Introduction to Mechanical Engineering, BESCK104D/204D Dr.

Niranjan Rai

CANARA ENGINEERING COLLEGE,

Benjanapadavu, Bantwal
Department of Basic Science and Humanities

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering

BESCK104D/204D

Semester: Ist
Module No.: 4
Engineering Materials
Module Title:
Joining Processes
Faculty Name: Dr. Niranjan Rai
Credentials: Niranjan.rai@canaraengineering.in
Mobile:9731331950

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Introduction to Mechanical Engineering, BESCK104D/204D Dr. Niranjan Rai

MODULE 2
Engineering Materials & Joining Processes

VTU Syllabus of the module

Engineering Materials: Types and applications of Ferrous & Nonferrous Metals, silica,
ceramics, glass, graphite, diamond and polymer. Shape Memory Alloys.
Joining Processes: Soldering, Brazing and Welding, Definitions, classification of welding
process, Arc welding, Gas welding and types of flames.

Engineering Material

Engineering materials refers to the group of materials that are used in the
construction of manmade structures and components. The primary function of an
engineering material is to withstand applied loading without breaking and without
exhibiting excessive deflection. The major classifications of engineering materials
include metals, polymers, ceramics, and composites.

Classification of Engineering Materials:

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Metal

A metal is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a

lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are
typically ductile (can be drawn into wires) and malleable (they can be hammered into
thin sheets). These properties are the result of the metallic bond between the atoms or
molecules of the metal.

Engineering materials are generally grouped into two parts i.e., Metals & Non-Metals.
Metals include Ferrous, Non-Ferrous, and Non-Metals include Glass, Rubber, Plastic,
etc. However, there are many other engineering materials which are Ceramics,
Polymers,

Ferrous Metals
Iron and Carbon are the main constituents of Ferrous metals and due to the presence of
Iron, ferrous metals are having magnetic properties. For example, Cast Iron, Wrought
Iron, Steel, etc.,

Non-Ferrous Metals
Non-Ferrous metals do not have Iron content and thus these are non-magnetic and rust
resistant. For example, Aluminium, Copper, Lead, Brass, Bronze, Gold, Zinc, etc.

Pig iron:
Composition- C: 3.5 – 4.5%; Si: 0.5 – 3%; S: 0.04 to 0.2%; Mn: 0.5 – 2.5%; P: 0.04 – 1%
Properties- Brittle
Application- used for making wrought iron, cast iron or steel.

Cast iron:
Composition- C: 2 – 4.5%; Si: 1 – 3%; small amounts of S, Mn, and P.
Properties- strong, brittle, low melting point, wear resistance, good fluidity, good
machinability.
Application- machine frames, beds and plates, housing, flywheels, automotive parts
such as engine block, cylinder head, gear box case.

Steel:
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Steel generally contains C: 0.5 – 1.5%; small
amounts of Si, S, P and Mn.
Classification of steels:
1. Carbon steels
2. Alloy steels
3. Tool steels

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Carbon Steel:

i. Low carbon steel or Mild steel:

Composition- C: 0.05 – 0.3%; rest is iron.
Properties- soft and ductile, good weldability, good formability, good machinability,
good toughness. Generally low strength.
Application-
i. In lightly stressed parts, nails, chains, rivets, bolts, keys, plain washers etc.,
ii. In structural sections like angles, channels, girders, beams etc.,
iii. In small forgings.
iv. In boiler plates, making shafts, camshafts, gears, and axles for low loads.

ii. Medium carbon steel:

Composition- C: 0.3 – 0.6%; rest is iron.
Properties- high toughness, high tensile strength, high hardness, good bending
strength, wear resistance, good torsion strength and good machinability.
Application- transmission shafts, axles, gears, connecting rods, spindles, couplings,
springs, washers, forging dies, rotor shafts, crane hook, torque tubes, loco wheels,
keys, hand tools etc.,

iii. High carbon steel:

Composition- C: 0.6 – 1.5%; Fe: 96 – 97%.
Properties- high hardness, brittle, resistance to wear and tear, surface abrasion
resistant, large torque capacity, high tensile strength, high yield strength. Low impact
strength, less ductility.
Application- hammers, chisels, screws, punches, knives, saws, drills, taps, reamers,
lathe tools, ball races and ball bearings, leaf springs, scrapers, bandsaws, circular saws,
wrenches, forming dies, banking dies, shearing dies, shaper tools, planer tools and
milling cutters etc.,

Alloy Steel:
Alloy steels are the steels produced by adding elements other than carbon in calculated
amounts to provide specific properties. Common types of alloy steels are:

i. Chromium steel:
Chromium is the alloying element.
Chromium improves corrosion resistance, hardenability, toughness, resistance to
abrasion, resistance to heat.
Application- in balls, rollers and racers for bearings, armor plate, cutting tools.

ii. Nickel steel: Ni: 3% and C: 0.2 – 0.35%.

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Application- locomotive forgings, axles, piston rods, parts of ship and components
subjected to shocks and fatigue.
An alloy of 36% Ni and 64% Fe has very less coefficient of expansion is used in
measuring instruments.

iii. Manganese steel: Mn: 1.5%; C: 0.4 – 0.55%.

Properties- improves strength, hardness, and toughness.
Application- axles, gears, shafts etc.,

iv. Molybdenum steel: Molybdenum is an alloying element.

Properties- increases tensile strength and creep strength at high temperature. Increases
wear resistance, heat resistance and corrosion resistance.
Application- used in high temperature heating elements, forging dies, extrusions,
radiation shields etc.,

v. Tungsten steel: Tungsten is an alloying element.

Properties- increases strength, hardness, toughness, provides shock resistance at high
temperature and wear resistance.
Application- in industrial cutting tools, rocket nozzles etc., Hastelloy and Satellite
which are superalloys containing tungsten is used in the blades of turbine.

vi. Stainless steel: Cr: 18%; Ni: 8%; C: 0.03%. Rest in majorly Iron and small amounts
of Mn, Si, Mo, P, S and N etc.,
Properties- corrosion resistant.
Application- used in kitchen equipment, cutlery, springs, circlips, chemical handling
equipment's, surgical equipment’s, shaving blades etc.,

vii. Tool steel: are special steels with carbon content is in the range of 0.8 to 1.2%.
Common example of tools steel is High Speed Steel (HSS). It contains 0.7 to 0.8% C, 12
to 20% tungsten, 3 to 5% chromium, 1 to 2% vanadium and 5 to 10% cobalt.
Properties- very hard and exhibit good wear and abrasion resistance. Withstand
hardness at elevated temperatures.
Application- in drill bits, lathe tools, milling cutters, reamers etc., They can cut at high
speeds without any loss in the hardness.

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Non-Ferrous Metals
Non-Ferrous metals do not have Iron content and thus these are non-magnetic and rust
resistant. For example, Aluminium, Copper, Lead, Brass, Bronze, Gold, Zinc, etc.

Aluminium:
Aluminium is a silvery white, soft, and ductile material. In its ore form, aluminium is
found as hydrated aluminium oxide or Bauxite.
Properties-
i. Light weight and easy workability.
ii. Corrosion resistance.
iii. Non-magnetic and good reflector of heat.
iv. Highly ductile.
v. Good electrical and thermal conductivity.

Application-
i. Metallurgical application: as de-oxidizer in the production of iron and steels.
Used for alloying steels.
ii. Electrical industry: used to make bus bars, cables, induction motors, conductors,
rotors, windings etc.,
iii. Aircraft industry: used in making aircraft parts.
iv. Automotive applications: used in making cylinder blocks, panels, suspension,
chassis, and other engine components.
v. Packaging industry: to make foils and drinking cans. Beer containers.
vi. Domestic: cooking utensils, ladders, furnishing, lighting fixtures, household
electrical appliances.
vii. Construction industry: to make windows, doors, frames, fencing, shutters,
curtain walls, insect screens, gates etc.,

Duralumin:
Composition- Al: 92%; Cu: 3.5 to 4.5%; Mg: 0.4 to 7%; Mn, Fe and Si maximum 0.7%.
Properties- Duralumin can he highly strengthened by heat treatment. It is strong
Duralumin can be spun, presses, riveted, machined etc., Low resistance to corrosion
hence coated with pure aluminium.
Application- connecting rod of aero engines and automobiles, aircraft structures.

Y-alloy:
Composition- Al: 93%; Cu: 4%; Ni: 1%; Mg: 1%.
Properties- good conductor of heat. Maintains strength at elevated temperatures.
Application- used to make pistons, cylinder head of IC engines. Also used to make
connecting rods and blades of propeller.

Non Metals
Silica
silica, also called silicon dioxide, compound of the two most
abundant elements in Earth’s crust, silicon and oxygen, SiO2. The mass of Earth’s crust
is 59% silica, the main constituent of more than 95 percent of the known rocks.

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Silica sand is used in buildings and roads in the form of portland cement, concrete,
and mortar, as well as sandstone.
Silica also is used in grinding and polishing glass and stone in foundry molds in the
manufacture of glass, ceramics, silicon carbide, ferrosilicon, and silicones; as a
refractory material; and as gemstones.

Ceramics: Ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic solid manufactured by baking

naturally occurring clays at high temperatures after moulding to shape.
A ceramic is any of the various hard, brittle, heat-resistant and corrosion-
resistant materials made by shaping and then firing an inorganic, nonmetallic material,
such as clay, at a high temperature. Common examples are earthenware and brick.
Application- used in the manufacture of knives, high- voltage insulators, high
temperature resistant cutting tool tips, dies, engine parts, pottery, tiles, structural and
refractory bricks.

Glass is made from natural and abundant raw materials (sand, soda ash and
limestone) that are melted at very high temperature to form a new material: glass. At
high temperature glass is structurally similar to liquids, however at ambient
temperature it behaves like solids. As a result, glass can be poured, blown, press and
moulded into plenty of shapes.
Glass is an amorphous solid material which is non-crystalline in nature. It is smooth
with non-porous surface and is abrasion resistant, a good insulator, good resistant to
chemical attacks. Glasses are generally brittle and optically transparent.
Additional materials such as iron oxide or cobalt can be added to the mix to give a
green or blue colour to the glass.
Application- used in food containers, laboratory apparatus, doors, furniture, utensils,
vehicle windows, mirrors, as lenses for spectacles, telescopes or magnifying glasses.

Graphite is a crystalline form of the element carbon. It consists of

stacked layers of graphene.
Graphite occurs naturally and is the most stable form of carbon under standard
conditions.
Synthetic and natural graphite are consumed on large scale for uses in pencils,
lubricants, and electrodes.
Under high pressures and temperatures, it converts to diamond.
It is a weak conductor of heat and electricity.

Diamond is a solid form of the element carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal
structure called diamond cubic.
Another solid form of carbon known as graphite is the chemically stable form of
carbon at room temperature and pressure,
Diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any natural material,
properties that are used in major industrial applications such as cutting and polishing
tools, Because the arrangement of atoms in diamond is extremely rigid,
Diamond also has a very high refractive index and a relatively high optical dispersion.

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A polymer is a substance or material consisting of very large molecules called

macromolecules, composed of many repeating subunits. Synthetic and natural
polymers play essential roles in everyday life.
Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small
molecules, known as monomers. Polymers unique physical properties including
toughness, high elasticity, viscoelasticity.
Natural polymeric materials such as hemp, shellac, amber, wool, silk,
Synthetic polymers, roughly in order of worldwide demand, Includes polyethylene,
polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, synthetic rubber, phenol
formaldehyde resin (or Bakelite), neoprene, nylon, polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone.

Shape memory alloys:

In metallurgy, a shape-memory alloy (SMA) is an alloy that can be deformed when
cold but returns to its pre-deformed ("remembered") shape when heated. It may also be
called memory metal, memory alloy, smart metal, smart alloy, or muscle wire.
When a shape memory alloy is in its martensitic form, it is easily deformed to a new
shape. However, when the alloy is heated through its transformation temperatures, it
reverts to austenite and recovers its previous shape with great force. This process is
known as shape memory.
The two most prevalent shape-memory alloys are copper-aluminium-nickel and
nickel-titanium (NiTi), but SMAs can also be created by alloying zinc, copper, gold and
iron.

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Joining Processes
Soldering:

Soldering is a method of uniting two thin metal pieces using a dissimilar metal or an
alloy by the application of heat.

The alloy of lead and tin, called soft solder is used in varying proportions for sheet
metal work, plumbing work, and electrical connections. The melting temperature of
soft solder is 150 to 3500C. Zinc chloride is used as flux in soft soldering. A soldering
iron is used to apply the heat produced from the electrical source.
Alloy of copper, tin and silver known as hard solder is used for stronger joints. The
soldering temperature od hard solder is from 600 to 9000C.

Method of Soldering:
• Cleaning the joining surface: make free from dust, oil, scales etc.,
• Application of flux: joining surface is coated with flux, usually rosin or borax.
• Tinning the surface to be soldered: the copper bit is heated and then rubbed
with a file clean it properly and then rotating with solder using resin. This
causes the formation of thin film of solder over the copper bit. This whole
process is called tinning.
• Heating: the soldering iron is then heated, and the flowing molten metal fills the
joint interface. Allow the soldered area to cool and solidify.
• Final clean up: clean the joint with steel wool or solvent to remove left-over flux.

Advantages of Soldering:
• Low cost and easy to use.
• Soldered joints are easy to repair or do rework.
• The soldered joint can last for many years.
• Low energy is required to solder.
• An experience person can exercise a high degree of control over the soldering.
• Soldering does not change the microstructure or composition of base material.

Disadvantages of Soldering:
• Very limited strength.
• Detrimental to components that are heat sensitive.
• It is difficult to disconnect soldering connections.
• The heat of the soldering iron or the flame of the torch can cause damage to the
adjacent components.
• Solder contains lead which is toxic in nature. The fumes can cause negative
effects on health and environment.

Brazing:
Brazing is a method of joining two similar or dissimilar metals using a special fusible
alloy. It produces joints stronger than soldering.
During brazing, the base metal of the two pieces to joined is not melted. The filler
material must have the ability to wet the surfaces of the base metal to which it is

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applied. Some diffusion or alloying of the filler metal with the base metal takes place
even though the base metal does not reach its melting temperature.
The materials used in brazing are copper base and silver base alloys.

Types of Brazing:
1. Torch Brazing
2. Furnace Brazing
3. Dip Brazing
4. Induction Brazing:
5. Resistance Brazing:

Torch Brazing: Torch brazing, as the name implies, employs a hot gas torch on or near
a joint to heat the workpieces and melt the filler alloy being used to fill the gap.
Because the filler materials chosen should melt significantly below the workpieces'
oxidizing temperature, the joint is protected from oxidization.

Furnace Brazing: Furnace brazing is a semi-automated process by which metal

components are joined using a dissimilar lower filler metal. Furnace brazing allows
design and manufacturing engineers to join simple or complex designs of one joint or
multi-joint assemblies.

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Dip Brazing: Dip brazing is a process that allows simultaneous joining of multiple
joints with different material thicknesses. A component that is being dip brazed first
gets flux applied that will help keep the filler metal in place while being immersed in
the brazing salt bath. Suitable for brazing of aluminium.

Induction Brazing: Induction brazing is when two or more materials are joined
together by a filler metal that has a lower melting point than the base materials using
induction heating.

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Resistance Brazing: is a resistance joining process. The workpieces are heated locally,
and the filler metal that is preplaced between the workpieces is melted by the heat
generated from resistance to the flow of electric current through the electrodes and the
work.

Advantages of Brazing:
• It is easy to learn.
• It is possible to join virtually any dissimilar metals.
• The bond line very neat aesthetically.
• Joint strength is strong enough for most non-heavy-duty applications.
• The distribution of the stress is evenly spread over a large area.
• No effect or negligible effect on the composition and microstructure of the base
material.
• It is cost effective to braze complex and multi-part assemblies.

Disadvantages of Brazing:
• Since filler metals are sued, the joint strength is less compared to welding.
• Joints may be damaged while operating at very high temperatures.
• Requires extensively cleaned joint and use of proper fluxing agents.

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• The flux residues must be removed to avoid corrosion.

• It is difficult join large sections with brazing.
• Filler material is expensive and hence will add up to the brazing process cost.

Welding:
Welding may be defined as the metallurgical joining of two metal pieces together to
produce essentially a single piece of metal.
Welding is extensively used in the fabrication work in which metal plates, rolled steel
sections, castings of ferrous materials are joined together. It is also used for repairing
broken, worn-out, or defective metal parts.
Principle of welding: A welding is a metallurgical process in which the junction of the
two parts to be joined are heated and then fused together with or without the
application of pressure to produce some continuity of the homogeneous material of the
same composition and the characteristics of the parts which are being joined.

Types of Welding:
1. Pressure welding
a. Forge welding
b. Resistance welding
2. Fusion welding
a. Arc welding
b. Gas welding

Pressure welding: in pressure welding the parts to be joined are heated up to plastic
state and then fused together by applying the external pressure. The two types of
pressure welding are: forge welding and resistance welding. Figure below shows forge
welding and resistance welding.

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Fusion welding: in fusion welding, which is also known as non-pressure welding, the
joint of the two parts is heated to the molten state and allowed to solidify. The two
types of fusion welding are: arc welding and gas welding. Figure below shows arc
welding.

Welding joints:

Arc Welding:
Arc welding is a type of welding process using an electric arc to create heat to melt and
join metals. A power supply (high current of 50-300A at relatively low voltage 10-50V)
creates an electric arc between a consumable or non-consumable electrode and the base
material using either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) currents. Concentrated heat is
produced throughout the length of the arc at a temperature of 5000 to 60000C.

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In arc welding, usually the parts to be welded are wired as one pole of the circuit and
the electrode held by the operator forms the other pole. When the arc is produced, the
intense heat quickly melts the workpiece metal which is directly under the arc, forming
a small molten metal pool. At the same time, the tip of the electrode at the arc also
melts, and this molten metal of the electrode is carried over by the arc to the molten
metal pool of the workpiece. A solid joint will be formed when the molten metal cools
and solidifies. The flux coating over the electrode produces an inert gaseous shield
surrounding the arc to protect the molten metal from oxidizing by encountering
atmosphere.

Arc Welding Electrodes:

The two types of electrodes used in arc welding are:
i. Consumable electrode: consumable electrodes melt along with the workpieces
and fill the joint
ii. Non-consumable electrode: when non-consumable electrodes are used, an
additional filler material is also required. Here the amount of metal deposited

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by the filler rod can be controlled which is not possible with consumable type of
electrode.

Gas Welding: Gas welding is a fusion method of welding, in which a strong gas flame
is used to raise the temperature of the workpieces to melt them. As in arc welding the
filler material is used to fill the joint. The gases that can be used for heating are:
i. Oxygen and acetylene mixture
ii. Oxygen and hydrogen mixture.
The oxy-acetylene mixture is the most used in gas welding.

Oxy-acetylene Welding: when right proportions of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in
the welding torch and then ignited, the flame produced at the nozzle tip is called as the
oxy-acetylene flame. This flame when used in welding is known as oxy-acetylene
welding. The temperature attained by the oxy-acetylene flame is around 32000C and
therefore can melt all commercial metals.
The oxy-acetylene gas equipment consists of two large cylinders, one containing
oxygen at high pressure and the other dissolved acetylene at high pressure, rubber
tubes, pressure regulators and blow torch.

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The oxygen and acetylene are supplied to the blow torch separately, where both get
mixed and come out through the nozzle of the blow torch. The resultant flame at
32000C is used to melt the workpieces. To fill up the gap between workpieces and to
add strength to the joint, filler rods are added to the molten metal pool. A flux such as
borax is used to dissolve and remove metal oxides formed during welding.

Type of Oxy-acetylene Flames: There are three basic types of oxy-acetylene flames
viz., carburising or reducing flame, neutral or balanced flame and an oxidising flame.

i. Carburising flame: it is obtained by supplying excess acetylene in the ratio of

between 0.95 to 1. it has 3 cones; an inner white cone, surrounded by
intermediate whitish cone and bluish envelope flame. Used for welding alloy
steels, cast iron and aluminium.
ii. Neutral flame: it is obtained by supplying equal volumes of oxygen and
acetylene. It consists of an inner whitish cone surrounded by blue flame. Most of
the welding done with this flame.

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iii. Oxidising flame: it is obtained when there is excess oxygen in the range of 1.15
to 1.5. its appearance resembles a neutral flame with the exception that inner
white flame is somewhat shorter. This is generally used for cutting as it is not
suitable for welding.

Difference between soldering and brazing:

Soldering Brazing
Melting temperature is 4500C Melting temperature is between 4500C
and 10000C.
Weaker joints compared to brazing Stronger joints
Filler materials are alloy of tin Filler materials are Aluminium, Silver,
Copper, Nickel and Gold.
The flux usually used is Resin The flux usually used is Borax
Economical process Not as economical as soldering
Suitable process to join metals with small Suitable process to join metals with larger
thickness. thickness.

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Difference between Brazing and Welding:

Brazing Welding
Metal to be joined are not melted. Joint is The surfaces to be joined are melted.
produced by the solidification and
adhesion of a thin layer of molten filler
metal.
There is no penetration into the base There is penetration into the base metal.
metal.
The molten Brazing filler alloy spreads The molten filler alloy does not spread
along the joint. along the joint and solidifies where it
melts.
Relatively weaker joints are produced. Relatively stronger joints are produced.
Average operator skill is required. High operator skill is required.
Not as economical as welding. Economical compared to brazing.

QUESTION BANK
1. Write a short note on ferrous metals.
2. Write a short note on nonferrous metals.
3. Explain the properties and application of glass and ceramics.
4. Explain the classification of engineering materials.
5. Write a short note on silica and graphite.
6. Explain shape memory alloys with its application.
7. Define welding, soldering, and brazing.
8. Explain arc welding with neat sketch.
9. Explain soldering and brazing methods.
10. Explain oxy-acetalyne gas welding with neat sketch.
11. List the difference between welding soldering and brazing.
12. Explain the types of flames in gas welding.
13. List the merits and demerits of welding, soldering, and brazing.
WEB RESORCES
1. https://mechanicalc.com/reference/engineering-materials
2. https://learnmechanical.com/engineering-materials/

REFERENCES
1. Elements of Mechanical Engineering, K R Gopala Krishna, Subhash Publications, 2008
2. An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert and Kemper Lewis, Third
Edition, 2012

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