UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT, RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, KOTA

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Recent Topics Presentation On

Realization of shor's algorithm

Presented by Submitted to
Abhay Malav (23/721) Professors Dr. Harish Sharma
Nitin (23/732)
Vikas Gangwal (23/734)
Vishal Kumar (23/735)
 Introduction
Feyman -
“I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics”
1982 - Feymen Proposed the idea of
creating machines based on the laws of
quantum mechanics instead of the laws of
classical physics.
1985 - Devid Deutsch developed the
quantum Turing Machine, showing that
quantum circuits are universal.
1994- Peter Shor came up with a quantum
search algorithm to factor very large
number in polynomial time.
1997 - Lov Governer develops a quantum
search algorithm with O(✓N) complexity. "Peter Shor"
Source - Wikipedia
Composition of Quantum Computing

Quantum Computing

Computer Science Information Theory

Quantum Mechanics Cryptography

 Background
It is a quantum algorithm, to find the prime factor of any given
integer N.

Formulated and named after mathematician Peter Shor in

1994.

It takes time O((log N)³). Which demonstrates that an integer

factorization can be solved in a quantum computer in
polynomial time.

It makes RSA vulnerable to attack, as RSA is based on the

assumption that factoring large number is computationally
infeasible.
Quantum Computation
In Quantum computation single particle’s
actual state is not restricted to only one
of the two observable states.

When observed or measured, the particle

will manifest itself in one observable
state or the other with respective
probability encoded in superposition.

"Source - Steptophyscics.com"
Any state of the system is modeled by a
unite-lenth vector in the Hilbert space
C^2n.
Qubit (Short of quantum bit)

Rechard Feymen
"Source - BlogofHolding.com"
Multi-Qubit Systems

David Deutsch
"Source - vrockai.github.io"
Entangled States

"Source - Steptophyscics.com"
Quantum Gates One-Qubit Hadamard Gate
Control-NOT gate

"Source - news.mit.edu"
Significance of Shor’s algorithm
Fast Factorization of any given numbers.

Finding a factor of n-bit integer requires

exp(e(n^1/3(log n)^2/3))
operations using best classical algorithm.

Shor’s algorithm can accomplish this same task using

O(n^2(logn(log logn))) operations.

i.e. a quantum computer can factor a number in exponentially

faster than the best known classical algorithm.
Shor’s Algorithm
Shor’s algorithm shows (in principle) that a
quantum computer is capable of factoring very
large numbers in polynomial time.

The algorithm is dependent on

Modular Arithmetic
Quantum Parallelism
Quantum Fourier Transform
The problem is :
"Source - https://ep-
Given an odd composite number N, Find the
news.web.cern.ch/content/intervie
integer d,strictly between 1 and N, that divides N. w-peter-shor"
 Shor’s Algorithm
The Shor’s algorithm is consists of two parts

1. Conversion of the problem 2. Finding the period

of factoring to the problem of (Quantum period finding)
finding the period. (this part using the quantum Fourier
can be implemented transform, and is responsible
classically). for quantum speedup.
 Classical part
1. A random number a<N picked.

2. Compute gcd (a, N). This may be done using the Euclidean algorithm.

3. If gcd(a,N) not equal to 1, then there is a nontrivial factor of N.

4. f(x+r) = a^x+r mod N = a^x mod N=f(x).

5. If r is odd, go to step 1.

6. If a^r/2= -1(mod N), go back to step 1.

7. gcd (a^r/2±1, N) is a non trivial factor of N.

 Shor's Algorithm - Periodicity
An important result from Number Theory:

F(a) = x^a mod N is a periodic function

Choose N = 15 and x = 7 and we get the following:

70 mod 15 = 1
71 mod 15 = 7
72 mod 15 = 4
73 mod 15 =13
74 mod 15 = 1
.
.
 Shor's Algorithm - In Depth Analysis
To Factor an odd integer N (Let's choose N=15):

1. Choose an integer q such that N^2 < q< 2N^2 let's pick 256

2. Choose a random integer x such that GCD(x, N) = 1 let's pick 7

3. Create two quantum registers (these registers must also be entangled so that the
collapse of the input register corresponds to the collapse of the output register)

Input register:
must contain enough qubits to represent numbers as large as q-1.
up to 255, so we need 8 qubits
Output register:
must contain enough qubits to represent numbers as large as N-1.
up to 14, so we need 4 qubits
 Shor's Algorithm - Preparing Data
4. Load the input register with an equally weighted superposition of all
integers from 0 to q-1. 0 to 255

5. Load the output register with all zeros.

6. Apply the transformation x^a mod N to each number in the input register,
storing the result of each computation in the output register.
 Shor's algorithm - superposition Collapse
7. Now take a measurement on the output register.
This will collapse the superposition to represent Just one of the
result of the transformation, let's call this value C.
 Shor's algorithm - Entanglement
8. Since the two registers are entangled,
measuring the output register will have the effect of partially collapsing
the input register into an equal superposition of each state between
0 and q-1 that yielded c (the value of the collapsed output register.)
 Shor's Algorithm - QFT

We now apply the Quantum Fourier transform on the partially collapsed

input register.
The Fourier transform has the effect of taking a state |a> and transforming it
into a state given by:
 Shor's Algorithm - QFT
The QFT will peak the probability amplitudes at integer multiples of q/4
in our case 256/4, or 64.
10>, 164, 128>, |192>, ...

So we no longer have an equal superposition of states, the probability

amplitudes of the above states are now higher than those in our register.

We measure the register, and it will collapse with a high probability to

one of these multiples of 64, let's call this value p.

With our knowledge of q, and p, there are methods of calculating the

period (one method is the continuous fraction expansion of the ratio
between q and p.)
 Shor's Algorithm - The Factors
10. Now that we have the period, the factors of N can be determined by
taking the greatest common divisor of N with respect to
x ^ (P/2) + 1 and x^(P/2) - 1.

The idea here is that this computation will be done on a classical computer.
 Shor's Algorithm - Problems
The QFT comes up short and reveals the wrong period.

This probability is dependent on your choice of q.

The larger the q, the higher the probability of finding

the correct probability.

The period of the series ends up being odd.

If either of these cases occurs,

we return to the beginning and pick a new x.

Quantum modular exponentiation,

is much slower than the quantum Fourier transform.
 Applications
Factoring - RSA encryption.

• Quantum simulation.

• Spin-off technology-spintronics, quantum cryptography.

Spin-off theory complexity theory,

DMRG theory,
N- represents ability theory.
 Recent works on Shor's algorithm
In 2001, a 7-qubit machine was built and programmed to run Shor's algorithm
successfully factorizing 15, although no entanglement was observed.

In 2012, a factorization of 21 was achieved.

In April 2012, factorization of 143 was also achieved.

In 2022, Researchers investigated the role of coherence in Shor’s algorithm,

identifying it as a key quantum resource that determines the algorithm’s
performance.

In March 2023, Researchers developed the first formally certified

end-to-end implementation of Shor’s algorithm,
using formal methods to ensure the correctness of quantum programs.
 Reference:
Peter W. Shor "Polynomial-Time Algorithms for Prime Factorization and
Discrete Logarithms on a Quantum Computer", SIAM Journal on
Computing (1997).

Michael A. Nielsen & Isaac Chuang, 'Quantum computation and quantum

information', Cambridge University Press.

Quantum Computing Explained - D. McMahon, (Wiley, 2007).

An Introduction to Quantum Computing -

Oxford University Press, Jan, 2007.

www.eecis.udel.edu/~saunders/courses/879-03s/
http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~vazirani/
 Thank You

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 Recent Topics
Question Paper on the topic
“Realisation of Shor’s Algorithm”
Submitted by
Abhay Malav (23/721)
Nitin (23/732)
Vikas Gangwal(23/734)
Vishal Kumar(23/735)

Student Instructions:

1. Read all instructions carefully before starting the paper.

2. Time Management:
You have 1 hour to complete this paper. Allocate your time wisely across all sections.
3. Attempt All Sections:
○ Section A: Answer all 5 questions. Each question carries 2 marks.
○ Section B: Answer all 3 questions. Each question carries 5 marks.
○ Section C: Answer both questions. Each question carries 10 marks.
4. Answer Length:
○ Section A: Provide concise answers in 2 lines.
○ Section B: Write detailed answers in 5 to 8 lines.
○ Section C: Write descriptive answers covering approximately one page.
5. Submission:
Ensure your name and roll number are written on the answer sheet. Submit your paper promptly when
instructed by the invigilator.

Section A: Short Answer Questions (10 Marks) -

(Answer each question in 2 lines)

Q1. What is a quantum bit or qubit?

Ans - A qubit is the basic unit of quantum information, representing a two-state quantum
system, analogous to a classical bit.

Q2. Explain the concept of quantum superposition?

Ans- Quantum superposition refers to a qubit being in a combination of multiple states

simultaneously, unlike a classical bit which is either 0 or 1.

3. What is quantum entanglement?

Ans - Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon where two qubits become linked, such that
the state of one qubit instantly affects the state of the other, regardless of distance.
Q4. How does a classical bit differ from a qubit?

Ans - A classical bit can only exist in one of two states (0 or 1), while a qubit can exist in a
superposition of both states simultaneously.

Q5. What is the significance of Shor's Algorithm in quantum computing?

Ans - Shor's Algorithm is significant because it can efficiently factor large numbers, which
has major implications for breaking widely-used cryptographic systems.

Section B: Long Answer Questions (5 Marks)

(Answer each question in 5 to 8 lines)

Q6. Describe the principle of quantum superposition and provide an example?

Ans - Quantum superposition is the ability of a qubit to be in a combination of states (e.g.,

both 0 and 1) simultaneously.
The principle of quantum superposition states that a quantum system can exist in multiple
states simultaneously until it is measured. This means a particle, like an electron, can be in a
combination of all its possible states at once. For example, a qubit in a quantum computer can
be in a superposition of both 0 and 1 states, represented as

ɑ|0> + β|1>,

where alpha and beta are probability amplitudes.

A classic example is Schrödinger's cat thought experiment. In this scenario, a cat in a sealed
box is simultaneously alive and dead until the box is opened and observed. This illustrates
how superposition works: the cat's state is a superposition of both alive and dead states until
measured.

Q7. How does quantum entanglement enable faster communication in quantum

systems?

Ans - Quantum entanglement allows for instantaneous state changes between entangled
qubits, no matter the distance. This means that information can be shared faster than the
speed of light, theoretically allowing for faster-than-light communication.
Quantum entanglement creates a unique connection between particles, allowing them to share
information instantaneously over long distances. This phenomenon is crucial for quantum
communication, particularly in quantum key distribution (QKD), which ensures secure data
transmission by detecting eavesdropping attempts¹. However, entanglement itself doesn't
enable faster-than-light communication, as it doesn't transmit usable information directly⁴⁵.
Instead, it enhances the security and efficiency of communication protocols by providing
correlated outcomes that can be used to verify the integrity of the transmitted data². This
makes quantum communication more robust and secure compared to classical methods.

Q8. Explain how Shor's Algorithm can be used to factor large numbers and its
importance in cryptography.

Ans - Shor's Algorithm utilises quantum principles to factor large numbers efficiently,
which classical computers find challenging. This capability threatens current cryptographic
techniques, such as RSA encryption, that rely on the difficulty of factoring large numbers.

Shor's Algorithm is a quantum algorithm designed to factor large integers efficiently. It

leverages quantum parallelism and the Quantum Fourier Transform (QFT) to find the period
of a function related to the number being factored. This period helps in determining the
factors of the number. The algorithm involves initialising qubits, applying QFT, performing
modular exponentiation, and measuring the qubits to extract useful information.

Section C: Descriptive Questions (25 Marks)

(Answer each question in about a page)

Q9. Discuss the basic principles of quantum theory, including superposition,

entanglement, and the role of measurement.

Ans - Quantum theory revolutionised our understanding of physics by introducing concepts

like superposition, where particles exist in multiple states simultaneously, and entanglement,
where particles become interconnected in ways that defy classical explanations.
Measurement plays a crucial role in quantum theory, as it collapses the quantum state, forcing
a particle to adopt a definite position or state.
These principles suggest a probabilistic rather than deterministic nature of the universe,
challenging classical physics.

Basic Principles of Quantum Theory

1. Superposition: - In classical computing, a bit is either 0 or 1. However, in quantum
computing, a qubit can be in a state of 0, 1, or any quantum superposition of these states. This
means a qubit can exist in multiple states simultaneously, which is a fundamental principle of
quantum mechanics.

For example, a qubit in superposition can be represented as

ɑ|0> + β|1>

Where ɑ and β are complex numbers that describe the probability amplitudes of the qubit
being in state 0 or 1, respectively.

2. Entanglement: - Entanglement is a phenomenon where two or more qubits become

interconnected such that the state of one qubit directly affects the state of the other, no matter
the distance between them.
This means that measuring one entangled qubit will instantly determine the state of the other,
a property that is crucial for quantum communication and quantum computing.

3. Role of Measurement: - Measurement in quantum mechanics collapses a qubit's

superposition state into one of the basis states (0 or 1). This collapse is probabilistic, meaning
the outcome is determined by the probability amplitudes of the qubit's state before
measurement.
The act of measurement fundamentally changes the state of the qubit, which is why quantum
algorithms must be designed to extract useful information despite this collapse.

Q10. Explain Shor's Algorithm in detail, including the steps involved and its
implications for the future of cryptography.

Ans -

Shor’s Algorithm

Shor’s Algorithm is a quantum algorithm developed by Peter Shor in 1994 for factoring large
integers efficiently, which has significant implications for cryptography.
Shor's Algorithm is designed to factorise large integers exponentially faster than the
best-known classical algorithms. It consists of two parts: finding the period of a function
using quantum Fourier transform and then using this period to find the factors of the number.
The efficiency of Shor’s Algorithm poses a serious threat to RSA encryption, which
underpins much of today's secure communication. If quantum computers become practical,
current cryptographic systems would need to be replaced with quantum-resistant alternatives.

Steps Involved:

Initialization: Start with a quantum register initialised to a superposition of all possible states.
Quantum Fourier Transform (QFT): Apply the QFT to the quantum register. This step is
crucial for finding the periodicity in the function used for factoring.

Modular Exponentiation: Compute the function ( f(x) = a^x \mod N ) using quantum gates,
where ( N ) is the number to be factored and ( a ) is a randomly chosen integer.

Measurement: Measure the quantum register to obtain a value that helps in determining the
period of the function.

Classical Post-processing: Use classical algorithms to process the measured value and find
the factors of ( N ).

Implications for Cryptography:

Shor’s Algorithm can factorise large integers exponentially faster than the best-known
classical algorithms. This poses a threat to classical cryptographic systems like RSA, which
rely on the difficulty of factoring large numbers for security.

The development of quantum computers capable of running Shor’s Algorithm could

potentially break many of the cryptographic systems currently in use, leading to a need for
quantum-resistant cryptographic methods.