DDL commands of SQL

There are three DDL commands of SQL.

1. Create Table
This statement is used to create the structure of a table.

We can specify the various fields along wih their data types, size

and range of values which can be stored in those fields.

We can also specify the constraints applied on fields.

Syntax:
Create table <table_name>
( Column1 <data_type>(size) constraint,
Column2 <data_type>(size) constraint,
………………………………………
………………………………………
);

Here table_name is valid name of table.

Column1,Column2,…. are the names of various field of table.

data_type is the name of valid data type. It is used to specify the

type of value which can be stored in a particular column.

size specifies the maximum number of digits or characters which

can be stored in a particular field. It is optional in case of number

data type.

constraint is the name of constraint that we want to apply on a

particular field.

Example:
We have to create a table named Student with following

structure:

Field name Data Type Size Constrain

 t

Primary
roll number 3
Key

name varchar 20

dateofbirth date

fees number 7,2

Class varchar 20

SQL command for creating table with above structure is

Create table student(roll number(3) primary key,

name varchar(20),
dateofbirth date,
fees number(7,2),
Class varchar(20)
);

2. Alter Table
This statement is used to modify the structure of a table. We can

add or modify fields of an existing table.

We can also specify the data type, size, constraints and domain of

fields which are to be added or modified in an existing table.

We can increase the size of any field at any time but we should be

careful while decreasing size of any field as it may result in data

loss.

Alter table command can be used in two ways

Syntax 1:

Alter table <table_name>

add ( Column1 <data_type>(size) constraint,
Column2 <data_type>(size) constraint,
………………………………………
………………………………………
);

Here table_name is name of any existing table.

add specifies that new field is to be added to the table.

Column1,Column2,…. are the names of various field which are to

be added to table.

data_type is the name of valid data type of Oracle. It is used to

specify the type of value which can be stored in a particular

column.

size specifies the maximum number of digits or characters which

can be stored in a particular field. It is optional in case of number

data type.

constraint is the name of constraint that we want to apply on a

particular field.

Example 1:

Alter table student add (address varchar2(50));

Above command will add a new field address to table named

student.

Example 2:

Alter table student add constraint u1 unique(address);

Above command will add a unique constraint on address field of

student table.

Syntax 2:

Alter table <table_name>

modify( Column1 <data_type>(size) constraint,
Column2 <data_type>(size) constraint,
………………………………………
………………………………………
);

modify specifies that an existing field of a table is to be modified.

Example

Alter table student modify(name varchar2(25));

Above command will increase the width of field named “name” to

25.

Syntax 3:

Alter table
<table_name>
drop column
Column_name ,
……………………………………
…
……………………………………
…
);

drop column specifies that an existing field of a table is to be

deleted.

Example:

Alter table student drop column address ;

Above command will the delete the field address from the table

student permanently.

3. Drop Table
This statement is used to delete the structure of a table as well as

data stored in a particular table.

Syntax:

Drop table <table_name>

Here table_name is any valid name of Oracle.

Example

drop table student;

Above command will delete the table named student permanently.

DML Commands of SQL

There are four types of DML commands.

1. Insert
This command used to insert a new record in an existing table.

We can insert a complete record or we can enter record values in

specific fields also.

Syntax:

Insert into table_name(field1,field2,……….)

values (datavalue1,datavalue2, ………..);

Here table_name is the name of an existing table

field1,field2… represent the names of various fields of table

datavalue1,datavalue2, … represent the values which are to be

inserted

into field1,field2,…….

Example 1:

Insert into student values (101 ‘amit’, ‘2000–01-05’,5000.50);

Above statement will insert a complete record in table named

student.

101 will store in roll field, ‘amit’ in name field, ‘2000-01-05’ in

dateofbirth field and 5000.50 in fees field.

Example 2:

Insert into student(roll,name ) values(102, ‘sumit’)

Above will only insert values in two fields named roll and name.

102 will be stored in roll field, ‘sumit’ in name field, dateofbirth

and fees fields will get null.

2. update
This command is used to modify an exiting record . We can modify

more than one field at a time and we can also modify those

records which satisfy a particular condition.

Syntax: –

Update <table_name>
set column_name1= expression1 ,
column_name2= expression2 , ……..
where <condition >;

Here table_name is the name of an existing table

column_name1, column_name2 represent the names of various

fields of table whose contents are to be modified.

expression1, expression2 represent the values or expressions

which are to be stored into fields specified by

columnname1,columnname2.

condition is any relational or logical expression which is used to

specify the condition according to which records should be

modified.

Example 1:

Update student set roll=106;

Above statement ill make all the values in roll field to be 106.

Example 2:
Update student set fees=fees+100;

Above statement will increase the fees by 100 in all records.

Example 3:

Update student set roll=roll+10 where fees>4500;

Above statement will increase the roll by 10 in those records

where fees>4500.

3. Delete
This command is used to delete all the records or an exiting record

from a database table. Structure of table will not be deleted.

Syntax:

Delete
from<table_name>
where <condition >;

Here table_name is the name of an existing table

condition is any relational or logical expression which is used to

specify the condition as per which records should be deleted.

Example 1

Delete from student;

Above command will delete all the records from table named

student.

Example 2

Delete from student where fees>4000;

Above command will delete those records from table named

student which is having fees more than 4000.

4. Select
This command is used to view all the records or specific records

from a database table depending on a particular condition.

Syntax:

Select [*] / [column1,column2,………..]

from <table_name>
where <condition >;

Here table_name is the name of an existing table

* represents that all the records from the table should be shown

on the screen.

column1,column2 represent the names of fields whose contents

are to be shown.

condition is any relational or logical expression which is used to

specify the condition as per which records should be deleted.

Example 1

Select * from student;

Above command will show all the records from table named

student.

Example 2

Select roll,name from student ;

Above command will show contents of fields named roll and name

for those records from table named student which have fees more

than 4000.

Example 3

Select * from student where fees>4000;

Above command will show all those records from table named

student which have fees more than 4000.

Clauses used with DML Commands

1. DISTINCT Clause
This clause is used with select command to view Unique values in

a particular field.

Example
select distinct class from emp;

This command will show different values in the class field of

student table avoiding duplicate values.

2. IN Clause
This clause is used to specify a range of values. This clause is used

with select, delete , update statements.

Example
Select * from student where class in (‘xi’,’xii’);

OR

Select * from student where city =‘xi’ or city=’xii’;

This command is used to view those records where class field of

student table contains either ‘xi’ or ‘xii’

3. BETWEEN Clause
The BETWEEN clause allows to check if an expression is within a

range of two values. The values can be text, date, or numbers. The

BETWEEN clause used in a condition will return the records where

value of expression is within the range of value1 and value2.

 Example:
Select * from student where fees between 1000 and 2000;

OR

Select * from student where fees>=1000 and fees<=2000;

In the above examples, those records from table student will be

shown where value of fees is between 1000 and 2000. Both values

1000 and 2000 are included in the output.

4. LIKE Clause
The LIKE clause is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified

pattern in a column.

There are two wildcards used with LIKE clause:

 % : The percent sign represents zero or more characters.

 _ : The underscore represents a single character.
Examples

LIKE Operator Description

WHERE Name LIKE ‘A%’ Finds values that start with “A”

WHERE Name LIKE ‘%s’ Finds values that end with “s”

Finds values that have “or” in any

WHERE Name LIKE ‘%or%’
position

Finds values that have “a” in the

WHERE Name LIKE ‘_a%’
second position

Finds values that start with “a” and

WHERE Name LIKE ‘a_%’
are at least 2 characters in length

Finds values that start with “a” and

WHERE Name LIKE ‘a__%’
are at least 3 characters in length

Finds any values that start with “a”

WHERE Name LIKE ‘a%s’
and ends with “s”
i. Select * from student where name like ‘A%’;
This command will show all those records from table named

student where name field contains values starting with A for e.g.

Arun, Aman, Anu , Amandeep etc.

ii. Select * from student where name like ‘%RU%’;

This command will show all those records from table student where

name field contains values containing RU in it for e.g. ARUN,

VARUN, KARUNA.

iii. Select * from student where name like ‘A_ _ _’;

This command will show all those records from table student where

name field contains values starting with A and having four

characters for e.g. Arun, Aman etc.

iv. Select * from student where name like ‘A_ _N’;

This command will show all those records from table student where

name field contains values starting from A and ending with N and

four characters in it for e.g. ARUN, AMAN etc.

5. IS NULL Clause
NULL means empty. It is neither Zero nor blank but it means “not

defined”. This clause is used with select command to view those

records which contain null values in a particular field i.e Field

doesn’t contain any value in various records.

Example
i.. select * from student where fees is null;

This command will show all the records from student table where

fees field contains null value.

ii.. select * from student where fees is not null;

This command will show all the records from student table where

fees field does not contain null value.

6. ORDER BY Clause
This clause is basically used to sort the records as per a particular

field. It is used with select command to view records

alphabetically or numerically in ascending order or descending

order with respect to a particular field.

We can user word “asc” to specify that records should be in

ascending order. It is the default order when when we user order

by clause. We use “desc” with order by clause to show the records

in descending order of a particular field.

Example
i. select * from student order by name;

OR

select * from student order by name asc;

This command will show all the records from student table in ascending order of field

“name”.

ii. select * from student order by name desc;

This command will show all the records from student table in descending order of field

“name”.

7. GROUP BY Clause
This clause can be used with select statement. This clause is used

to group records based on distinct values that exist for specified

columns i.e. it creates a data set containing several sets of records

grouped together based on a condition.

We can specify the condition for which records should be grouped

by using “having” clause.

Example:
i. Select class, sum(fees) from student group by job ;

This command will show the classes along with sum of fees

corresponding to various classes in the table student.

ii. Select class, sum(fees) from student group by job having

count(class)>3;

This command will show the classes along with sum of fees

corresponding to various classes where number of records

corresponding to a particular class are more than 3.

SQL Functions
i. SUM
This function is used to find the sum of values stored in a numeric

field of a table.

Syntax:
SUM(Field_Name)

Field_Name is the name of any numeric field on which we want to

apply sum Function.

Example:
select sum(fees) from student;

This command will compute the sum of values stored in fees field

of student table.

ii AVG:
This function is used to find the average of values stored in a

numeric field of a table.

Syntax:
AVG(Field_Name)

Field_Name is the name of any numeric field on which we want to

apply avg Function.

Example:
select avg(fees) from student;

This command will compute the average of values stored in fees

field of student table.

iii. MIN
This function is used to find the minimum value among the values

stored in a numeric field of a table.

Syntax:
MIN(Field_Name)

Field_Name is the name of any numeric field on which we want to

apply MIN Function.

Example:
select MIN(fees) from student;

This command will find minimum fees from student table.

iv. MAX
This function is used to find the maximum value among the values

stored in a numeric field of a table.

Syntax:
MAX(Field_Name)

Field_Name is the name of any numeric field on which we want to apply MIN Function.
Example:
select MAX(fees) from student;

This command will find maximum fees from student table.

v. COUNT
This function is used to count the number of records in a particular

field or in complete table of Oracle.

Syntax
count(Expression/*)

Expression may be the name of any field of table or any expression based on a field of a

table.

* is used when we want to know the number of records in a table.

Example
i. select count(fees) from student;

This command will show the number of non null values stored in fees field of student table.

ii. select count(*) from student;

This command will show the total number of records stored in student table.

SQL Joins
It is the way to combine records of more than one table in which

there must exist one common field on which we create a relation

between two tables using JOIN.

I. EQUI JOIN
This type of join is used to combine records from tables where the

common field of both tables have same value.

Equi join is a special type of join in which we use only an equality

(=) operator to select only those records having same value in

common field.
Example:
Table: Foods
+---------+--------------+-----------+

| ITEM_ID | ITEM_NAME | COMPANY_ID|

+---------+--------------+-----------+

| 1 | Chex Mix | 16 |

| 6 | Cheez-It | 15 |

| 2 | BN Biscuit | 15 |

| 4 | Pot Rice | 15 |

+---------+--------------+-----------+

Table : Company
+------------+---------------+
| COMPANY_ID | COMPANY_NAME |
+------------+---------------+
| 15 | Jack Hill |
| 16 | Akas Foods |
| 17 | Foodies. |
| 19 | sip-n-Bite. |
+------------+---------------+
SELECT FOODS.ITEM_ID,FOOD.ITEM_NAME,

COMPANY.COMPANY_ID,COMPANY.COMPANY_NAME

FROM FOODS,COMPANY

WHERE FOODS.COMPANY_ID=COMPANY.COMPANY_ID;

OUTPUT

+---------+--------------+-----------+--------------+

| ITEM_ID | ITEM_NAME | COMPANY_ID| COMPANY_NAME |

+---------+--------------+-----------+--------------+

| 1 | Chex Mix | 16 | Akas Foods |

| 6 | Cheez-It | 15 | Jack Hill |

| 2 | BN Biscuit | 15 | Jack Hill |

 | 4 | Pot Rice | 15 | Jack Hill |

+---------+--------------+-----------+--------------+

Output will show only those records from both the tables where
company_id is same.
ii. NATURAL JOIN
A natural join is a type of equi join which occurs implicitly by

comparing all the same names columns in both tables. The join

result has only one column for each pair of equally named

columns.

Natural Join has following conditions:

 The tables to be joined must have one or more columns having

same name.
 The columns must be the same data type.
Syntax:
SELECT *
FROM table1
NATURAL JOIN table2;
Example:
Table: Foods
+---------+--------------+-----------+

| ITEM_ID | ITEM_NAME | COMPANY_ID|

+---------+--------------+-----------+

| 1 | Chex Mix | 16 |

| 6 | Cheez-It | 15 |

| 2 | BN Biscuit | 15 |

| 4 | Pot Rice | 15 |

+---------+--------------+-----------+

Table : Company
+------------+---------------+
| COMPANY_ID | COMPANY_NAME |
+------------+---------------+
| 15 | Jack Hill |
| 16 | Akas Foods |
| 17 | Foodies. |
| 19 | sip-n-Bite. |
+------------+---------------+

SELECT *
FROM foods NATURAL JOIN company;
OUTPUT
+---------+--------------+-----------+--------------+

| ITEM_ID | ITEM_NAME | COMPANY_ID| COMPANY_NAME |

+---------+--------------+-----------+--------------+

| 1 | Chex Mix | 16 | Akas Foods |

| 6 | Cheez-It | 15 | Jack Hill |

| 2 | BN Biscuit | 15 | Jack Hill |

| 4 | Pot Rice | 15 | Jack Hill |

+---------+--------------+-----------+--------------+

Output will show only those records from both the tables where
company_id is same.