝑟12 + 𝑟 2 )
𝑟12 (1 + ( 2 ))
𝑟1
𝑑𝑠
= √𝑟12 + 𝑟 2
𝑑𝜃
(𝑟 2 + 𝑟12 )3/2
𝜌= 2
𝑟 + 2𝑟12 − 𝑟. 𝑟2
This is the expression for radius of curvature in Polar form.
Radius of curvature in Pedal form

The pedal equation of the any given curve is 𝑝 = 𝑟 sin 𝜙
Differentiating w.r.t r we get
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝜙
= 𝑟 cos 𝜙 + sin 𝜙
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑟
But we know that, sin 𝜙 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑠 and cos 𝜙 = 𝑑𝑠 , 𝜙 + 𝜃 = 𝜓
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑑
=𝑟 +𝑟 = 𝑟 (𝜙 + 𝜃)
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝜓
=𝑟
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑟
𝜌=𝑟
𝑑𝑝
This is the expression for radius of curvature in Pedal form.

P a g e 23 | 35
Problems
1. Show that the radius of curvature of the equiangular spiral r = ae cot( ) at any point ( r ,  )
is 𝜌 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝛼.
Solution: The given curve is r = ae cot( ) .
Differentiating w.r.t.  , we have
dr
r1 = = ae cot( ) .cot( ) = r cot( ) and
d
d 2r
r2 = 2 = r cot 2 ( ) .
d
Therefore, the radius of curvature  of the equiangular spiral r = ae cot( ) at any point
( r ,  ) is
(r 2 + r12 )3/2 (r 2 + r 2 cot 2 ( ))3/2
= 2 =
r + 2r12 − rr2 r 2 + 2r 2 cot 2 ( ) − r 2 cot 2 ( )
r 3 (1 + cot 2 ( ))3/2
= = r (cos ec 2 ( ))1/2 = r cos ec( ).
r 2 (1 + cot 2 ( ))
2. Find the radius of curvature of the curve 𝑟 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 cos(mθ) .

Solution: Given: 𝑟 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 cos(mθ) , (1)
By taking log on both sides of equation (1), we get
m log r = m log a + log(cos(m )).
m dr (−m)sin(m ) 1
=  r1 = − tan(m ).
r d cos(m ) r
 r1 = −r tan(m ).
Hence, r2 = −r1 tan(m ) − mr sec2 (m ).
(r 2 + r12 )3/2 (r 2 + (− r tan( m )) 2 )3/2

= =
r 2 + 2r12 − rr2 r 2 + 2( −r tan( m )) 2 − r (− r1 tan( m ) − mr sec 2 ( m ))
(r 2 )3/2 (sec 2 ( m ))3/2 r 3 sec3 ( m )
= =
r 2 + 2r 2 tan 2 ( m ) − r 2 tan 2 ( m ) + mr 2 sec 2 ( m ) r 2 (1 + tan 2 ( m ) + m sec 2 ( m ))
r sec3 (m ) r sec (m )  r 
= = =  sec (m ).
(1 + m) sec ( m )
2
(1 + m)  (1 + m) 
rm
From equation (1), we have m = cos(m ) .
a
m
a
 m = sec(m ).
r
Thus,
 r a
m
 am  1
 =  m =  m−1 .
 1+ m  r  1+ m  r

P a g e 24 | 35
3. Prove that at the points in which the Archimedean spiral 𝑟 = 𝑎𝜃 intersects the hyperbolical
spiral 𝑟𝜃 = 𝑎 , their curvature are in the ratio 3:1.
Solution: Given that
a
r = a & r = .

a
 a =   2 = 1   = 1.

Now, r = a gives r1 = a, r2 = 0.
 At  = 1, r = a, r1 = a, r2 = 0.
a −a 2a
Also, r =  r1 =  r2 = .
  2
3
 At  = 1, r = a, r1 = −a, r2 = 2a.
(r 2 + r12 )3/2
We know that,  = .
r 2 + 2r12 − rr2
Let the radius of curvature of the Archimedean spiral 𝑟 = 𝑎𝜃 be 1 .
(a 2 + a 2 )3/2 (2a 2 )3/2 2 2a
 1 = = = (1)
a 2 + 2a 2 3a 2 3
And let the radius of curvature of the hyperbolical spiral 𝑟𝜃 = 𝑎 be 2 .
(a 2 + a 2 )3/2 (2a 2 )3/2
 2 = = = 2 2a (2)
a 2 + 2a 2 − 2a 2 a2
Therefore, from equations (1) and (2) we get ratio of their curvature as,
 (3 / 2 2a) 3
 1 = =
 2 (1/ 2 2a) 1
Hence the curvatures are in the ratio 3:1.
4. If 1 , 2 be the radius of curvature at the extremities of a chord of the cardioid

16a 2
r = a (1 − cos  ) which passes through the pole, show that 12 + 22 = .
9
Solution: The given equation of the curve is r = a (1 − cos  ) .
dr d 2r
r1 = = −a sin( ) and r2 = 2 = −a cos( ).
d d
Therefore,
(𝑟 2 + 𝑟12 )3/2 (𝑎2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜃))2 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( 𝜃))3/2
𝜌= =
𝑟 2 + 2𝑟12 − 𝑟𝑟2 𝑎2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜃))2 + 2𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( 𝜃) − 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜃)(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜃))
𝑎3 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 𝜃) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( 𝜃) − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜃))3/2
= 2
𝑎 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 𝜃) − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜃) + 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2( 𝜃) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜃) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 𝜃))
3
22 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜃))3/2
=
3(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜃))
3/2
2 𝑎√𝑟 2
= = √2𝑎𝑟
3√𝑎 3
8𝑎𝑟
∴ 𝜌2 = .
9

P a g e 25 | 35
If PQ is any chord of the cardioid passing through the pole and if P and Q are the points ( R ,  ) and
( S ,  ) respectively, then  =  +  .
Hence, if 1 and 2 are the radii of curvatures at P and Q, respectively, then
8aR 8aS
12 = and 22 = .
9 9
Therefore,
8𝑎 8𝑎
𝜌12 + 𝜌22 = [𝑅 + 𝑆] = [𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝛼)) + 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝛽))]
9 9
8𝑎2 8𝑎2
= [2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝛼) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝛽)] = [2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝛼) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜋 + 𝛼)]
9 9
2 2
8𝑎 16𝑎
= [2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝛼) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝛼)] = .
9 9
Exercise:
−r 3
1. Prove that the radius of curvature at any point of the curve is r 2 cos(2 ) = a2 is .
a2
𝜌2
2. Prove that for the curve is a constant for the cardioide 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃), where
𝑟
𝜌 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 Radius of curvature.

𝜌2⁄
3. For the cardioid: 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃), show that 𝑟 is constant.
𝑎2
4. Show that the radius of curvature of the curve 𝑝𝑎2 = 𝑟 3 is .
3𝑟
5. Show that for the curve 𝑝2 = 𝑎𝑟, 𝜌2 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑟 3 .

P a g e 26 | 35
SELF-STUDY
Center of curvature
In geometry, the center of curvature of a curve is found at a point that is at a distance
from the curve equal to the radius of curvature lying on the normal vector. It is the point at
infinity if the curvature is zero. The osculating circle to the curve is centered at the Center of
curvature. Cauchy defined the Center of curvature C as the intersection point of two infinitely
close normal lines to the curve. Center of curvature at any point P(x, y) on the curve y = f(x) is
𝑦1 (1+𝑦12 ) (1+𝑦12 )
given by 𝑥̅ = 𝑥 − , 𝑦̅ = 𝑦 +
𝑦2 𝑦2
Fig. 1.10 Center of curvature
̅ 𝑦̅) be the center of curvature and ρ be the radius of curvature at P(x, y) as considered
Let C (𝑥,
in Fig. 1.10. Draw PL and CM perpendicular to OX and PN perpendicular to CM. Let the
tangent at P makes an angle ψ with the x-axis. Then ∠NCP = 90 – ∠NPC = ψ
𝑦1 (1+𝑦12 )
𝑥̅ = OM = OL –ML = OL-NP = 𝑥 − 𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜓 = 𝑥 − 𝑦2
(1+𝑦12 )
Similarly, 𝑦̅= MC = MN + NC = LP +𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜓 = 𝑦 + 𝑦2
Note: Equation of the circle of curvature at P(x, y) is (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦̅)2 = 𝜌2
Problems
1. Find the coordinates of the center of curvature at any point of the parabola y2= 4ax.
Solution: Given: 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 ,
2𝑎 4𝑎2
We have 𝑦1 = and 𝑦2 = − . The center of curvature at any point P(x, y) on the given
𝑦 𝑦3
𝑦1 (1+𝑦12 ) (1+𝑦12 )
curve is given by 𝑥̅ = 𝑥 − , 𝑦̅ = 𝑦 + .
𝑦2 𝑦2
Then the coordinates of the center of curvature at any point of the parabola
2𝑥 3/2
y2= 4ax is 𝑥̅ = 3𝑥 + 2𝑎, 𝑦̅ = − .
√𝑎

P a g e 27 | 35
2. Find circle of curvature at (1,0) on y = x 3 − x 2 .

Solution: At(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )the equation of the circle of curvature is (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦̅)2 = 𝜌2
dy
= 3x 2 − 2 x ; y1(1,0) = 1
dx
d2y
= 6x − 2 ; y2 (1, 0) = 4
dx2
(1 + y1 ) (1, 0 ) = 2 ,
2
1 1 1
x(1,0) = ; y(1,0) = ;  (1,0) =
2 2 2
2 2
 1  1 1
x−  + y −  =  x + y − x− y = 0.
2 2
 2  2 2
a a
3. Find the center of curvature at the point  ,  of the curve x + y = a. Find also the
4 4
equation of the circle of curvature at that point.
Solution: Given curve: x + y = a . (1)
1 1 dy
+ =0
2 x 2 y dx
dy y
 = y1 = −
dx x
and
 1 dy 1 
 x. − y.
2
d y 2 y dx 2 x
 2 = y2 = −  .
dx  x 
 
 
 1 1 
 a / 4. (−1) − a / 4.
a a
At  ,  , y1 = −1, y2 =  2 a/4 2 a / 4  =  −1/ 2 − 1/ 2  = 4 .
  
4 4  (a / 4)   a/4  a
 
a a
The radius of curvature at the point  ,  of the curve x + y = a is
4 4
(1 + y1 )
2 3/2
(1 + (−1) )
2 3/2
a.2 2 a
= = = = .
y2 4/a 4 2
We know that the center of curvature at any point P(x, y) on the curve is given by
𝑦1 (1+𝑦12 ) (1+𝑦12 )
𝑥̅ = 𝑥 − , 𝑦̅ = 𝑦 + .
𝑦2 𝑦2
a a
At the point  ,  ,
4 4

P a g e 28 | 35
a (−1)(1 + 1) 3a
x = − =
4 4/a 4
a (1 + 1) 3a
y= + =
4 4/a 4
Hence the circle of curvature is ( x − x)2 + ( y − y)2 =  2 ,
2 2
 3a   3a  a2
 x −  +  y −  = .
 4   4  4
4. Find the equation of the circle of curvature at ( c, c ) on xy = c 2 .
Solution: We know that the center of curvature at any point P(x, y) on the curve is given by
𝑦1 (1+𝑦12 ) (1+𝑦12 )
𝑥̅ = 𝑥 − , 𝑦̅ = 𝑦 + and the equation of the circle of curvature is
𝑦2 𝑦2
( x − x) 2 + ( y − y ) 2 =  2 .
Given: xy = c 2 . (1)
dy
y+x = 0.
dx
−y y 1
 y1 = , y2 = 2 − y1
x x x
c 1 2
At ( c, c ) , y1 = −1, y2 = 2 − (−1) = .
c c c
(1 + y1 )2 3/2
(1 + (−1) )
2 3/2
 = = = 2c.
y2 (2 / c)
And, x = c + (c / 2)(1 + 1) = 2c, y = c + (c / 2)(1 + 1) = 2c.
Therefore, the equation of the circle of curvature at ( c, c ) on xy = c 2 is
( x − 2c)2 + ( y − 2c) 2 =  2
 ( x − 2c)2 + ( y − 2c) 2 = 2c 2 .
Exercise:
1) Find circle of curvature of x + y = ax2 + by2 + cx3 at the origin.
3 3
2) Find circle of curvature of x3 + y 3 = 3xy at(2 , 2).
3) Find the center of curvature for the curve x = y2 at (2, -1).
Answers:
1) (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) = 2(𝑥 + 𝑦).

21 432
2) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 8 (𝑥 + 𝑦) + 128 = 0.
3) Hint: Given: x = y2 .
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get
dy 1 1 −1 dy
1 = 2y  y1 = , y2 = . 2 . ,
dx 2y 2 y dx

P a g e 29 | 35
−1 1
At (2,-1), y1 = and y2 = .
2 4
y1 (1 + y12 ) (−1/ 2)[1 + (−1/ 2) 2 ] 9

x = x− = 2− =
y2 1/ 4 2
(1 + y12 ) [1 + (−1/ 2) 2 ]
y = y+ = −1 + = 4.
y2 1/ 4
Applications to evolutes and involutes
The locus of the center of curvature for a curve is known as the evolute of the curve and the
original curve itself is called involute.
To find the evolute of a curve we eliminate the parameters x and y between
𝑦1 (1+𝑦12 ) (1+𝑦12 )
𝑥̅ = 𝑥 − , 𝑦̅ = 𝑦 + , the co-ordinates of the center of curvature, and then the
𝑦2 𝑦2
required equation of the evolute is obtained by changing x → x and y → y in the relation
obtained between x and 𝑦̅.
Application
The involutes of the curve have many applications in industries and businesses.
• Gear industries – To make teeth for two revolving machines and gears. Involutes are
used in gear tooth design to eliminate vibration as much as possible.
• Scroll compressing and Gas Compressing – These are made in this shape to reduce
noise and to make them efficient.
• The basic application of involute usage is in winding clocks & toys wherein a winding
key is used to motion the spiral spring in a circular involute.
• The involute and evolute of a very special curve can be used to design a special type
of clock.
Working Procedure
Step 1: We prefer to consider the curve y=f(x) in the parametric form, x=x(t) and y=y(t).
Step 2: we compute 𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦2 in terms of t.
Step 3: we compute the centre of curvature (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) for the point (x, y) which will be in terms
of t.

P a g e 30 | 35
Step 4: we eliminate t from 𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅ which results in an expression of the form 𝐹(𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) = 𝑘, k
being a constant.
Step-5: Taking the locus of (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅)in 𝐹(𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) = 𝑘(replacing 𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅ by x, y) 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑘 will be
the required evolute of the given curve y=f(x), which is being referred to as the involute.
Sl.
Name of the curve Cartesian form Parametric form
No.
𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 2𝑎𝑡
1 Parabola
𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦 𝑥 = 2𝑎𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑡 2
𝑥2 𝑦2
2 Ellipse + =1 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑎2 𝑏 2
2 2
𝑥 𝑦
3 Hyperbola − 2=1 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑎 2 𝑏
Rectangular 𝑐
4 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑐 2 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡, 𝑦 =
Hyperbola 𝑡
2 2 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos3 𝑡,
5 Astroid 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 𝑎2/3 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin3 𝑡
Problems
1. Find the co-ordinates of the center of curvature at any point of the parabola 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥. Hence
show that its evolute is 27𝑎𝑦 2 = 4(𝑥 − 2𝑎)3 .
Solution: Given: y = 4ax .

2
Differentiating w.r.t. x , we get
2a 2a a 1 3
y1 = = = and 𝑦2 = − √𝑎𝑥 −2 .
2
y 4ax x
Therefore,
𝑎 𝑎
√𝑥(1+𝑥)
𝑥=𝑥− 1
3 = 𝑥 + 2(𝑥 + 𝑎) = 3𝑥 + 2𝑎 (1)
−
− √𝑎𝑥 2
2
and
𝑎 3
1+ 2(𝑥+𝑎) (𝑥+𝑎) 𝑥2
𝑥
𝑦=𝑦+ 3 = 2√𝑎√𝑥 − 3 = 2√𝑎√𝑥 (1 − 𝑎
)= −2 𝑎. (2)
1 −
− √𝑎𝑥 2
− √
2
√𝑎𝑥 2
3
−2𝑥 2
Hence, the center of curvature of the given parabola is (𝑥, 𝑦) = (3𝑥 + 2𝑎, ).
√𝑎

P a g e 31 | 35
x − 2a
From equation (1), we have x = . Substituting this value in equation (2), we get
3
3
2(𝑥−2𝑎)2 2 𝑥−2𝑎 3 2
𝑦=− ⇒ 𝑦 = 4( ) ⇒ 27𝑎𝑦 = 4(𝑥 − 2𝑎)3 . Therefore, the locus of the center
√𝑎 3
of curvature ( x, y) is 27ay 2 = 4( x − 2a)3 , which is the required evolute.
2. Determine the evolute of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 .

Solution: From the definition of curvature in Cartesian form, we have
y2
= .
(1 + y12 )3/2
Differentiating w.r.t. x , we get
dy dy x
2x + 2 y =0 =−
dx dx y
dy x
x − y y − x(− )
2
d y dx y y 2 + x2
 2 = = = .
dx y2 y2 y3
Hence,
y 2 + x2
y3 y 2 + x2 y 2 + x2 1 1
= = = = 2 = .
  x 2 
3/2
3 y +x 
2 2 3/2
(y + x )
2 2 3/2
(y + x )
2 1/2
r
1 +  −   y  
  y 
2
 y 
 
Thus, the curvature of the given circle is constant. The radius of curvature of the circle is
likewise constant  = r. Since r is the distance from the given curve to the center of the circle,
it follows that the center of curvature of the given circle is the center of the circle at all points.
Hence, the evolute of a circle is a single point which is its center.
3. Show that the evolute of the cycloid 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃), 𝑦 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) is another equal
cycloid.
Solution: Given: 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃), 𝑦 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) (1)
Differentiating eqution (1) w.r.t.  , we have
dx dy
= a(1 − cos  ) and = a sin  .
d d
Therefore,
dy dy / d a sin   
y1 = = = = cot   ,
dx dx / d a(1 − cos  ) 2
and
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝜃 1 𝜃 1
𝑦2 = (𝑦1 ) = (𝑦1 ) = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑒 𝑐 2 ( ) .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑥 2 2 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
−1
= .
𝜃
4𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 2
Hence,

P a g e 32 | 35
𝜃 𝜃
𝑦1 (1 + 𝑦1 2 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (2) [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 (2)]
𝑥=𝑥− = 𝑎(𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) −
𝑦2 1 𝜃
− 4𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑒 𝑐 4 (2)
𝜃 𝜃
= 𝑎(𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) + 4𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
2 2
= 𝑎𝜃 − 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑎(𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)
and
1 + y12  
y = y+ = a(1 − cos  ) − 4a sin 2  
y2 2
= a − a cos  − 2a + 2a cos 
= −a(1 − cos  ).
Therefore, the center of curvature of the given cycloid is
( )
x, y = (a( + sin  ), −a(1 − cos  )).
x = a( + sin  )
y = −a(1 − cos  )
( )
The locus of x, y is x = a( + sin  ) and y = − a (1 − cos  ) , which is another equal cycloid.
𝑡
4. Prove that the evolute of the curve 𝑥 = 𝑎 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + log tan 2] , 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑡 is the catenary
𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑎 cosh (𝑎) .
Solution:
𝑑2𝑦 2
𝑑𝑡 2
sin 𝑡 sec 4 𝑡 sin 𝑡
= sec 𝑡 . = sec 𝑡 . =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑎 cos2 𝑡 𝑎
2
𝑦1 (1 + 𝑦1 ) 𝑡 tan 𝑡 (1 + tan2 𝑡)
𝑋̅ = 𝑥 − = 𝑎 [cos 𝑡 + log tan ] − 𝑡
𝑦2 2 sec 4 𝑡 sin 𝑎

P a g e 33 | 35
𝑡
= 𝑎 [cos 𝑡 + log tan ] − 𝑎 cos 𝑡
2
𝑡
𝑋̅ = 𝑎 log tan
2
(1 + 𝑦12 ) (1 + tan2 𝑡)
𝑌̅ = 𝑦 + = a sin 𝑡 + 𝑡
𝑦2 sec 4 𝑡 sin 𝑎
𝑎
= a sin 𝑡 +
sec 2 𝑡 sin 𝑡
𝑎
𝑌̅ =
sin 𝑡
𝑡
2 tan
2
We know that sin 𝑡 = 𝑡
1+tan2
2
𝑋̅
𝑎 2𝑒 𝑎
=
𝑌̅ 2𝑋̅
1+𝑒𝑎
𝑋̅ 2𝑋̅
𝑎 𝑒 −𝑎 (1 + 𝑒 𝑎 )
𝑌̅ =
2
𝑋̅ 𝑋̅
−
𝑎 (𝑒 𝑎 + 𝑒𝑎)
𝑌̅ =
2
𝑌̅ = 𝑎 cosh( 𝑋̅/𝑎)
𝑥
Locus of (𝑋̅, 𝑌̅) is 𝑦 = 𝑎 cosh (𝑎).
Exercise:
1) Find the co-ordinates of the center of curvature at any point ( x, y ) on the ellipse
x2 y 2
+ = 1 . Also find the evolute of the ellipse.
a 2 b2
2) Find the evolute of the rectangular hyperbola xy = c 2 .
Answers: 1) (ax)2/3 + (by)2/3 = (a2 − b2 )2/3 2) ( x + y)2/3 − ( x − y)2/3 = (4c)2/3 .
YouTube links:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rBVi_9qAKTU&feature=youtu.be
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jdGZdbWY4ww&feature=youtu.be
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6uRZCgJKMsA&feature=youtu.be
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OfjAoQLCBoE
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXR4spGVDqA&feature=youtu.be
Disclaimer: The content provided is prepared by department of Mathematics for the specified
syllabus by using reference books mentioned in the syllabus. This material is specifically for
the use of RVITM students and for education purpose only.

P a g e 34 | 35
Beat the Memory
d
1. Angle between Radius vector and tangent: tan  = r
dr
 1 dr 
2. Angle between the curves = |𝜑1 − 𝜑2 | Note: (i) cot  =  
 r d 
(ii) If 1 and  2 are the angles between the radius vector and the tangents at the point of
intersection of two curves r = f1 ( ) and r = f 2 ( ) then the angle of intersection of the curves
is given by 1 − 2
.
(iii) Suppose we are not able to obtain 1 and  2 explicitly then
tan(1 − 2 ) =
1 + tan 1 tan 2
𝜋
(iv) If tan 1 . tan 2 = −1 then tan(1 − 2 ) = ∞ => 1 -  2 = 2 (condition for the orthogonally
of two polar curves.
3. Pedal Equation (p-r equation):
2
1 1 1 𝑑𝑟 1 1  du 
(i) p = r sin  or (ii) = 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 4 (𝑑𝜃) (iii) If u = , we get 2 = u 2 + 
2

𝑝2 r p  d 
3
  dx  2  2
1 +   
  dy  
4.The radius of curvature (i) in Cartesian form is  = 
 d 2x 
 2
 dy 
3
[𝑥 ′2 +𝑦′2 ]2
(ii) in Parametric form 𝜌 =
𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′′ −𝑦′𝑥′′
3
(𝑟 2 +𝑟12 )2
(iii) in polar form is 𝜌 = 𝑟 2 +2𝑟 2 −𝑟𝑟
1 2
𝑑𝑟
(iv) in pedal form is 𝜌 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑝
5. The center of curvature at any point P(x, y) on the given curve is given by
𝑦1 (1+𝑦12 ) (1+𝑦12 )
𝑥̅ = 𝑥 − , 𝑦̅ = 𝑦 + .
𝑦2 𝑦2

P a g e 35 | 35

Module-I (C-I)

Uploaded by

Module-I (C-I)

Uploaded by

RV Institute of Technology & Management ®

Topic Learning Objectives:

Upon Completion of this module, student will be able to:

➢ Understand the fundamentals of the differential calculus of functions of one variable.

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

Review of elementary differential calculus

Continuity: A real valued function f (x ) is said to be continuous at a point x0 if

The function f (x ) is said to be continuous in an interval if it is continuous at every point in the

We note that all elementary functions such as algebraic, exponential, trigonometric,

Differentiability: A real valued function f (x ) is said to be differentiable at point x0 if

A real valued function f(x) is said to be differentiable in an interval if it is differentiable at

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

d (cos ech −1 x) −1 d (sec h −1 x) −1

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

Functions of single variable

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

Requirement of new coordinate systems

Consider a point P ( x, y ) in xy − plane as shown

co – ordinates of the point P. 'r ' is called the radial r

Co-ordinates. Fig. 1.1 Polar coordinates

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

also x 2 + y 2 = r 2 cos 2  + r 2 sin 2 = r 2  r = x 2 + y 2 

Angle between Radius vector and tangent line y r = f ( )

Between tangent & radius vector OP. Then we have  

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

1. r = a (1 − cos ) shown in Fig. 1.3

Fig. 1.3 Cardioid

Solution: Given r 2 cos 2 = a 2 , Differentiating w.r.t.  , we get

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

Solution: Given r m = a m (cos m + sin m ) , taking log on both side we get,

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

Corollary: Angle of intersection of two polar curves

at a point P ( r ,  ) . Let PT1 & PT2 be the tangents P(r , )

C1 &C2 at the point P ( r ,  ) . C2 2

of two polar curves.

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 + 1 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝜋 𝜋

2. Find the angle between the curves r = a (1 + sin  ) & r = a (1 − sin  ) .

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

5. 𝑟 = 2(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) and 𝑟 2 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

Fig. 1.5 Lemniscate

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 + log(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

𝑟 = 2(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃), 𝑟 2 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

Solving for 𝜃, we get

Exercise: Find the angle of intersection of the following curves

Pedal Equation (p-r equation)

Length of the perpendicular from pole on the tangent

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

Working rules to find pedal equations

1. Find the pedal equation to the curve r = a

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

2. Prove that the pedal equation to the curve r m = a m cos m is pa m = r m+1

Differentiating with respect to 

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

Find the pedal equations of the following polar curves

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

Curvature and Radius of Curvature

In mathematics, curvature is any of a number of loosely related concepts in different areas of

Curvature and Radius of Curvature

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

Fig. 1.7 Curvature

Radius of curvature in Cartesian form

Fig. 1.8 Radius of curvature

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

3. Find the radius of curvature for xy2 = a3 - x3 at (a, 0).

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

Differentiating equation (1) w.r.t x , we get

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

Solution: Given 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

Radius of curvature in polar form

at 𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃) as given in the figure

I-Semester: Mathematics-1 for Computer Science and Engineering Stream (BMATS101)

Radius of curvature in Pedal form