ELECTRONICS I (EEC 124)

Electronics can be defined as the science and technology of the motion of electrons in
gas, vacuum, or in any semi-conductor.

Some 100years ago, electronics was considered an integral part of electrical engineering.
The technological revolution and the tremendous advancement over the last few decades, has
made electronics gained its rightful place. The advancement has been so fast that many sub-
branches of electronics-computer science/Engineering, Communication Engineering,
Information Technology e.t.c. now control the universe.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONICS

(1) Communication and Entertainment (PAS, TV, etc.)

(2) Controls and Instrumentation (Speed Control, Inverters, CRO etc.)
(3) Defense Applications (Radar, Guided missiles)
(4) Medical Sciences (X-Rays, Thermometers, Electrocardiographs etc.)
(5) Automobile Industry (Electronic ignition system etc.)
(6) Global Connection – Information Technology.

ENERGY LEVEL IN MATERIALS

Atomic Number of an element can be defined as the number of Protons or the number of
electrons in an atom. Electrons are very light in weight as compared to Protons and the mass of
an electron is 1/1850th of the mass of a Proton.

All the Electrons in an atom do not revolve in the same orbit but they move in different
orbits or shells. The distribution is determined from the expression 2n 2 where n is the no. of the
shell as counted from nucleus.

The maximum no. of Electrons that different orbits can contain is given as: Number of
electrons in orbit =

(i) 2n2 = (2 x 12) = 2

(ii) 2 x 22 = 8

(iii) 2 x 32 = 18 etc.

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 The outermost shell is termed as the valence shell and the electrons contained in this shell
are termed as the valence electrons. The atomic no. of an element gives the no. of electrons
orbiting around the nuclei of its atoms.

The chemical and electrical bahaviour of an element depends upon the number of valence
electrons and the orbiting electron experience a force of attraction towards nucleus. Note that the
farther an electron from the nucleus, the less the force of attraction.

Electron energies are represented in electron volts (eV) and it is defined as that energy
which an electron acquires when it moves through a potential difference of 1 volt. i.e. 1 joule =
1.602 x 10-19(eV)

In isolated atoms, electrons move in fixed orbits and each revolving electrons carries
certain energy. The 2 electrons in the 1 st orbit have the same energy and also all the 8 electrons
in the 2nd orbit will have the same magnitude of energy.

n=1

n=2

+
n=3
n=1
n=2
NUCLEUS
n=3

(A) ELECTRON ORBIT (B) Energy Level of Electrons in Different Orbit

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It should be noted that the total electron energy comprises of two parts.

(i) Kinetic Energy: It is directly proportional to the electron velocity and hence the order
of the orbit.
(ii) Potential Energy: It is directly proportional to the magnitude of the electric charge
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the orbit from the nucleus.

Note that, as the order of orbit increase, the electron energy also increases and has the following
characteristics;

(i) The valence electron thus has highest amount of energy

(ii) Any additional amount of energy makes the electrons become detached from their
nucleus and move away. Such electrons are termed FREE electrons and it conducts
current very easily.
(iii) The energy must be sufficient to move it away from the region of influence of the
nucleus.
(iv) If less, it is attracted back to the nucleus and cannot move away.

FERMI LEVEL (Ef)

It represents the energy state in the energy band representation which has a 50%
probability of being filled with electrons from the valence band. It lies in the centre of the
forbidden energy gap in pure semi-conductors.
The inner orbit electrons are not greatly affected by inter-atomic forces. As a result, their
energy bands are narrow.
When electrons in the valence energy band acquire an additional amount of energy equal
to or greater than EG, these electrons cross to the conduction band and become free to conduct
current. If it is less than E G, the electron falls back into the valence band. Electrons cannot
remain indefinitely between conduction and valence bands. Thus, E G is termed as Forbidden
Energy Gap.

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ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM ENERGY BAND REPRESENTATION OF SOLIDS

Conduction band Conduction Band 4th band

EG
Forbidden gap 3rd band

Valence band
2nd band
Forbidden gap
1st band

ENERGY BANDS

Band Theory of Solids

A useful way to visualize the difference between conductors, insulators and

semiconductors is to plot the available energies for electrons in the materials. Instead of having
discrete energies as in the case of free atoms, the available energy states form bands. Crucial to
the conduction process is whether or not there are electrons in the conduction band. In insulators
the electrons in the valence band are separated by a large gap from the conduction band, in
conductors like metals the valence band overlaps the conduction band, and in semiconductors
there is a small enough gap between the valence and conduction bands that thermal or other
excitations can bridge the gap. With such a small gap, the presence of a small percentage of a
doping material can increase conductivity dramatically.

An important parameter in the band theory is the Fermi level, the top of the available
electron energy levels at low temperatures. The position of the Fermi level with the relation to
the conduction band is a crucial factor in determining electrical properties.

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Energy Bands for Solids

Energy Bands Comments

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 Insulator Energy Bands
Most solid substances are insulators, and in terms of the band theory of solids
this implies that there is a large forbidden gap between the energies of the
valence electrons and the energy at which the electrons can move freely
through the material (the conduction band).

It can also be described as the materials in which valence electrons are bound
very tightly to their parent atoms and it requires very large energy/field to
remove them. The forbidden energy gap is of the order of 5eV or more. At
room temperature, thermal energy imparted to the valence electrons of such
materials is insufficient and does not make the electrons to cross to the
conduction band. As a result, current conduction is not possible in these
materials.

Semiconductor Energy Bands

For intrinsic semiconductors like silicon and germanium, the Fermi
level is essentially halfway between the valence and conduction
bands. Although no conduction occurs at 0 K, at higher temperatures
a finite number of electrons can reach the conduction band and
provide some current. In doped semiconductors, extra energy levels
are added. But as the temperature is raised, some of the valence
electrons acquire sufficient thermal energy and move to the
conduction band leaving behind vacant places (deficiency of
electrons called HOST)

Semi conductor materials have forbidden energy gap of 1eV.

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Conductor Energy Bands
In terms of the band theory of solids, metals are unique as good
conductors of electricity. This can be seen to be a result of their
valence electrons being essentially free. In the band theory, this is
depicted as an overlap of the valence band and the conduction band
so that at least a fraction of the valence electrons can move through
the material.

They have plenty of free electrons for conduction and no physical

distinction between the two bands.

WORK FUNCTION
Valence electrons in metals may move from one atom to another within the metal but they are
not able to leave the metal boundary. In other to make an electron leave a metallic surface,
energy from some external source must be supplied in the electron so that it overcomes the
SURFACE BARRIER. This extra energy required to liberate an electron from the metallic
surface is called the WORK FUNCTION of the metal. It is measured in eV.

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 SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Important Properties of Semi-Conductor
(1) They have negative temperature coefficient of resistor
(2) Their resistivity can be changed by the addition of some specified material i.e. impurity
material.
The outermost shell of Silicon and Germanium has four (4) valence electrons known as
Tetravalent but they are incomplete. But if it now acquires eight (8) electrons, it becomes
complete. Valence electrons for BONDS with the valence electrons of neighbouring atoms.
The process of adding or diffusing impurity atoms to Silicon or Germanium crystal is
called DOPING. It disturbs the balance between free electrons and holes and may result in
electron larger than the holes or vice-versa.

Semiconductors materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide (GaAs),
have electrical properties somewhere in the middle, between those of a "conductor" and an
"insulator". They are not good conductors nor good insulators (hence their name "semi"-
conductors). They have very few "fee electrons" because their atoms are closely grouped
together in a crystalline pattern called a "crystal lattice". However, their ability to conduct
electricity can be greatly improved by adding certain "impurities" to this crystalline structure
thereby, producing more free electrons than holes or vice versa. By controlling the number of
impurities added to the semiconductor material it is possible to control its conductivity. These
impurities are called donors or acceptors depending on whether they produce electrons or holes
respectively. This process of adding impurity atoms to semiconductor atoms (the order of 1
impurity atom per 10 million (or more) atoms of the semiconductor) is called Doping.

The most commonly used semiconductor basics material by far is silicon. Silicon has four
valence electrons in its outermost shell which it shares with its neighbouring silicon atoms to
form full orbitals of eight electrons. The structure of the bond between the two silicon atoms is
such that each atom shares one electron with its neighbour making the bond very stable. As there
are very few free electrons available to move around the silicon crystal, crystals of pure silicon
(or germanium) are therefore good insulators, or at the very least very high value resistors.

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TYPES OF SEMI-CONDUCTOR
It can be classified as shown below
SEMI-CONDUCTOR

Intrinsic or Pure Semi-Conductor Extrinsic or Impure Semi-Conductor

N-type P-type
INTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTOR
An intrinsic semi-conductor is one which is made of the semi-conductor in its extremely
pure form. E.g. pure Germanium and Silicon which have forbidden energy gaps of 0.75eV and
1.1eV respectively. The energy gap is so small that even at ordinary room temperature, there are
many electrons which possess sufficient energy to jump across the small energy gap between the
valence and the conduction bands.
An intrinsic semi-conductor can also be defined as the material which the number of
conduction electrons is equal to the number of holes.
In an intrinsic semi-conductor, Fermi energy lies in the middle of the energy gap i.e.
midway between the conduction and valence bands.

EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Intrinsic semi-conductors to which some suitable impurity or doping agent or dopant has
been added in extremely small amounts are called EXTRINSIC or IMPURITY semi-conductors.
The usual doping agents are:
(1) PENTAVALENT atoms: They are having five (5) valence electrons at their outermost
shell. E.g. Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorus, etc. Pentavalent doping atom is known as
DONOR atom because it donates or contributes one electron to the conduction band of
e.g. pure Germanium
(2) TRIVALENT atoms: They are having three (3) valence electrons at their outermost shell.
E.g. Gallium, Indium, Aluminium, Boron, etc. A trivalent atom is called an ACCEPTOR
atom because it accepts one electron from a Germanium atom.

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 Depending on the type of doping material used, extrinsic semi-conductors can be sub-
divided into
(1) N-type semi-conductors and
(2) P-type semi-conductors.

N-TYPE EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTORS

This type of semi-conductor is obtained when a Pentavalent material (e.g. Antimony or
Phosphorus) is added to pure Germanium crystal. Four (4) of the five (5) electrons form
covalent bonds with the surrounding four (4) of the pure semi-conductors. The fifth electron is
superfluous and is loosely bound to the Pentavalent atom.
Phosphorus is called DONOR impurity and makes the pure semi-conductor an N-type
extrinsic semi-conductor. Note: associate the N in donor with the N in the N-type material and N
is Negative charge carrier.
In N-type semi-conductors, electrons are the majority carriers while holes constitute the
minority carriers and the process of conduction is called EXCESS conductions.

P-TYPE EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTORS

It is obtained when traces of a TRIVALENT impurity like Boron (B) are added to a pure
Germanium crystal. The three (3) valence electrons of Boron atom form covalent bonds with
four of Germanium atom but one bond is left incomplete and gives rise to a hole.
Thus, Boron an ACCEPTOR impurity causes as many positive holes in a Germanium
crystal as there are Boron atoms producing P-type extrinsic semi-conductor.
Holes form the majority carrier whereas electrons constitute minority carriers. Process of
conduction is called “DEFICIT” conduction.
Note: In a piece of pure Germanium or Silicon, no free charge carriers are available at 0 oK.
However, as its temperature is raised to room temperature, covalent bonds are broken, electron-
hole pairs are produced and they are called “Thermally-generated charge carriers”.
In P-type material, the number of holes (both added and thermally generated) is much
more than that of electrons. Hence, Holes are the majority carrier while Electrons are the
minority carriers. But in N-type materials, the number of electrons is much larger than holes.
Therefore, Electrons are the majority carriers while Holes are the minority carriers.

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Silicon atoms are arranged in a definite symmetrical pattern making them a crystalline solid
structure. A crystal of pure silica (silicon dioxide or glass) is generally said to be an intrinsic
crystal (it has no impurities) and therefore has no free electrons. But simply connecting a silicon
crystal to a battery supply is not enough to extract an electric current from it. To do that we need
to create a "positive" and a "negative" pole within the silicon allowing electrons and therefore
electric current to flow out of the silicon. These poles are created by doping the silicon with
certain impurities.

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of a 'normal' pure crystal of
Silicon.

N-type Semiconductor Basics

In order for our silicon crystal to conduct electricity, we need to introduce an impurity atom such
as Arsenic, Antimony or Phosphorus into the crystalline structure making it extrinsic (impurities
are added). These atoms have five outer electrons in their outermost orbital to share with
neighbouring atoms and are commonly called "Pentavalent" impurities. This allows four out of
the five orbital electrons to bond with its neighbouring silicon atoms leaving one "free electron"
to become mobile when an electrical voltage is applied (electron flow). As each impurity atom
"donates" one electron, pentavalent atoms are generally known as "donors".

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Antimony (symbol Sb) or Phosphorus (symbol P), are frequently used as a pentavalent additive
as they have 51 electrons arranged in five shells around their nucleus with the outermost orbital
having five electrons. The resulting semiconductor basics material has an excess of current-
carrying electrons, each with a negative charge, and is therefore referred to as an "N-type"
material with the electrons called "Majority Carriers" while the resulting holes are called
"Minority Carriers".

When stimulated by an external power source, the electrons freed from the silicon atoms by this
stimulation are quickly replaced by the free electrons available from the doped Antimony atoms.
But this action still leaves an extra electron (the freed electron) floating around the doped crystal
making it negatively charged. Then a semiconductor material is classed as N-type when its donor
density is greater than its acceptor density, in other words, it has more electrons than holes
thereby creating a negative pole.

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the donor impurity atom
Antimony.

P-Type Semiconductor Basics

If we go the other way, and introduce a "Trivalent" (3-electron) impurity into the crystalline
structure, such as Aluminium, Boron or Indium, which have only three valence electrons
available in their outermost orbital, the fourth closed bond cannot be formed. Therefore, a

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complete connection is not possible, giving the semiconductor material an abundance of
positively charged carriers known as "holes" in the structure of the crystal where electrons are
effectively missing.

As there is now a hole in the silicon crystal, a neighbouring electron is attracted to it and will try
to move into the hole to fill it. However, the electron filling the hole leaves another hole behind it
as it moves. This in turn attracts another electron which in turn creates another hole behind it,
and so forth giving the appearance that the holes are moving as a positive charge through the
crystal structure (conventional current flow). This movement of holes results in a shortage of
electrons in the silicon turning the entire doped crystal into a positive pole. As each impurity
atom generates a hole, trivalent impurities are generally known as "Acceptors" as they are
continually "accepting" extra or free electrons.

Boron (symbol B) is commonly used as a trivalent additive as it has only five electrons arranged
in three shells around its nucleus with the outermost orbital having only three electrons. The
doping of Boron atoms causes conduction to consist mainly of positive charge carriers resulting
in a "P-type" material with the positive holes being called "Majority Carriers" while the free
electrons are called "Minority Carriers". Then a semiconductor basics material is classed as P-
type when its acceptor density is greater than its donor density. Therefore, a P-type
semiconductor has more holes than electrons.

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the acceptor impurity
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 atom Boron.

N-type (e.g. add Antimony)

These are materials which have Pentavalent impurity atoms (Donors) added and conduct by
"electron" movement and are called, N-type Semiconductors.

In these types of materials are:

 1. The Donors are positively charged.

 2. There are a large number of free electrons.

 3. A small number of holes in relation to the number of free electrons.

 4. Doping gives:

o positively charged donors.

o negatively charged free electrons.

 5. Supply of energy gives:

o negatively charged free electrons.

o positively charged holes.

P-type (e.g. add Boron)

These are materials which have Trivalent impurity atoms (Acceptors) added and conduct by
"hole" movement and are called, P-type Semiconductors.

In these types of materials are:

 1. The Acceptors are negatively charged.

 2. There are a large number of holes.

 3. A small number of free electrons in relation to the number of holes.

 4. Doping gives:

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 o negatively charged acceptors.

o positively charged holes.

 5. Supply of energy gives:

o positively charged holes.

o negatively charged free electrons.

and both P and N-types as a whole, are electrically neutral on their own.

Antimony (Sb) and Boron (B) are two of the most commonly used doping agents as they are
more freely available compared to others and are also classed as metalloids. However, the
periodic table groups together a number of other different chemical elements all with either
three, or five electrons in their outermost orbital shell. These other chemical elements can also be
used as doping agents to a base material of either Silicon (S) or Germanium (Ge) to produce
different types of basic semiconductor materials for use in electronic components and these are
given below.

Periodic Table of Semiconductors

Elements Group 13 Elements Group 14 Elements Group 15

3-Electrons in Outer Shell 4-Electrons in Outer Shell 5-Electrons in Outer Shell

(Positively Charged) (Neutrally Charged) (Negatively Charged)

(5) (6)

Boron ( B ) Carbon ( C )

(13) (14) (15)

Aluminium ( Al ) Silicon ( Si ) Phosphorus ( P )

(31) (32) (33)

Gallium ( Ga ) Germanium ( Ge ) Arsenic ( As )

(51)

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 Antimony ( Sb )

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P-N JUNCTION
It is possible to manufacture a single piece of a semi-conductor material half of which is doped
by P-type impurity and the other half by N-type impurity. The plane dividing the two zones is
called JUNCTION.
The P-N junction is fundamental to the operation of diodes, transistors and other solid-state
devices.
Three phenomena take place at the junction:
(1) A thin depletion layer or region is established on both sides of the junction.
(2) A barrier potential or junction potential is developed across the junction.
(3) The presence of depletion layer gives rise to junction and diffusion capacitances.

P-N JUNCTION DIODE CIRCUIT SYMBOL

ANODE CATHODE
The P and N regions are referred to as ANODE and CATHODE respectively.

When the N and P-type semiconductor materials are first joined together a very large density
gradient exists between both sides of the junction so some of the free electrons from the donor
impurity atoms begin to migrate across this newly formed junction to fill up the holes in the P-
type material producing negative ions. However, because the electrons have moved across the
junction from the N-type silicon to the P-type silicon, they leave behind positively charged donor
ions (ND) on the negative side and now the holes from the acceptor impurity migrate across the
junction in the opposite direction into the region where there are large numbers of free electrons.
As a result, the charge density of the P-type along the junction is filled with negatively charged
acceptor ions (NA), and the charge density of the N-type along the junction becomes positive.
This charge transfer of electrons and holes across the junction is known as diffusion.

This process continues back and forth until the number of electrons which have crossed the
junction have a large enough electrical charge to repel or prevent any more carriers from
crossing the junction. The regions on both sides of the junction become depleted of any free
carriers in comparison to the N and P type materials away from the junction. Eventually a state
of equilibrium (electrically neutral situation) will occur producing a "potential barrier" zone

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around the area of the junction as the donor atoms repel the holes and the acceptor atoms repel
the electrons. Since no free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is a potential barrier
the regions on both sides of the junction become depleted of any more free carriers in
comparison to the N and P type materials away from the junction. This area around the junction
is now called the Depletion Layer.

The PN junction

The total charge on each side of the junction must be equal and opposite to maintain a neutral
charge condition around the junction. If the depletion layer region has a distance D, it therefore
must therefore penetrate into the silicon by a distance of Dp for the positive side, and a distance
of Dn for the negative side giving a relationship between the two of Dp.NA = Dn.ND in order to
maintain charge neutrality also called equilibrium.

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PN junction Distance

As the N-type material has lost electrons and the P-type has lost holes, the N-type material has
become positive with respect to the P-type. Then the presence of impurity ions on both sides of
the junction causes an electric field to be established across this region with the N-side at a
positive voltage relative to the P-side. The problem now is that a free charge requires some extra
energy to overcome the barrier that now exists for it to be able to cross the depletion region
junction.

This electric field created by the diffusion process has created a "built-in potential difference"
across the junction with an open-circuit (zero bias) potential of:

Where: Eo is the zero bias junction voltage, VT the thermal voltage of 26mV at room
temperature, ND and NA are the impurity concentrations and ni is the intrinsic concentration.

A suitable positive voltage (forward bias) applied between the two ends of the PN junction can
supply the free electrons and holes with the extra energy. The external voltage required to
overcome this potential barrier that now exists is very much dependent upon the type of
semiconductor material used and its actual temperature. Typically at room temperature the
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voltage across the depletion layer for silicon is about 0.6 - 0.7 volts and for germanium is about
0.3 - 0.35 volts. This potential barrier will always exist even if the device is not connected to any
external power source.

The significance of this built-in potential across the junction, is that it opposes both the flow of
holes and electrons across the junction and is why it is called the potential barrier. In practice, a
PN junction is formed within a single crystal of material rather than just simply joining or fusing
together two separate pieces. Electrical contacts are also fused onto either side of the crystal to
enable an electrical connection to be made to an external circuit. Then the resulting device that
has been made is called a PN junction Diode or Signal Diode.

DEPLETION LAYER
At the junction, Holes are still in the P-region and Electrons in the N-region. Concentration of
holes in P-region is greater than in N-region (where holes exist as minority). Also, concentration
of electrons is greater than in N-region than in P-region (where they exist as minority). The
difference in concentration results in density gradient across the junction resulting in “Carrier
Diffusion”.
Holes diffuse from P to N-region while Electrons diffuse from N to P-region. A narrow region is
produced at the junction called DEPLETION LAYER.
If a majority carrier tries to cross into depletion layer;
(1) It can be trapped or captured and neutralized by row of fixed ions.
(2) It may succeed in entering the depletion layer where it will be repelled by the row or
similar charged impurity ions guarding the other region.
An equilibrium condition is reached when depletion layer has widened to such an extent that
no electrons or holes can cross the P-N junction.

FORWARD VOLTAGE
At ordinary room temperature, a potential difference of about 0.3V is required before a
reasonable amount of forward current starts flowing in a Germanium junction. Its value for
Silicon junction is about 0.7 volts.
 This voltage is known as THRESHOLD voltage (Vth) or cut-in voltage or KNEE voltage
(Vk).

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 It is practically the same as barrier voltage (VB)
 However, as applied voltage increases beyond Vth value, the forward current increases
sharply.
Note: If forward voltage is increased above safe value, large current will be produced which may
destroy the junction due to overheating. Forward-biased junction has a low resistance.

FORWARD BIASED P-N JUNCTION

The junction is said to be forward biased when the positive terminal of a battery is connected to
the P-region of a semi-conductor and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the N-
region of the same semi-conductor. This process results to the easy flow of current across the
junction.
As soon as the battery connection is made;
(1) Holes are repelled by the positive battery terminal
(2) Electrons are repelled by the negative battery terminal
(3) Both the electrons and the holes are driven towards the junction where they recombine.
(4) The en-mass movement of electrons to the left and holes to the right of the junction
constitutes a large current flow through the semi-conductor.
(5) The junction offers low resistance in the forward direction.

REVERSE BIASED P-N JUNCTION

The junction is said to be reversed biased when the positive terminal of the battery is connected
to N-region and when the negative terminal of the battery is connected to P-region. This process
results to no current flow.
As soon as the battery connection is made
(1) Holes are attracted by the negative battery terminal
(2) Electrons are attracted by the positive terminal of the battery
(3) Both Holes and Electrons move away from the junction and away from each other which
results to no electron-hole combination
(4) The junction offers high resistance.
(5) Under reverse bias condition, the width of depletion layer is increased.
(6) There is practically no current due to majority carriers; there is a small amount of current (in
µA) due to flow of minority carriers across the junction due to thermal energy. The battery
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drives these minority carriers across the junction producing a small current called Reverse
Current or Reverse Saturation Current. I o or Is. Note that Reverse Saturation Current is also
referred to as Leakage Current of the P-N junction diode.

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A bipolar junction transistor is a semiconducting device. Silicon or Germanium are the two
semiconductors used in Bipolar junction transistors. Three layers formed in between the two P-N
junctions. They are named emitter, base, and collector.

 Emitter layer represented as E

 Collector layer represented as C
 Base layer represented as B

The middle part of the transistor is known as Base layer (B). The base layer is the thin layer. The
thickness of the base layer is 25 microns. The left side layer of the transistor is the Emitter layer
(E). The right-side layer of the transistor is known as the Collector layer(C).

A device used to amplify a signal consisting of a three-layered semiconductor material also with
a two P-N junction is called Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT). When the external power
supply is applied, the transistor is ready to be amplified. The base layer is the thin layer. The left
side part of the transistor is the Emitter layer (E). The right-side part of the transistor is known as
the Collector layer(C). The emitter layer is highly doped.

But the emitter has to provide most charge carriers. The base layer is opposite to the emitter
because it is faintly doped. The Collector layer is also faintly doped to receive more transporters.
From these characteristics, we should know collector and emitter cannot be exchanged.

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 Bipolar Junction Transistor symbol

The arrowhead always represents the current flow direction emitter region to base or base to
emitter (from P to N) in every transistor. It denotes the conventional current flow direction. In
the PNP transistor, the arrowhead faces the base region. It shows that emitted is positive for base
and collector. In an NPN transistor, the arrowhead faces the emitter region. It means the base is
positive for the emitter region.

Construction of a Bipolar Junction Transistor

It is made up of a separate piece of the semiconductor element with two consecutive P-N
junctions. Silicon or Germanium are the two semiconductors used in Bipolar junction transistors.
We already know transistors consist of three layers: emitter, base, and collector. In the PNP
transistor, two PN junctions are there. The left side is connected to the emitter. The middle part is
the base region and the right side is a collector layer. E-B and C-B intersection are the two
junctions of the BJT. E-B intersection is forward biased and C-B intersection are reverse biased.

Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor

Operating regions of BJT are the saturated region, the cut-off region, and the active region.

Saturation Region

The starting point of the turn is called the saturation region. The Saturation area is in the middle
of the origin and constant point where the collector current becomes constant.

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Cut Off Region

Even base current is zero but a very low collector current is present in the transistor. The low
region, where the base current is zero, that region is known as the Cut-off Region.

Active Region

The active area is placed in the middle of the curve. It is centered between the saturated and cut-
off regions. Turns in the active region are constant. In this area, the emitter-base terminal is
forward biased and the collector-base terminal is reverse biased.

Types of Bipolar Junction Transistors

 PNP BJT
 NPN BJT

PNP BJT

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In PNP BJT, both side of N-type material are filled with P-type semiconductors.

NPN BJT

In an NPN BJT, the left side and right side are filled with n-type semiconductors. The p-type
semiconductor is placed between these two semiconductors. When current enters the emitter
region it converts the positive sign into a negative sign.

Function Of Bipolar Junction Transistor

PNP BJT and NPN BJT are the two types of bipolar junction transistors. There is a back-to-back
PN junction present in the PNP transistors. Potential barriers are increased because of the
depletion layer present in these two junctions. The batteries supply external power. Because of
the forward biasing lots of holes pass the terminal and enter the base. Some electrons are entered
into the emitter from the base. These electrons reunite with holes in the emitter. Emitter current
IE increases when the drift of electrons increases from the emitter to the base. Likewise, Base
current and, Collector current flow was calculated. These are the functions of the Bipolar
Junction Transistor.

Voltage, charge control and, Current configuration of Bipolar Junction Transistors

The C-E current controls the B-E current. The collector-emitter current gives the relation
between current voltage. Concentrated secondary carriers are in the collector current because it
has a base region.

To operate a Bipolar Junction Transistor there are three types of circuit connections.

 Common Base (CB) mode

 Common Emitter (CE) mode
 Common Collector (CC) mode.

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Applications of BJT

1. Transistors As a Switch: Normally BJT is used as a switch. For example, consider a

common emitter configuration of an NPN transistor. The Collector is linked in series with
Load resistance and base resistance. A transistor is saturated when the given input is high.
Maximum current will flow in the circuit when the transistor is saturated. So, the transistor is
in the ON stage. When the given input is low, no current is flow in the base-emitter junction.
The transistor will be in the OFF stage.
2. Transistor Amplifier: Amplification is the major function of Bipolar Junction Transistors.

3. It is used as a switch, amplifier, filter, and oscillator.

BIASING MODE OF BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

(i) Reverse Forward Reverse-active

(ii) Reverse Reverse Cut-off
(iii) Forward Forward Saturation
(iv) Forward Reverse Forward active

1. Forward-active (or simply, active): The base–emitter junction is forward biased and the
base–collector junction is reverse biased. Most bipolar transistors are designed to afford the
greatest common-emitter current gain, βF, in forward-active mode. If this is the case, the
collector–emitter current is approximately proportional to the base current, but many times
larger, for small base current variations.
2. Reverse-active (or inverse-active or inverted): By reversing the biasing conditions of the
forward-active region, a bipolar transistor goes into reverse-active mode. In this mode, the
emitter and collector regions switch roles. Because most BJTs are designed to maximize
current gain in forward-active mode, the βF in inverted mode is several (2–3 for the ordinary
germanium transistor) times smaller. This transistor mode is seldom used, usually being
considered only for failsafe conditions and some types of bipolar logic. The reverse bias
breakdown voltage to the base may be an order of magnitude lower in this region.
3. Saturation: With both junctions forward-biased, a BJT is in saturation mode and facilitates
high current conduction from the emitter to the collector (or the other direction in the case of

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 NPN, with negatively charged carriers flowing from emitter to collector). This mode
corresponds to a logical "on", or a closed switch.
4. Cutoff: In cutoff, biasing conditions opposite of saturation (both junctions reverse biased)
are present. There is very little current, which corresponds to a logical "off", or an open
switch.
·
Avalanche breakdown region
Although these regions are well defined for sufficiently large applied voltage, they overlap
somewhat for small (less than a few hundred millivolts) biases. For example, in the typical
grounded-emitter configuration of an NPN BJT used as a pulldown switch in digital logic, the
"off" state never involves a reverse-biased junction because the base voltage never goes below
ground; nevertheless, the forward bias is close enough to zero that essentially no current flows,
so this end of the forward active region can be regarded as the cutoff region.

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The Zener Diode

A "reverse biased" diode blocks current in the reverse direction, but will suffer from premature
breakdown or damage if the reverse voltage applied across it is too high. However, the Zener
Diode or "Breakdown Diode" as they are sometimes called, are basically the same as the
standard PN junction diode but are specially designed to have a low pre-determined Reverse
Breakdown Voltage that takes advantage of this high reverse voltage. The point at which a
Zener diode breaks down or conducts is called the "Zener Voltage" (Vz).

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction.
When biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated
current, but when a reverse voltage is applied to it the reverse saturation current remains fairly
constant over a wide range of voltages. The reverse voltage increases until the diodes breakdown
voltage VB is reached at which point a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the
depletion layer and the current flowing through the Zener diode increases dramatically to the
maximum circuit value (which is usually limited by a series resistor). This breakdown voltage
point is called the "Zener voltage" for Zener diodes.

The point at which current flows can be very accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in
the doping stage of the diodes construction giving the diode a specific Zener breakdown voltage,
(Vz) ranging from a few volts up to a few hundred volts. This Zener breakdown voltage on the I-
V curve is almost a vertical straight line.

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Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias" or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode
connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the
Zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage
regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly constant even
with large changes in current as long as the Zener diodes current remains between the breakdown
current IZ(min) and the maximum current rating IZ(max).

This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilize a voltage source
against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown
region is almost constant turns out to be an important application of the Zener diode as a voltage
regulator. The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected
in parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current
and the Zener diode will continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the
minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region.

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The Zener Diode Regulator

Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilized voltage output with low ripple under varying
load current conditions. By passing a small current through the diode from a voltage source, via a
suitable current limiting resistor (R S), the Zener diode will conduct sufficient current to maintain
a voltage drop of Vout. We remember from the previous tutorials that the DC output voltage
from the half or full-wave rectifiers contains ripple superimposed onto the DC voltage and that
as the load value changes so to does the average output voltage. By connecting a simple Zener
stabilizer circuit as shown below across the output of the rectifier, a more stable output voltage
can be produced.

Zener Diode Regulator

The resistor, RS is connected in series with the Zener diode to limit the current flow through the
diode with the voltage source, VS being connected across the combination. The stabilized output
voltage Vout is taken from across the Zener diode. The Zener diode is connected with its cathode
terminal connected to the positive rail of the DC supply so it is reverse biased and will be
operating in its breakdown condition. Resistor R S is selected so to limit the maximum current
flowing in the circuit.

With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, (I L = 0 ), and all the circuit
current passes through the Zener diode which in turn dissipates its maximum power. Also a small

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value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when the load resistance R L is
connected and large as this will increase the power dissipation requirement of the diode so care
must be taken when selecting the appropriate value of series resistance so that the Zener’s
maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-load or high-impedance condition.

The load is connected in parallel with the Zener diode, so the voltage across R L is always the
same as the Zener voltage, (VR = VZ). There is a minimum Zener current for which the
stabilization of the voltage is effective and the Zener current must stay above this value operating
under load within its breakdown region at all times. The upper limit of current is of course
dependent upon the power rating of the device. The supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ.

One small problem with Zener diode stabilizer circuits is that the diode can sometimes generate
electrical noise on top of the DC supply as it tries to stabilize the voltage. Normally this is not a
problem for most applications but the addition of a large value decoupling capacitor across the
Zener’s output may be required to give additional smoothing.

Then to summarize a little. A Zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased condition. A
voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a Zener diode to maintain a constant DC output
voltage across the load in spite of variations in the input voltage or changes in the load current.
The Zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor R S connected in series with the
input voltage VS with the Zener diode connected in parallel with the load R L in this reverse
biased condition. The stabilized output voltage is always selected to be the same as the
breakdown voltage VZ of the diode.

Example No1

A 5.0V stabilized power supply is required to be produced from a 12V DC power supply input
source. The maximum power rating PZ of the Zener diode is 2W. Using the Zener regulator
circuit above calculate:

a) The maximum current flowing through the Zener diode.

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b) The minimum value of the series resistor, RS

c) The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the Zener diode.

d) The total supply current IS at full load.

Zener Diode Voltages

As well as producing a single stabilized voltage output, Zener diodes can also be connected
together in series along with normal silicon signal diodes to produce a variety of different
reference voltage output values as shown below.

Zener Diodes Connected in Series

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The values of the individual Zener diodes can be chosen to suit the application while the silicon
diode will always drop about 0.6 - 0.7V in the forward bias condition. The supply voltage, Vin
must of course be higher than the largest output reference voltage and in our example above this
is 19v.

A typical Zener diode for general electronic circuits is the 500mW, BZX55 series or the larger
1.3W, BZX85 series where the Zener voltage is given as, for example, C7V5 for a 7.5V diode
giving a diode reference number of BZX55C7V5. The 500mW series of Zener diodes are
available from about 2.4 up to about 100 volts and typically have the same sequence of values as
used for the 5% (E24) resistor series with the individual voltage ratings for these small but very
useful diodes are given in the table below.

Zener Diode Standard Voltages

BZX55 Zener Diode Power Rating 500mW

2.4V 2.7V 3.0V 3.3V 3.6V 3.9V 4.3V 4.7V

5.1V 5.6V 6.2V 6.8V 7.5V 8.2V 9.1V 10V

11V 12V 13V 15V 16V 18V 20V 22V

24V 27V 30V 33V 36V 39V 43V 47V

BZX85 Zener Diode Power Rating 1.3W

3.3V 3.6V 3.9V 4.3V 4.7V 5.1V 5.6 6.2V

6.8V 7.5V 8.2V 9.1V 10V 11V 12V 13V

15V 16V 18V 20V 22V 24V 27V 30V

33V 36V 39V 43V 47V 51V 56V 62V

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