sustainability

Article
The Impact of Cultural Values on Attitude Formation toward
Cultural Products: Mediating Effects of Country Image
Yisitie Xing and Chang-Hyun Jin *

Department of Business Administration, Kyonggi University, Suwon-si 16227, Republic of Korea

* Correspondence: chjin@kgu.ac.kr

Abstract: This study aimed to explore the influence of cultural values on the development of attitudes
toward cultural products and purchase intentions while considering country image as a mediating
variable in this relationship. Cultural dimensions were categorized into five groups: power distance,
uncertainty avoidance, individualism, masculinity, and long-term orientation. A web-based ques-
tionnaire was distributed to 974 Asian consumers who had purchased and used foreign cultural
products. Data analysis was conducted in two stages: exploratory factor analysis (EFA) using SPSS,
and structural equation modelling (SEM) using EQS 6.4. The results revealed that power distance,
individualism and collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity had significant positive im-
pacts on attitudes toward cultural products, whereas long-term orientation did not. Positive attitudes
toward cultural products are linked to high purchase intent. Country image was identified as a
mediator in the relationship between attitudes toward cultural products and purchase intention. This
study contributes to the literature by identifying and explaining the relationship between cultural
values and consumer behavior, and selecting and consuming these consumers’ rational, emotional,
and reasonable cultural products. It is necessary to increase explanatory power by developing various
cultural values and introducing additional variables, as in Hofstede’s theory of cultural value. The
practical and theoretical implications of this study are outlined in the conclusion.

Keywords: cultural value dimensions; cultural products; country image; purchase intentions

Citation: Xing, Y.; Jin, C.-H. The

Impact of Cultural Values on
1. Introduction
Attitude Formation toward Cultural
Products: Mediating Effects of Traditionally, the concept of culture has been the most important topic in the field of
Country Image. Sustainability 2023, international marketing. The concept of culture affects most or all broad problem areas that
15, 11172. https://doi.org/10.3390/ together comprise the scope of the field in terms of both research and practice—including
su151411172 product development, barriers to entry, communication, and inter-organizational rela-
tionships [1–4]. Economic globalization provides opportunities for cultural exchange and
Academic Editor: Colin Michael Hall
development. These changes have promoted and interacted with the development of global
Received: 14 May 2023 political, economic, and cultural integration [5]. One of the most pivotal factors in political,
Revised: 12 July 2023 economic, and cultural exchanges between countries is the trade of cultural products and
Accepted: 12 July 2023 content, which is an important part of international trade. The participants included East
Published: 18 July 2023 Asian countries, of which China, Korea, and Japan are all active trading areas that offer
impressive cultural products and content.
Studies examining cultural disparities in the field of consumer behavior indicate that
cultural values have a significant impact on consumer behavior [6–8]. Eastern cultures differ
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
from other cultures because of their traditional Confucian beliefs. Cultural differences
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
between nations have been analyzed across various academic disciplines. Given the
distributed under the terms and
changes in contemporary consumption culture and the social environment paradigm, it
conditions of the Creative Commons
is necessary to understand the correlation between cultural values and perceptions of
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// cultural products in foreign countries [7,9]. To elucidate a country’s consumer consumption
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ behavior accurately, it is imperative to adopt a cultural perspective. Cultural value is one
4.0/). of the most crucial factors influencing consumers’ perceptions of foreign products and

Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411172 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172 2 of 19

their national image and consumption behavior [7,9–12]. Hence, it is vital to comprehend
the relationship between the cultural value dimension and the cultural products of other
countries. Since the mid-1960s, numerous researchers have made significant strides toward
understanding the influence of cultural values on product evaluation. In general, cultural
values play a pivotal role in evaluating products or content in other countries [6,13].
Through factor analysis, the values of the cultural dimension can explain the impact
had by a society’s culture on the values of its members and the relationship between those
values and their behavior. This study is one of the first attempts to quantify and explain
observed intercultural differences [5–7]. Cultural values and dimensions generally apply
to products, product classes, specific types of products, and specific brands, as well as to
industrial and underdeveloped countries, the effects of which apply to both corporate and
consumer purchasing decisions [12,13]. The role of country image in buyer behavior is one
of the most widely studied areas in international marketing. This phenomenon is commonly
referred to as “product–country images” or “country of origin”. Cross-comparative research
is actively conducted across various academic fields with various topics. Some studies
are comparative studies between countries that seek to explore the potential effects of
cultural differences regarding product evaluation. Many cultural studies have developed
questionnaires to empirically measure cultural characteristics at the national or social level
and have empirically analyzed large-scale survey data, not only providing useful academic
information, but practical knowledge as well [6,14].
According to Levitt [15], economic globalization has transformed the global market
into a stronger homogeneous market in terms of cultural background by sharing various
types of geographical diversity with increases in common hobbies and preferences. These
changes have promoted the emergence of global brands with relatively standardized
marketing strategies that apply beyond cultural boundaries [16]. However, some scholars
argue that the gap in cultural differences between developed countries has increased [17,18].
Many studies have found cultural differences in consumer behavior. Cultural values are
still regarded as important factors that influence consumption patterns, national image
formation, and attitudes toward products from other countries [16,19].
Consumers from different cultures also have different attitudes, preferences, and
values and tend to prefer purchasing foreign products even after being significantly exposed
to globalization [20]. Cultural differences affect consumer behavior through attitudes and
persuasion [19,21], the spread of new products [22–24], and the use of products and
services [25]. An important difference pertaining to consumer behavior in existing cross-
cultural studies is that such behavior is based on cultural value systems [14,16]. Hofstede
emphasizes that there are differences in individual values and behaviors between countries
and within a country, and that various values promote consumer behavior [25–27]. National
culture is also a fundamental factor in understanding differences in attitudes toward foreign
products and consumer behavior. Therefore, it is necessary and meaningful to recognize
cultural differences in consumer behavior. Each country has its own culture depending
on the group, and these cultural characteristics act as major variables that affect consumer
behavior [16,19]. The cultural characteristics of consumers can be seen as major factors
in determining attitude formation or consumption behavior toward products in other
countries [14,16,19,21]. The attitude toward products from other countries formed in this
way can be said to be enthusiastic about the purchase decision and is connected to the
image of other countries.
Therefore, we contribute to the existing literature on cross-cultural research on the
relationship between cultural values and the perception of cultural products by analyzing
the cultural effects of the use of foreign cultural products. The remainder of this paper is
structured as follows. We provide a literature review on cultural dimensions, perception of
cultural products, country image, and purchase behavior. We then present the hypotheses
and variables of the proposed research model. The following section discusses the results of
the structural equation model, which shows how cultural values affect attitude formation
toward cultural products by analyzing the relationship between individuals’ attitudes
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172 3 of 19

toward cultural products and their purchase intentions. This study seeks to understand
how the intention to accept cultural products (e.g., content, movies, dramas, etc.) affects
the intention to purchase products and whether country image mediates this relationship.
In the following sections, we develop our research hypotheses, describe the empirical
study used to test these hypotheses, report the results, and discuss the implications of
our findings.

2. Theoretical and Empirical Background

2.1. Culture and Cultural Dimensions
Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and concepts have been applied to various fields. It is
valuable for scholars to explore different perspectives of culture to understand the global
market. Culture is one of the most abstract structures influencing human behavior, and
can be described and defined in various ways. Culture is defined differently depending
on the field of study but is usually described as the activities of a group of people who
share similar ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving [21,22,25,26]. Hofstede’s cultural
value framework allows researchers and managers to study and understand the impact
of different cultures on consumer behavior [21–23]. For individual consumers, culture
determines the overall context in which socioeconomic and institutional structures, and
the related macroenvironmental factors, impact purchasing decisions; that is the objective
reality. Beliefs, values, logic, and decision rules are fundamental elements of culture. These
factors are internalized and constitute the subjective realities of individual consumers.
People’s behaviors are not random or directionless, but emerge from these basic factors.
Therefore, people’s behaviors are a component and reflection of the culture in which they
are embedded [28].
Cultural values refer to shared beliefs and goals among members of society regarding
patterns of behavior and ways of life. They shape social behavior and form consumers’
fundamental values, guiding their responses to various situations [19,21]. According to
another scholar, cultural values are widely held beliefs affirming what is desirable [29–31].
They influence behavior by providing a useful framework for understanding specific
situations and values [9,12]. Cultural values are broad beliefs that persist over time and
serve as criteria for purchasing decisions [9,12]. Hofstede’s cultural dimension is the most
commonly used framework in management research, and was adopted in this study [32,33].
The literature on consumer behavior suggests that cultural differences play a role in shaping
consumers’ expectations of products or services and, later, their recognition and evaluation
these products [24]. Specifically, it has been found that the country of origin has an impact
on attitudes, behaviors, and satisfaction with products and services at both the national
and regional levels [21–23].
Many cross-cultural studies have applied Hofstede’s cultural dimension theory [25,26],
which was developed as a byproduct of a monumental survey conducted by the author
from 1967 to 1973 so as to capture the value of employees working at a multinational
IBM sales subsidiary. In this study, based on literature related to existing cultural theory
studies [25–27], cultural value dimensions were divided into power distance, uncertainty
avoidance, individualism, masculinity, and long-term orientation. Based on this inves-
tigation, Hofstede developed an inductive framework to characterize and explain the
differences found in work attitudes and values within the same formal organizational struc-
ture. Hofstede found that cultural differences between countries can be explained along
four dimensions: power distance—that is, the degree to which individual actors accept
that power is distributed unequally; and uncertainty avoidance—that is, an individual’s
tolerance of ambiguity in terms of unexpected or unknown events. In other words, culture
corresponds to the degree to which people act in an atomistic manner or are integrated into
groups in society, and the degree to which masculinity (e.g., heroism), achievements, and
material rewards are recognized in society [25–27]. Based on research conducted in Asia,
Hofstede added two new dimensions: long-term orientation—which is the degree to which
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172 4 of 19

an individual understands and decides on future actions/tasks—and the tendency of a

society to satisfy basic human desires related to pleasure and enjoyment [25,26].
It is essential to understand the purchase process or evaluation criteria for products of
consumers from different cultures. In addition, marketing strategies for other countries
can only be successful when a sufficient understanding of the variables affecting them is
provided [14,16,19,21–25]. This is because consumer purchasing behavior is affected by
a combination of various variables. In addition to the degree of economic development
and social, demographic, and geographical differences, cultural differences have a close
influence on variables, such as consumer purchasing behavior and attitude formation.

2.2. Cultural Product

Cultural products are compound words of culture and content and which refer to
the content in which cultural elements are embodied, regarding each culture-related
medium—such as cartoons, broadcasts, movies, games, characters, music, performances,
mobile content, and edutainment [5,32]. Cultural products generally refer to consumer
goods that convey ideas, symbols, programs, crafts, fashion, and lifestyles—such as books,
magazines, multimedia products, software, recordings, movies, videos, and audiovisual
content, among others [5]. Discussions of cultural products have long been held in the field
of economics. Some scholars have questioned whether new trade theories can be used in
the trade of art (recorded music, books, and movies, among others), which is characterized
by economies of scale and commodity differentiation [5,32].
Some scholars have emphasized that addictive characteristics that create trade pat-
terns can have further influence. Some scholars emphasize that linguistic, educational,
and religious similarities have a positive effect on the trade of cultural products [34–37].
Additionally, social integration causes cultural convergence and affects the integration
of cultural product market integration [35]. Shenkar demonstrated that the expansion
of the cultural product trade or cultural exchange is regarded as the development of in-
teraction [36]. Cultural products such as movies, dramas, and music create a national
brand image of the culture, and video content (and especially movies and dramas) can
be a powerful means of influence [5,7,22,32,37]. Since contact with cultural content forms
a structure that consumes the culture along with the brand image of the culture, the use
of cultural content in a specific country can have a great influence on increasing positive
attitudes and purchase intentions for the culture, brand, or product [5,7,22].
Culture can be said to be a dynamic phenomenon in which each consumer’s indi-
vidual characteristics are concentrated [25,35–37]. Therefore, it cannot be assumed that
successful strategies in a single market are equally successful elsewhere. A product with
a cultural background is a cultural product. This is because cultural products reflect a
country’s unique cultural characteristics [34–37]. When global consumers choose and
purchase cultural products that reflect the cultural and social characteristics of other coun-
tries, their culture affects them. Cultural differences are a decisive factor in consumer
characteristics—such as consumer attitudes—which eventually affect consumers’ percep-
tion of products or purchase intentions.

2.3. Country Image

In general, the academic subject of images has become a relatively common topic
in recent years. Scientific fields such as sociology, psychology, and philosophy explore
elements related to images, and general research on images has been conducted for a
long time. Nevertheless, the study of images has occurred in a fragmented manner across
several independent fields that address specific categories of images. In scientific practice,
this type of study is generally defined according to the author’s perspective. It should
be noted that most studies avoid providing a clear and accurate general definition that
is expressed to promote a strict understanding according to the nature of the situation
described [38–40]. The term image has different meanings in accordance with the context
in which it is used [41]. Psychologists view images as a unique way of processing and
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172 5 of 19

recording information in memory [40], and emphasize that the measurement of images
brings practical benefits for increasing sales volume. When analyzing and evaluating
images, it is necessary to consider several factors such as individual characteristics and/or
emotional and functional benefits, as well as the entire image of an object or person [42].
According to marketing literature, an image is a set of beliefs/confidence, ideas, and
impressions that a person has about an object [33–35]. Because images of objects arise from
people’s perceptions and vary from person to person, the relationship between each image
and a particular object also differs [43–45].
A country’s image is formed through a complex communication process involving
several sources of information. The most powerful images are created by international TV
and radio, newspapers and magazines, cultural exchange programs, advertising, books,
and news services, in addition to the degree of personal experience related to education and
travel; certain foreign cultures play an important role in building images [44]. A previous
study found that two separate categories of factors play a role in the formation of country
images: stimuli and personal factors [45]. Stimulus factors are related to external stimuli
received by individuals in relation to physical factors related to the country, whereas per-
sonal factors relate to individual social and psychological characteristics. Based on several
impressions selected from information and impressions available in the environment, we
conceptualized a country’s image as a complex process through which individuals develop
creative mental structures [39]. This creative process is the moment when impressions
are selected, developed, improved, and arranged by individuals [46]. In this context,
promotions play an essential role in the formation of induced images, and are shaped by
marketing and national branding efforts. However, the original image is located outside
the control area of the destination [47].

2.4. Purchase Intention

Purchase intention is an important dimension in the marketing literature and has been
used by companies as a variable to predict the sale of new products or repeated purchases
of existing products [48]. It has been argued that the greater an individual’s behavioral
intention, the stronger the will of the person to perform the behavior [49]. Because purchase
intention is closely related to consumer behavior, it is one of the main areas of marketing
research and attracts considerable attention in the fields of marketing, advertising, and
consumer studies. Some scholars have proposed that it is one of the best ways to predict an
individual’s behavior as it measures the intention to execute a motion [49,50]. Individual
actions are directly affected by the extent to which a person intends to act. Consumers
emphasize the importance of their pre-action intentions [49,50].
“Purchase intention” refers to the possibility that a consumer will purchase a particular
product or service in the future [50]. Purchase intentions are not limited to a single factor.
Depending on the situation, several variables can affect the evaluation of store images,
consumer satisfaction, product prices, and so on, as well as motivations such as the values,
beliefs, and culture of the consumer’s society [51]. Consumer research involves several
subjective aspects that are difficult to identify. One such factor is purchase intention.
According to Cronin et al., consumers tend to purchase products or services from the same
store and share their experiences with friends and family [52]. Therefore, an increase in
purchase intention may also indicate an increase in purchase possibility. Purchase intention
can be considered a dimension of behavioral intention [53] and is used to predict consumers’
current behaviors.

3. Hypotheses and Theoretical Model

3.1. Hypotheses
This study examines the impact of consumers’ cultural values on their intention to
accept cultural products and content (power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individual,
long-term orientation, and masculinity). This study seeks to understand how the intention
to accept cultural content affects the intention to purchase products, and whether country
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172 6 of 19

image mediates this relationship. Cross-cultural studies have shown that consumers from
different cultures have varying attitudes, preferences, and values. They tend to hesitate
when purchasing foreign products [12,20,22,23]. Power distance refers to the degree to
which society accepts the distribution of power. In societies with high power distance,
status and age are of significant importance, and people are generally less innovative.
Researchers have noted that the coefficient of innovation is low in these countries [54,55].
Power distance is associated with conservatism and the status quo [18,55]. Power indicates
dependence between different groups and individuals and the asymmetric control of
valuable resources. From a cross-cultural perspective (such as power distance), consumers
tend to rely on others when their status is low or when they think they lack resources [12,56].
Moreover, consumers tend to seek psychological power and status by purchasing luxury
goods. There is a close relationship between power and social resources, and it has been
found that those with high status have higher consumption levels than those with low
status. Consumers who show a power distance value orientation in consumer behavior
prefer high-end products to low-priced ones [12,20,56]. Therefore, it can be predicted that
perceptions, attitudes, and preferences for products or content in other countries will differ
depending on the degree of power distance. Hence, Hypothesis 1 was proposed as follows:

Hypothesis 1-1: Consumers with a high (low) power distance have a more positive effect on their
attitudes toward cultural products.

According to Hofstede, uncertainty avoidance represents the degree to which society

feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and the degree to which it attempts
to avoid them. In societies with high uncertainty avoidance, individuals tend to set more
formal rules and do not tolerate deviant thoughts and actions [25,26]. Individuals in
societies with a low tendency to avoid uncertainty experience low anxiety and subjective
well-being. Therefore, they also adopt an unusual attitude when faced with ambiguous
situations [12,22,23,56]. Additionally, people with low sexual orientation avoidance values
were more likely to resist bondage. In the field of consumer behavior [20,56], there is
a tendency to consider physical characteristics such as product quality and safety or to
pursue comfort. Some scholars argue that consumers with a high uncertainty avoidance
orientation are less likely to take risks in high-involvement situations [56]. Thus, in the
context of foreign cultural products, consumers with high uncertainty avoidance may be
less likely to prefer and purchase highly involved foreign products because of the greater
risks associated with such products. Therefore, we can establish Hypothesis 1-2 as follows:

Hypothesis 1-2: Consumers with high (low) uncertainty avoidance will have a more positive
(negative) effect on their attitude toward cultural products.

The four cultural dimensions presented in Hofstede’s major study on cultural di-
mensions could explain the differences between cultures in terms of consumer purchase
intentions. Individualism corresponds to a loosely structured social framework with a
strong “I” consciousness and individual initiative. Collectivism, on the other hand, refers
to a tight social framework that emphasizes the “us” consciousness and members of a
group [25–27]. People in a very individualistic society value individual life, individual
decisions, autonomy, and diversity, whereas people in collectivist societies value group
decisions, order, and safety [25–27]. For example, Chinese society has historically focused
on harmony and conformity, which dominate all interpersonal relationships, but do not
emphasize personal goals [57]. However, in Europe and North America, where the cul-
ture is more individualistic, consumers are expected to express their individuality more
strongly than in less-individualistic countries. According to some scholars, consumers
with a collectivistic orientation tend to focus on the utilitarian aspects of foreign products,
whereas consumers with an individualistic orientation tend to focus on the hedonic aspects
of foreign products [56]. Accordingly, we propose the following hypothesis:
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172 7 of 19

Hypothesis 1-3: Individualistic consumers have a more positive effect on their attitudes toward
cultural products.

Finally, Hofstede defines masculinity as the degree to which society values assertive-
ness, achievement, and acquisition of wealth [25,26]. In a masculine culture, achievement
and success are more important than caring for others or improving the overall quality
of life. In this culture, it can be said that the degree of masculinity is not only high, but
that the degree of masculinity itself is high. These societal characteristics also affect men’s
characteristics [56]. Thus, it can be assumed that these cultures are action focused, and that
cultural products imported from other countries are evaluated based on their capabilities
and efficiencies [12,20,56]. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 1-4: Consumers with a greater degree of masculinity have a more positive effect on
attitudes toward cultural products.

According to Hofstede, in a long-term-oriented society, people emphasize values such

as ambiguity, patience, and inner peace; value practical and long-term perspectives; and
focus on constant efforts to achieve long-term goals. In a short-term society, people value
the past and traditions and expect immediate results. Long-term orientation indicates that
a society has neither a traditional historical nor a short-term perspective, but a practical
and future-oriented perspective [24,25]. Consumers with a long-term orientation tend to
prefer well-known domestic and global brands because they may be interested in forming
long-term relationships with these brands. Conversely, short-term-oriented consumers
prefer private labels because they can pursue low-priced, short-term, and immediate
benefits [17]. Long-term-oriented consumers are also more financially responsible, loyal,
and innovative, as evidenced by their low credit card use and high savings rates [27].
Long-term-oriented consumers prefer purchasing practical products to maintain reasonable
self-awareness and perceived long-term benefits. They may also withstand the temptation
to buy imported pleasure products because of their greater self-control. Conversely, short-
term-oriented consumers tend to prefer buying imported pleasure products to enjoy the
fun and excitement these products provide because they may not worry about maintaining
reasonable self-awareness and may also have low self-control [56]. Therefore, the following
hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 1-5: Long-(short-)term-oriented consumers have more positive attitudes toward cul-
tural products.

Empirical studies on products and country images have found that the country of
origin of a product can affect consumers’ evaluations of that product [56,58,59]. This work
is regarded as the beginning of a study on the effects of origin. The origin effect was
recognized as an information queue that consumers could use in the purchase decision
process [23], and subsequent scholars examined the effects of additional consumer demo-
graphic or psychological factors on the origin effect [23,56,58,59]. Product image may be
affected by the product’s origin. For example, German automakers—such as Mercedes
Benz, BMW, and Audi—may be influenced by a favorable country image because Germany
is well known to have high levels of mechanical technology. In other words, a friendly
brand or product image will result in a friendly consumer attitude and increase consump-
tion behavior. This phenomenon can be attributed to the halo effect. Overall, a country’s
image can affect consumer perceptions of products from that country [56,58,59]. From this
perspective, it can be assumed that a country’s image will affect the purchase intention of
the cultural product, and that the acceptance intention of the cultural product will increase
the purchase intention toward the national product. Therefore, the following hypothesis
is proposed:
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172 8 of 19

H 2. Attitudes toward cultural products positively (+) affect purchase intentions.

H 3. Attitudes toward cultural products positively affect the formation of country image.
H 4. Country image will have a positive effect on purchase intention.
When evaluating unknown or foreign products, consumers create beliefs related to the
products’ properties by inferring them from the national image. These beliefs and inferences
influence consumers’ purchasing decisions. Even for familiar products, existing information
or beliefs about products from a specific country are inferred from the national image, which
affects consumer purchase decisions [56,58,59]. Previous studies have reported that country
image is highly significant because it provides strategic information to firms that operate
across borders by exporting products, manufacturing abroad, and competing in their
home markets against foreign companies [60–62]. Country image research is becoming
increasingly important and prominent because of the growing trend in free trade and
intercountry exchanges [62]. The objective of this study is to investigate the mediating
role of country image in the relationship between foreign cultural products and consumer
purchase intention. Based on this, we propose the following hypothesis:
H 5. Country image mediates the relationship between foreigncultural products and consumers’
purchase intentions.

3.2. Research Model

Based on the above background, the research model of this study was designed
focusing on factors that affect the intention to accept cultural products by identifying
the components of the cultural value dimension of the product’s country of origin. A
hypothesis was established to understand how these cultural value dimension factors
affect the intention to accept cultural products. Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4 were established
to understand the relationship between cultural product acceptance intention, product
purchase intention, and country image. Research problems were established to determine
the mediating effect of country image. To verify the purpose and conform to the hypotheses
of this study, a research model was constructed, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Suggested research model.

Figure 1. Suggested research model.

4. Research Methodology
Data Collection Measurement of Variables
Hofstede’s cultural value dimensions were applied in the study. They were divided
into power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, masculinity, and long-term
orientation [25–27]. The power distance consisted of four items, uncertainty avoidance
consisted of five items, individualism consisted of five items, masculinity consisted of four
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172 9 of 19

items, and long-term orientation consisted of five items. Attitudes toward cultural products
were composed of a total of four question items. The country image consisted of five
items [56,58–63], and purchase intention consisted of three items [49–53]. A questionnaire
was developed to collect data for this study. The questionnaire was divided into two parts.
Questions about Hofstede’s cultural value dimension were included in the introduction.
After questions at the cultural value level were completed, questions about the national
product image, country image, and purchase intention were included. The operational
definitions and measurement tools for the main components of this study were as follows.
First, the country image was conceptualized as the degree of cognitive judgment regarding
the level of economic and technological development in the country [64–67]. Attitudes
toward cultural products were measured using items applied in previous studies and
conceptualized as the degree of interest in cultural products in the country, in addition to
favorable evaluation of, satisfaction with, and use of those products [64]. The intention to
purchase products from a country was conceptualized as the intention to purchase products
from the country voluntarily and actively. To measure these questions, a five-point Likert
scale with options ranging from 1 to 5 (strongly agree to strongly disagree) was used. The
second part of the questionnaire consisted of various demographic data, including gender,
age, total personal income, and education level.
To ensure the quality of the questionnaire, the researcher reviewed the editing status
and logical errors with a professor in the field. The relationship between question items
and potential variables was also reviewed. A preliminary survey was conducted among
30 business students from universities in Korea to assess the editing quality and capture
any misunderstandings of question items. The pretest confirmed that there were no errors
in the questions and questionnaires.
Consumer panel data collected by a multinational research company named Milen-
nium Embrain were used to select samples for both online and offline surveys conducted
among consumers who were interested in or had experience using Korean products or con-
tent. The company has a large number of Vietnamese consumer panels, and its subsidiary
in Vietnam was another reason for its selection. The study chose Vietnamese consumers due
to the increasing interest in Korean culture and products in Vietnam, as well as the cultural
exchanges between Vietnam and Korea. The study was also applied to foreigners residing
in Korea, including Vietnamese students, housewives, office workers, and others. Face-to-
face surveys were conducted with the help of multicultural centers across the country and
the Vietnamese University Student Association. Online surveys were also conducted in
Korea and Vietnam. The survey was translated into both Korean and Vietnamese.
A total of 974 questionnaires were used for analysis, excluding 27 problematic question-
naires. The data collection process lasted from 5 January to 30 March 2023. No participants
were found to provide untruthful answers based on a comparison with consumer survey
data. For technical data analysis and hypothesis verification, the SPSS statistical package
and SEM with EQS 4.3 program were used, and the mediating effect was verified using
EQS 4.3.

5. Results
5.1. Descriptive Statistics
The final sample consisted of 463 men and 475 women who filled out 974 question-
naires. Respondents’ average monthly income was less than USD 3000. Most (80%) of the
respondents had earned college-level degrees. In the survey, those between the ages of 20
and 30 years occupied the largest share, representing 90% of the sample. Table 1 provides
the demographic distribution of the survey.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172 10 of 19

Table 1. Sample characteristics.

Index (n = 974) Frequency %

Male 422 43.3
Sex
Female 552 56.7
10–19 years 42 4.3
20–29 494 50.7
Years 30–39 418 42.9
40–49 16 1.6
Over 50 years 4 0.4
High school level 231 23.7
Education College students 45 4.6
Level College level 611 62.7
Graduate school level 87 8.9
Below USD 2000 346 35.5
2000–3000 388 39.8
Monthly
3000–4000 200 20.5
Income
4000–5000 36 3.7
Over USD 5000 4 0.4

5.2. Data Analysis

The measurement tools for the study used previously developed scales, modified
when necessary, to measure the variables. A multi-methods approach to confirming the
reliability and validity of the constructs was applied [68]. EQS 6.4 [69,70] was used to test
the suggested research model shown in Figure 1. After collecting and cleaning the data,
verification tests were conducted to determine the measurement model’s validity.
As seen in Table 2, principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation was
conducted on the initial items, employing a factor weight of 0.50 as the minimum cutoff
value. The author then examined the underlying factor structure to determine whether any
new dimension within each factor was conceptually meaningful and also to examine the
psychometric properties of the scales. The result of a Bartlett’s test of sphericity was found
to be significant (χ2 =11,402.86 (df = 253), p < 0.001, and χ2 = 7751.4 (df = 66), p < 0.001),
while the result of a Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin measure of sampling adequacy showed values of
0.839 and 0.812 for the dependent, independent, and moderating variables, respectively.
The data were therefore suitable for analysis. This study assessed common method
bias using exploratory fact analysis (EFA) with maximum likelihood to test for common
method variance, the extent of spurious covariance shared among the variables due to the
common method used in collecting data [68]. An EFA of all of our scale items revealed that
two factors explained 63.41% and 74.2% of the variance in the study’s constructs for the
dependent, independent, and mediated variables, with the first factor explaining 29.8%
and the last factor explaining 12.9% of the total variance, respectively. An EFA of the eight
variables revealed eight factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.00. As a result of factor
analysis, it was found that no items were removed. This analysis suggested that the data
sample used in the study was unlikely to have been contaminated by common method
bias [68,71].
As seen in Table 3, Cronbach’s alpha exceeded the standard acceptance norm of 0.70
for all variables. Reliability was measured at 0.812 (four items for power distance), 0.860
(five items for uncertainty avoidance), 0.817 (five items for individualism), 0.790 (four
items for masculinity), 0.790 (five items for long-term orientation), 0.920 (four items for
cultural product), 0.820 (five items for country image), and 0.860 (three items for purchase
intention). The study’s AVE also satisfies the standard of 0.5 suggested by Bagozzi and
Yi and Hair et al., which means the measurement indexes satisfy the requirement for
convergent validity [72,73]. Covariance structure analysis was conducted using EQS 6.4
and the maximum likelihood method. This study carried out required procedures for
building a structural equation model and assuring model goodness of fit. Normality and
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172 11 of 19

sample adequacy were examined in light of Hair et al., according to which the means
of skewness and kurtosis should fall within the range of ±1.96; this study satisfied that
condition [73].

Table 2. Results of factor analysis for cultural value dimension.

Independent Variables Dependent Variables

Constructs Items F.L Constructs Items F.L
PD1 0.865 CP1 0.754
PD2 0.745 Cultural CP2 0.872
Power
PD3 0.709 Product CP3 0.792
Distance
PD3 0.691 CP4 0.653
PD4 0.673 CI1 0.921
UA1 0.612 Country CI2 0.878
UA2 0.832 Image CI3 0.905
Uncertainty
UA3 0.753 CI4 0.692
Avoidance
UA4 0.690 CI5 0.904
UA5 0.741 PI1 0.824
Purchase
IC1 0.706 Intention PI2 0.898
IC2 0.651 PI3 0.894
Individualism IC3 0.747
IC4 0.731
IC5 0.742
MA1 0.794
MA2 0.783
Masculinity
MA3 0.802
MA4 0.643
LT1 0.701
LT2 0.673
Lone Term
LT3 0.681
Orientation
LT4 0.792
LT5 0.801
Factor Eigenvalues % of Variance Factor Eigenvalues % of Variance
Factor 1 6.898 29.9 Factor 1 4.723 39.4
Factor 2 3.245 14.1 Factor 2 2.632 21.9
Factor 3 1.689 7.35 Factor 3 1.549 12.91
Factor 4 1.561 6.789
Factor 5 1.190 5.172
63.41% of total variance extracted 74.2% of total variance Extracted
Notes: FL: Factor loadings.

Table 3. Internal consistency of the constructs.

Cronbach’s
Constructs Items Composite Reliability (CR) AVE
Alpha
Power Distance 4 0.812 0.859 0.641
Uncertainty Avoidance 5 0.860 0.890 0.693
Individualism 5 0.817 0.862 0.651
Masculinity 4 0.790 0.840 0.617
Lone Term Orientation 5 0.790 0.840 0.617
Cultural Product 4 0.920 0.930 0.731
Country Image 5 0.820 0.864 0.650
Purchase Intention 3 0.860 0.861 0.647

This study assessed convergent validity using Cronbach’s alpha following Bagozzi
and Yi and Hair et al., and composite construct reliability [72,73] and average variance
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172 12 of 19

extracted (AVE) following Fornell and Larker [74]. Discriminant validity was assessed by
comparing the correlations of components to the AVE.
To verify discriminant validity, the AVE of each of the eight potential factors was
compared with the square of the correlation between the eight potential factors. As seen in
Table 4, the means of the squares of the correlation coefficients (r2 ) are smaller than the AVE.
Fornell and Larker suggested that the AVE should be larger than the means of the squares of
all correlation coefficients [74]. The extracted AVE is between 0.617 and 0.731, and the means
of the squares of the correlation coefficients are between 0.001 and 0.362, which results in
an AVE that is larger than the means of the squares of the correlation coefficients (r2 ), also
ensuring that the data collected for verification have sufficient discriminant validity.

Table 4. Analysis of discriminant validity using average variance extracted.

AVE PD UA IC MAS LT CP CI PI
PD 0.641 1
UA 0.693 0.362 1
IC 0.651 0.020 0.003 1
MAS 0.617 0.203 0.158 0.031 1
LT 0.617 0.138 0.391 0.012 0.123 1
CP 0.731 0.127 0.088 0.213 0.110 0.021 1
CI 0.650 0.001 0.025 0.052 0.001 0.113 0.120 1
PI 0.647 0.001 0.005 0.052 0.004 0.019 0.051 0.058 1
Squared the correlation coefficients. PD: Power Distance, UA: Uncertainty Avoidance, IC: Individual-
ism/Collectivism, MAS: Masculinity, LT: Lone Term Orientation, CP: Cultural Product, CI: Country Image,
PI: Purchase Intention.

The results of verifying measurement model goodness of fit are seen in Table 5:
χ2 = 6361.6, df = 524, and p = 0.000, while CFI (comparative fit index) = 0.968, NFI (normed
fit index) = 0.907, and NNFI (non-normed fit index) = 0.952, which satisfy the advised base
values. The goodness of fit index (GFI) = 0.901, is slightly above the advised base value of
0.90, while the adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) = 0.865, is slightly below the advised
base value, but both are expected to be acceptable. RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation) = 0.049, which also satisfies the advised base value, which is between
0.05 and 0.08. This is acceptable goodness of fit, which means that the measurement
methodology of this study is sufficiently reliable.

Table 5. Summary of hypothesis tests.

Hypothesis S.E Standardized Coefficient Support

H1-1: PD -> CP 0.041 0.190 *** (0.244), z = 5.942 Yes
H1-2: UA -> CP 0.048 −0.202 *** (−0.269), z = −5.606 Yes
H1-3: IC -> CP 0.031 0.413 *** (0.467), z = 15.263 Yes
H1-4: MAS -> CP 0.031 0.113 *** (0.114), z = 3.710 Yes
H1-5: LT -> CP 0.044 0.039(0.051), z = 1.160 (p = 0.246) Rejected
H2: CP -> CI 0.022 0.338 *** (0.244), z = 11.208 Yes
H3 CP -> PI 0.029 0.227 *** (0.211), z = 7.267 Yes
H4: CI -> PI 0.040 0.235 *** (0.302), z = 7.524 Yes
Measurement model goodness of fit: χ2 = 6361.6 (df = 524), CFI = 0.968, NFI = 0.907, NNFI = 0.952,
GFI = 0.901, AGFI = 0.865, SRMR = 0.059, RMSEA = 0.049
Final research model goodness of fit: χ2 = 7572.3 (df = 544), CFI = 0.927, NFI = 0.901, NNFI = 0.932,
GFI = 0.891, AGFI = 0.852, SRMR = 0.067, RMSEA = 0.057
Notes: PD: Power Distance, UA: Uncertainty Avoidance, IC: Individualism/Collectivism, MAS: Masculinity, LT:
Lone Term Orientation, CP: Cultural Product, CI: Country Image, PI: Purchase Intention *** signifies p < 0.001;
(Unstandardized) Coefficient.

5.3. Tests of Hypotheses

The causal model’s goodness of fit for each measurement model satisfied the crite-
rion [69]. Thus, the results show that the study assumptions remained within acceptable
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172 13 of 19

boundaries. To test structural relationships, the hypothesized casual paths were estimated.
The results are shown in Table 5 and Figure 2. A structural equation model was used
to verify the hypotheses associated with the proposed model. As noted previously, the
hypotheses for this study based on the research model satisfy the advised base values. The
goodness of fit of the model hypotheses yielded χ2 = (544) = 7572.3, CFI = 0.927, NFI = 0.901,
NNFI = 0.932, GFI = 0.891, AGFI = 0.852, SRMR = 0.067, RMSEA = 0.057, which means
that the model’s goodness of fit satisfies the advised base values. It does not meet the
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEERrequirement
REVIEW 2 of 2
of a conservative index of the structural equation model, but it is acceptable
enough considering the study’s exploratory character.

Figure 2. Results of the suggested research model with path coefficients.

Figure 2. Results of the suggested research model with path coefficients.

To test the structural relationships in the model, the hypothesized causal paths were
estimated. The results shown in Table 5 and Figure 2 indicate that power distance, as
a component of the cultural value dimension, has positive effects on cultural products
(γ = 0.190, p < 0.001). Uncertainty avoidance, as a component of the cultural value dimen-
sion, has negative effects on cultural products (γ = −0.202, p < 0.001). Individualism, as
a component of the cultural value dimension, has positive effects on cultural products
(γ = 0.413, p < 0.001). Masculinity, as a component of the cultural value dimension, has
positive effects on cultural products (γ = 0.113, p < 0.05). The proposed path was significant
in the hypothesized direction (four components of the cultural value dimension, with a
standardized path coefficient for cultural product). However, long-term orientation, as
a component of the cultural value dimension, did not affect cultural products (γ = 0.039,
p = 0.241). The proposed path was not significant in the hypothesized direction (long-term
orientation component of the cultural value dimension, with a standardized path coefficient
for cultural product). Thus, H1-5 was rejected, but H1-1, 1-2, 1-3, and 1-4 were supported.
The cultural product has positive effects on country image (γ = 0.338, p < 0.05). The cultural
product has positive effects on purchase intention (γ = 0.227, p < 0.05). The country image
has positive effects on purchase intention (γ = 0.235, p < 0.05). Additionally, H2, H3, and
H4 were supported.

5.4. Mediating Effects

To test the mediating effect of country image for H5, we conducted a Sobel test. This
test verifies whether the indirect effect was statistically significant. The Sobel test [75],
as presented by Preacher and Hayes [76], was conducted to verify the significance of the
indirect effects of explanatory variables on the dependent variables through intermediary
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172 14 of 19

variables. If the z value is greater than 1.96 or less than −1.96, the mediating effect is
statistically significant [77,78]. Table 6 shows the results of the mediating effect test.

Table 6. Results of the Sobel test.

Effect Variables Coefficient S.E Z-Score

Direct effect X→Y 0.227 *** 0.029 7.257
Indirect effect X→M 0.338 *** 0.022 11.208
Indirect effect M→Y 0.235 *** 0.040 7.524
Indirect effect X→M→Y 0.167 *** 0.042 5.096
Total Effect (X→Y) + (X→M→Y) 0.394 *** 0.032 6.176
X: Cultural Product, Y: Purchase Intention, M: Country Image, *** signifies p < 0.001.

The Sobel test confirmed the significance of the mediating effects on the overall, direct,
and indirect country image. The z value of the total effect of cultural product on the path
between country image and purchase intention was z = 6.176 (p < 0.001) for cultural product,
indicating a significant mediating effect. Thus, we find no problem in the hypotheses of
this study, as we confirm the existence of statistically significant mediating effects of the
path among variables. Thus, H5 is supported.

5.5. Additional Analysis

One review asked to analyze the relationship between the cultural value dimensions
and country image because the culture has an important role in country image building.
The SEM program was used to test the effect of a country image. The results indicate
that power distance has positive effects on country image (γ = 0.135, z = 3.739, p < 0.001).
Individualism has positive effects on country image (γ = 0.171, z = 5.576, p < 0.001).
Long-term orientation has positive effects on country image cultural products (γ = 0.376,
z = 9.840, p < 0.001). The proposed path was significant in the hypothesized direction
(three components of the cultural value dimension, with a standardized path coefficient
for country image). However, uncertainty avoidance had no significant positive effects
on country image (γ = 0.002, z = 0.053, p = 0.958). Masculinity had no significant positive
effects on country image (γ = 0.022, z = 0.635, p = 0.526). The proposed path was not
significant in the hypothesized direction (avoidance and masculinity with a standardized
path coefficient for country image).
The perspective from the results is that consumers in a society with power distance,
individualism and collectivism, uncertainty, and masculinity were found to form positive
attitudes toward cultural products. Long-term orientation presented a non-significant
influence. A positive attitude toward cultural products was found to correspond to a high
purchase intention. Country image was found to mediate the relationship between the
formation of attitudes toward cultural products and purchase intention. Country image
was also found to be closely involved in the formation of attitudes toward the product or
the intention to purchase it. Among the components of the cultural value level, power
distance was found to have a positive effect on the formation of cultural product attitudes.
Uncertainty avoidance was found to have a negative effect on the formation of cultural
product attitudes. Individualism was shown to have a positive effect on the formation
of cultural product attitudes. Masculinity was shown to have a positive effect on the
formation of cultural product attitudes. However, long-term orientation turned out to
have a meaningless influence on the formation of cultural product attitudes. The influence
relationship of country image on purchase intention was found to be significant. The
relationship between cultural product attitudes and country images was also significant.
The significance of the relationship between variables was, moreover, confirmed. Through
verification, we found a mediating effect of country image in the relationship between
cultural product attitudes and purchase intention.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172 15 of 19

6. Conclusions
In a global market with different social differentiation backgrounds, the characteristics
of consumers of cultural products in other countries were examined to form attitudes
toward products, purchase attitudes, and the mediating effects on national images. It was
found that consumers’ unique cultural characteristics influenced their recognition and
purchase of foreign cultural products. Culture is also related to the formation of the image
of a foreign country, with national image having been shown to play a mediating role
between the perception of cultural products and purchase intentions.
This study identifies how consumers’ cultures are connected when forming percep-
tions of Korea and their attitudes toward Korean cultural products in Asia. We identified
Korean cultural products and examined causal factors in the process of consumer thawing.
As a result, it is judged that the formation of attitudes toward cultural products or purchase
intention in other countries is not determined by one factor at the cultural level, but by a
combination of individual values.

6.1. Implications
This study aimed to understand how consumers’ cultural values affect their attitudes
toward cultural products (power distance, avoidance of uncertainty, individualism, long-
term orientation, and masculinity) and to examine the impact of attitudes toward cultural
products on purchase intention. This study aimed to determine whether country image
has a mediating effect on this relationship. The results of the present study have several
academic and practical implications. Specifically, this study shows that individualistic
and short-term consumers tend to prefer imported pleasure products, while collectivist
and long-term consumers prefer imported utilitarian products. Similarly, consumers with
high power and masculine tendencies prefer imported products for public consumption,
whereas those with low power and feminine tendencies prefer imported products for
private consumption. Finally, consumers with a high degree of uncertainty avoidance
orientation rely more on country image for products with low uncertainty levels, whereas
consumers with high levels of involvement rely more on country image.
The results have diverse practical and academic implications. Based on these results,
international marketers can emphasize the hedonistic elements of their products to at-
tract individualistic and short-term oriented consumers, with pragmatic implications for
collectivist and long-term oriented consumers. Similarly, it may be more useful to target
consumers with high power distances for public consumption products, and those with
low power distances and feminine tendencies for private consumption products. Finally,
companies could highlight other external cues such as brand, price, and product attributes
for low-engagement products if they want to downplay the importance of product origin
information when targeting consumers with high uncertainty avoidance. Multination-
als can incorporate these insights into their marketing plans and strategies to customize
their product offerings and activities based on different cultural orientations and product
characteristics in different target markets. Each cultural variable has a complex influence
on a country [22]. For example, in the music sector, cultural variables do not act as bar-
riers to trade. The fact that many cultural product transactions can be realized today by
acquiring copyright and intangible products can lead to complex results. To date, the
cultural product trade is still evolving. Quantitative and qualitative research on cultural
trade is gradually becoming abundant; however, theoretical research remains insufficient
to form a complete system. For many of the factors affecting cultural trade, we sought to
make new breakthroughs considering cultural similarities, Internet penetration, and global
connectivity, and to explore the various concepts and roles of internal mechanisms that
have contributed to our comprehensive theory of cultural trade. The results of this study
are based on empirical research and provide valuable implications for promoting the trade
in cultural products.
The results can help practitioners improve their understanding of the relationship
between cultural activities and product purchases. This study provides a basis for strength-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172 16 of 19

ening the competitiveness of products in culturally related industries. This suggests that
multinational and content-related companies need to be more interested in Mecenat, which
supports cultural activities and efforts to use culture for marketing purposes.
The academic implications include the evaluation of cultural values. Based on cultural
values, consumers were found to evaluate products or content from other countries, and
cultural values were closely related to the perception or purchase intention of cultural
products from other countries. Globally, consumer demand for and interest in various
cultural products (products, movies, dramas, content, games, etc.) are increasing. The
proposed causal analysis has various theoretical implications.
Cultural values play a significant role as a leading variable in the formation of attitudes
toward cultural products. A country’s cultural value is an essential variable for predicting
and explaining the perception of other countries’ cultures or products by consumers
belonging to that culture. It is believed to provide important academic implications for
studies to identify and explain the relationship between cultural values and consumer
behavior and to select and consume consumers’ rational, emotional, and reasonable cultural
products. It is necessary to increase explanatory power by developing various cultural
values and introducing additional variables, as well as Hofstede’s theory of cultural value.
Discussions on sustainability have mainly focused on three areas: ecology, the econ-
omy, and the environment. However, there is also a formidable discussion that the “cultural
dimension” should be considered in addition to these fields. In the discussion of sustain-
ability, “culture” was initially recognized as an instrumental role to help develop the three
other fields. For sustainable development, cultural aspects along with technical and envi-
ronmental policies must be considered. Regarding sustainable culture, the results of this
study can be said to suggest a direction for culture and humans to move forward together
in the future.

6.2. Limitations and Future Direction of Research

Despite the significance of this study, it has several limitations. This study considers
five cultural dimensions suggested by Hofstede. This is a limitation of the present study.
Cross-comparative cultural research includes many cultural value dimensions. To general-
ize the results, research that applies the cultural dimensions of other scholars is required.
To meet consumer demand, efforts are required to identify the characteristics of cultural
product clues from consumer groups in overseas markets. Research is needed on how
it affects quality, value, evaluation, and purchase intention, which are external factors of
products, such as price and brand name. In this study, cultural products were classified to
identify the relationship between consumer perceptions and purchase intentions. It is also
necessary to study whether there is a difference according to product group through the
classification of cultural products by type.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.X. and C.-H.J.; methodology, Y.X.; software, validation,
Y.X. and C.-H.J.; formal analysis, investigation, resources, data curation, and writing—original draft
preparation, C.-H.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Because of the nature of this study, no formal approval of
the Institutional Review Board of the local Ethics Committee was required. Nonetheless, all subjects
were informed about the study and participation was fully on a voluntary basis. Participants were
ensured of confidentiality and anonymity of the information associated with the surveys. The study
was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are
available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172 17 of 19

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