1.

Overview of technical grid code requirements

(a). The Grid Code details the technical requirements for connecting to and using
the National Electricity Transmission System (NETS). Compliance with the Grid
Code is one of the requirements of the Connection and Use of System Code (CUSC).
As the code administrator for the Grid Code, we maintain the code and oversee any
proposed changes to it.

(b). There is an urgent need to adopt clean energy solutions to cope with growing
demand for energy and replace existing polluting generators. The inclusion of variable
renewable energy introduces challenges to system operation. As renewable energy is
variable, uncertain, location constrained and inverter-based, replacing conventional
synchronous generation technologies. Furthermore, the power system is becoming
more decentralised, digitalised and end-use sectors more electrified. These trends are
driving the growth of the power system in a new and different direction. All of this
comes at a cost to the system operation, which has to ensure that the system is stable at
all times.

(c). Grid codes play a critical role in building trust between the system operators and
stakeholders. They remain one of the central tools to ensure the security of supply of a
power system at any time. Grid connection codes define technical requirements,
regulations, and behaviour for all active participants in the power system, including
power generators, adjustable loads, storage, and other units. Grid codes are evolving,
to enable innovative technologies to be connected to the network safely, without
compromising the reliability of supply.

(d). Increasing the share of renewable power from variable sources, namely solar and
wind energy, requires technological developments to be accompanied by well-designed
regulations for grid management and operation. Grid connection codes for variable
renewable energy (VRE) sources have evolved hand-in-hand with technological and
operational practices, driving the adoption of the best available technologies for VRE
grid integration. System size, voltage, interconnections, generation and distributions
loads, the conventional energy mix, and the prevailing policies on renewable energy
must all be taken into account.

2. Fault Ride-Through

(a). In electrical power engineering, fault ride through (FRT), sometimes under-voltage
ride through (UVRT), or low voltage ride through (LVRT), is the capability of electric
generators to stay connected in short periods of lower electric network voltage (cf.
voltage sag). It is needed at distribution level (wind parks, PV systems,
distributed cogeneration, etc.) to prevent a short circuit at HV or EHV level from
causing a widespread loss of generation. Similar requirements for critical loads such as
computer systems and industrial processes are often handled through the use of
 an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) or capacitor bank to supply make-up power
during these events.

(b). Modern large-scale wind turbines, typically 1 MW and larger, are normally
required to include systems that allow them to operate through such an event, and
thereby “ride through” the voltage dip. Similar requirements are now becoming
common on large solar power installations that likewise might cause instability in the
event of a widespread disconnection of generating units. Depending on the application
the device may, during and after the dip, be required to:
(i). disconnect and stay disconnected until manually ordered to reconnect
(ii). disconnect temporarily from the grid, but reconnect and continue operation after
the dip
(iii). stay operational and not disconnect from the grid
(iv). stay connected and support the grid with reactive power (defined as the reactive
current of the positive sequence of the fundamental).

3.1 Power Quality Issues

(a). Renewable energy resources are a reliable source of green energy, and their
contribution to the world’s energy supply is increasing with every passing year. While
it has been a good thing for the environment and it has also reduced dependency on
fossil fuels, the integration of renewables into the power grid has not been easy. It
comes with certain complications that need to be addressed. Power quality (PQ)
problems caused by renewable integration is one of those complications.

(b). Unlike traditional large and central power plants, renewable units are distributed
and independently controlled (distributed generation). Their varying nature causes
intermittent power generation with fluctuations. With the increase in renewable energy
penetration over time, these high fluctuations pose serious concerns regarding power
quality. The power quality issues discussed here are with reference to two major
renewable energy resources: wind energy and photovoltaic (PV) systems.

(c). Power quality means maintaining the voltage and the current sinusoidal wave at the
rated frequency and magnitude. Any deviation results in power system efficiency loss,
and this compromises the economy of the power system by placing unnecessary burden
on both the consumers and the suppliers.

(d). Major power quality issues can be broadly classified into two groups: voltage and
frequency fluctuations, and harmonics. The IEEE 929-2000 standard defines four major
parameters that must be used to evaluate PQ issues in PV systems: voltage, voltage
flicker, frequency and distortion. Voltage and frequency fluctuations are caused by the
unpredictable nature of the renewable energy resources and grid-side disturbances.
Harmonics are introduced in the system by the use of power electronic devices in
controlling the harnessed power from the renewables.
 (e). Renewables, especially wind and PV systems, are subject to nature’s
unpredictability. Although advanced forecasting systems have been developed to
predict the wind speeds and weather conditions, the availability of renewables still
remains partially unpredictable. In addition to their intermittent behaviour, they are
uncontrollable. Wind speeds and incident solar rays determine the output of these
systems and hence, there are fluctuations in voltage and frequency of the generated
power. Mitigation of these fluctuations require instantaneous additional energy.
Furthermore, disturbances from the grid side can also cause issues in the integrated
system. For instance, voltage sag on the grid side can cause the distributed generation
(DG) system to trip. International standards for power quality are being continuously
improved to ensure that DG systems can ride out the PQ issues like voltage sag from
the grid side.

(f). Frequency of the power system is inversely proportional to the inertia of the system.
The conventional power grid has large rotating machines (generators) that provide
significant inertia. When a change in the frequency occurs, this inertia counteracts the
initial deviation in frequency, before the primary reserves kick in to return the system
back to normal. When a large number of power electronic devices are added to the grid
as apart of the renewable integration, rotational inertia of the system is significantly
reduced. This may result in degradation of the frequency stability of the system and
cause dangerous disturbances.
(g). Power electronic converters play a significant role in renewable energy generation
systems. For instance, the output of PV module is in DC while the grids operate on AC
voltage. The conversion of DC to AC for integration into the grid requires inverters.
Inverters, DC-DC converters etc are power electronic technologies and are designed
using power electronic components like MOSFETs. They usually involve transistor
switching and different frequencies. In short, the design and nature of power electronic
devices is such that it introduces harmonics in the power system. Harmonics, by
definition, are frequency multiples of the fundamental power frequency. Addition of
these signals in the fundamental sinusoidal wave causes distortion of the wave that in
turn leads to a number of problems like reduced power factor, increased heating of
electrical loads and misfiring of variable speed drives.

3.2 Mitigation Techniques for Power Quality Issues

(a). Mitigating frequency and voltage fluctuations can be achieved by controlling the real
and reactive power flows. Specifically, voltage fluctuations are linked to reactive power
(Q) and frequency fluctuations are linked to real power (P).
(b). PV systems integrated with the grid inject current into the grid and play no role in
voltage regulation. If the injected current does not exceed the total requirements of the load
on the transmission line, the regulation devices on the grid continue to function normally.
However, if the injected current exceeds the requirement then corrective measure are
needed.
(c). Since voltage fluctuations can be controlled by reactive power compensation, use of a
flexible alternating current transmission system (FACTS) devices is the conventional and
popular method. Static var compensator (SVC) or a static synchronous compensators
(STATCOM) can be used for reactive power compensation and voltage regulation.
Thyristor controlled series compensators (TCSC) can be used to dampen the system
oscillations and decrease the electrical distance in transmission lines.
(d). As already mentioned, synchronous machines in the traditional power grid provide
rotational inertia and help in maintaining frequency stability. With the addition of
renewables, the loss of inertial reserves can be mitigated by the virtual synchronous
machine (VSM) method. In VSM technique, the power electronic converters are designed
to operate as virtual synchronous machines and effectively behave as a conventional
synchronous machine. This method can be used for frequency stability as it adds virtual
inertia to the system.
(e). Another modern technique for mitigating the frequency fluctuations, especially in wind
power systems, is superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES). In this technique, DC
current flows through a superconducting coil and it stores energy in the magnetic field
generated. For harmonic mitigation, carefully designed filters are used. There are other
methods as well like the virtual impedance method. Harmonic mitigation can be done
locally at the load or at the point of common coupling (PCC).
(f). And increase in DG systems and integration of renewables into the grid is inevitable.
Therefore, it is imperative that PQ mitigation methods are improved and perfected. State
of art techniques like VSMs and virtual impedance method are being developed and
improved continuously. Latest research is certainly paving way for smoother integration of
the grid with renewable energy systems.